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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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How to Write a Great Business Report Conclusion: Everything You Need to Know

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Enjoy reading this blog post written by our experts or partners.

If you want to see what Databox can do for you, click here .

When creating a comprehensive business report for your company, most of your time and energy will go into writing the main section of your report.

Once you come to the conclusion, you will probably be exhausted and you may feel the urge to just ‘wrap it up’ as soon as possible.

This can be a costly mistake.

Your conclusion carries the same importance as all the other sections of the report since it leaves the final impression on the reader.

How you conclude your business report has a direct impact on the way in which the readers will respond to the important information you gathered.

The business report may be spectacular, but without a convincing conclusion, all your efforts may deteriorate.

In this article, we are going to teach you how to write a compelling conclusion that will leave a huge impression on all your readers.

What Is Conclusion in Business Report Writing?

How do you write a conclusion for a report, types of business report conclusions, improve business reporting with databox.

No matter which type of business report you have written, you will need a good conclusion to sum up all the critical information.

A business report conclusion is the last section of the document used for summarizing the most important information, providing a final word to the readers.

Through the conclusion, you are able to convey the main message of your business document. You use it to outline the report as a whole, remind the readers of the main pain points, and present the key findings and decisions.

Depending on whether you have written a shorter or longer business report, the conclusion length may vary, but it should always be included. It is a sign of good organization and it can make the readers understand the pain points much easier.

To put it simply, the conclusion is supposed to create the impression among the readers that the purpose of the report has been achieved.

Business report conclusions have a lot of similarities to executive summaries, which is why a lot of people tend to confuse these two.

However, there are some important things that differentiate them. These include:

• Executive summaries are mainly focused on displaying what the report will be about, while conclusions are an overview of what was discussed in the report.
• Executive summaries provide readers with a broad overview of the business report, while the conclusion summarizes the key pain points and most important data.
• Executive summaries should convince the readers to continue reading the report, while the conclusion should persuade them to take certain action.
• Conclusions tend to include CTAs (Call to Action), which isn’t the case with executive summaries.

Related : Executive Reporting: Management Reporting Best Practices & Report Examples

Now that you understand what a conclusion is and why it’s so important to include it in your report, let’s show you how you can write the perfect one and impress your readers.

Follow these steps to create a great business report conclusion.

Choose the Position

Include the right information, summarize the contents, facts and statistics, maintain a positive tone, develop a cta.

There are two places where conclusions are most commonly placed – at the end of the executive summary and at the end of the entire report.

For business plan reports, the common practice is to place the conclusion at the end of the executive summary.

This way, you make the first step through the executive summary template and introduce the plan’s main pain points and funding needs. Then, you create a conclusion to summarize these numbers to your potential investors, which directly impacts their decision to go over the executive summary once more, this time reading it more thoroughly.

For other types of business reports, the conclusion will generally be placed at the end of the whole report. Established companies use these business reports to track performances and data from important departments, which is why the conclusion should primarily focus on briefly reviewing the key metrics you included and emphasizing the company’s main strengths.

The information you put into the conclusion also depends on whether you are a new startup looking to attract investments or an established company that wants to track performances and asses objectives.

To raise money, startups should include this type of information:

• Financial needs
• The benefits of their product and how it can affect the market
• Target audience/ideal customer persona
• How the product can attract new customers
• Marketing and sales strategy
• Competitive landscape and analysis
• The expertise of the main members of the company
• Financial forecasts (next 3-5 years)
• Launching plan

Existing companies should include information such as:

• Mission statement
• Performance history
• Data that showcases business growth
• Financial summary
• Overall goals and objectives

While these types of details are important, they aren’t universal for all reports. Your primary goal should be to include the most important data from your specific document and keep the conclusion concise and understandable.

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The best way to convey your main message is by explaining it in detail throughout the business report and then summarizing it to recap the main points.

When creating the business report, take notes of the most important information that you should later highlight in the conclusion.

Make sure to avoid any extra details since they are already provided within the report. Only include the key points that explain why the business report itself is useful to the company.

Also, don’t use any additional information that you didn’t include in the report. This can only confuse your readers and send mixed messages.

You should prepare some facts, statistics, and data to support the statements in your conclusion. No matter if the reader is a potential investor or the key stakeholders in your company, you will want to include some evidence to back up your claims.

This makes the conclusion much more convincing and the audience will see that your forecasts aren’t based only on vague assumptions.

The tone in your conclusion should match the rest of the document and the best way to leave an impression on the audience is by using a professional and positive tone throughout the whole report.

After going through the conclusion, the readers should feel interested and enthusiastic to support the growth of your organization.

Make sure you exude confidence by using strong and active language.

Including a call to action at the end of your conclusion helps you persuade the readers to support the goals you set up.

This can be anything from “Join us at X enterprises” or “Invest in X and become a part of the success”.

A good CTA includes strong action words through which you emphasize the benefits of investors joining your firm or key stakeholders supporting your objectives.

After you are finished writing the conclusion, go over it once again to make sure there aren’t any spelling, grammar, or punctuation mistakes you overlooked. The conclusion should be clear, precise, and easy to go understand.

You can even ask a colleague or a friend to read it since it’s always helpful to have an extra set of eyes. Ask their opinion on how the conclusion makes them feel and whether it was easy to go through.

As we said, depending on which type of business report you have written and what is included in it, there are a few different types of conclusions you should differentiate.

Let’s walk you through them.

Conclusion with a Prediction

Conclusion with a major problem, conclusion with a quote, conclusion with a summary.

If your report focuses on a decision or strategy that already took place, you can write a conclusion that predicts the outcomes of that specific strategy.

You can include financial forecasts, sales expectations, and overall growth predictions. Make sure to also back up your predictions with sufficient evidence.

Writing this type of conclusion can be a bit tricky. You don’t want to come off strong and repeat the same issue over and over again. However, you do want the readers to take the issue seriously and realize why it is important that everyone focuses on solving it as soon as possible.

Be direct, but also lenient. Describe why that issue is important and provide a few ways on how you can solve it. Keep it brief and memorable.

Ending your conclusion with a powerful quotation can leave a great impression on the readers. However, you should be very careful when choosing the right quote.

You can’t just throw in some saying from Shakespeare and wrap it up. It is best to quote someone influential in the industry in such a way that it reinforces your message.

When writing your short but meaningful summary, don’t go into detail about your main points again. Keep it as brief as possible and only remind the readers of the most important information.

Also, you should remember that a conclusion doesn’t have to include only one of these things. Mixing up a summary and a prediction can be a powerful combination, so always try to figure out a few different ways to convey your message and then choose the right one.

Business reporting is one of the indispensable activities within a company, but it is also one of the most time-consuming. 

The traditional way of creating business reports has always been a daunting task for executives around the world – hours spent copying and pasting, checking different tools for data, tracking the performance each week, and constantly updating the reports manually.

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Additionally, you will also be able to prepare beautiful and understandable reports by using some of our advanced visualization tools. With just a few clicks, you can visualize all of the key metrics and turn them into professional-looking graphs and charts.

Sign up for free and improve your business reporting process in no time.

Filip Stojanovic is a content writer who studies Business and Political Sciences. Also, I am a huge tennis enthusiast. Although my dream is to win a Grand Slam, working as a content writer is also interesting.

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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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Writing a Paper: Conclusions

Writing a conclusion.

A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper. It accomplishes this by stepping back from the specifics in order to view the bigger picture of the document. In other words, it is reminding the reader of the main argument. For most course papers, it is usually one paragraph that simply and succinctly restates the main ideas and arguments, pulling everything together to help clarify the thesis of the paper. A conclusion does not introduce new ideas; instead, it should clarify the intent and importance of the paper. It can also suggest possible future research on the topic.

An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion

It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper so he is reminded of the argument and solutions you proposed.

Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk away with the bigger picture in mind.

Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social change.

Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an end. It is important to not leave the reader hanging. (You don’t want her to have flip-the-page syndrome, where the reader turns the page, expecting the paper to continue. The paper should naturally come to an end.)

No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a direction for future research.

Conclusion Example

As addressed in my analysis of recent research, the advantages of a later starting time for high school students significantly outweigh the disadvantages. A later starting time would allow teens more time to sleep--something that is important for their physical and mental health--and ultimately improve their academic performance and behavior. The added transportation costs that result from this change can be absorbed through energy savings. The beneficial effects on the students’ academic performance and behavior validate this decision, but its effect on student motivation is still unknown. I would encourage an in-depth look at the reactions of students to such a change. This sort of study would help determine the actual effects of a later start time on the time management and sleep habits of students.

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How To Write The Conclusion Of An Assignment

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion?

An end of something or the last paragraph of something, called as the conclusion. At the point when you write an assignment, you generally end by summarizing your contentions and reaching an end about the thing you’ve been expounding on. This is what basically a conclusion is defined as.

A conclusion is the last part of your writing, where you wrap things up. What you put in your conclusion depends on the kind of assignment or what you said in the main part.

Mostly, a conclusion is a quick summary of what you talked about. But, if it’s a big paper (like a thesis), the conclusion is more than just a summary. It looks at what you found out and if you did what you set out to do.

For example, in a story essay, the conclusion isn’t just about repeating what happened. It’s where you talk about the lessons or what the story means.

So, a conclusion is like the final thought in your writing. It can talk about if you reached your goals, why your findings are important, or what lessons can be learned. It changes based on what your assignment needs, but the main job is to close things off and leave an impression on your reader.

What is a conclusion in an assignment?

Some may contend that conclusion is quite possibly the main parts of any assignment or paper or article. It’s your last chance to establish a decent connection with your reader. On the off chance that you can unhesitatingly say you’ve completely addressed the question presented, on your mind or are leaving the readers with an interesting thought, you’ve presented well. Explore a wide range of papers with extraordinary examples of conclusion.

When conclusion is used?

Conclusion is ought to be put to utilize any time you are writing an assignment, report or article that proposes or explores a thought, issue or event. This thought is alluded to as a thesis articulation and it gives the design and inspiration to the whole assignment. As such, it answers the “why” An end, then again, addresses the “so what” by explaining the place of the article and offering the reader an answer, question or knowledge into the topic that emphasizes why they should read this assignment.

Different types of conclusions

There are different types of conclusions are there depending upon the point which it gives to the reader is three primary functions:

Editorialization:

Editorialization is primarily utilized in assignments where there is a questionable point, an individual connection or an appeal to convince the reader. This style consolidates the writer’s analysis about the topic and regularly communicates their own interest in the issue being examined. This sort of conclusion will utilize a story and a conversational tone to cause to notice concerns, understandings, individual convictions, governmental issues or feelings.

Externalization:

Every now and again used in articles that approach a specific issue that is a piece of a significantly more complex subject, an externalized decision gives a progress into a related yet separate theme that drives readers to additionally build up the conversation. Indeed, it’s frequently considered as another presentation that incorporates another proposal altogether, taking into consideration advancement into another likely assignments.

Summarization:

This style is regularly used when expounding on specialized subjects with a more clinical tone, like overviews, definitions and reports. Since it rewords the significant thoughts of the article, it is regularly utilized in longer pieces where readers will require a token of the assignment’s central matters. Accordingly, it ought to stay away from reflexive references or emotional thoughts.

What to include in a conclusion?

A conclusion responsibility is to emphasize the inputs and theory of the assignment. All in all, it gives a feeling of conclusion and proposes that you have achieved the objective of the piece. Here are some vital viewpoints to remember for your decision to guarantee its adequacy:

• Finish with strong points on positive note.
• Convey the significance of your thoughts and the topic.
• Furnish the reader with a feeling of conclusion.
• Emphasize and sum up your primary concerns.
• Reword and afterward rehash your proposal statement.

Outline of Conclusion

Point of sentence – topic.

This is the place where you rehash your proposition statement. Ensure it is reworded to stay away from excess.

Attach sentences – Supporting

• Reword the significant points and contentions that you made all through the assignment.
• Clarify the meaning of the thoughts and how they all interface.
• Attach the major points and arguments that you made throughout the assignment.
• Explain the significance of the ideas and how they all connect.

Shutting sentence – Closing

This is the place where you interface back to a point, picture or account that was made in the basic section. It is your last word regarding the assignment topic and provides the reader a feeling of a sense of conclusion.

Things to remember in Conclusion

• It’s not a place to repeat an introduction.
• It’s not a place to add the new content or make new arguments or place to raise new point.
• Also, remember It’s not just a summary of your body paragraphs, it is an effective place to end.

How to Write A Conclusion

Take an idea of your introductory paragraph write conclusion of your assignment but If it looks like a longer paper then a good place to start is looking at each paragraph and creating an idea of what you thought & what you wrote.

A conclus ion is the last part of your writing, where you wrap things up. What you put in your conclusion depends on the kind of assignment or what you said in the main part.

Structure of a Conclusion

• A conclusion paragraph is always an opposite of introduction paragraph.
• Remember that the introduction always begins with general point, a move to specific point, and ends at specific point.

What defines a correct conclusion?

A correct conclusion begins by reminding people what your topic is and why it matters. Say again what you believe. Address counterarguments and highlight why your perspective is more convincing.  Finish by asking for action or suggesting what more could be looked into.

Can I wrap up a conclusion in 7 lines?

What are the 3 main parts of a conclusion.

• Restate your thesis to remind readers of your main argument.
• Recap the key points and arguments from your essay, reinforcing their significance.
• Close by linking back to an initial point, image, or story from your introduction to bring your essay full circle.

Is it alright to add “in conclusion?

How long should a conclusion be.

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5 Examples of Concluding Words for Essays

4-minute read

• 19th September 2022

If you’re a student writing an essay or research paper, it’s important to make sure your points flow together well. You’ll want to use connecting words (known formally as transition signals) to do this. Transition signals like thus , also , and furthermore link different ideas, and when you get to the end of your work, you need to use these to mark your conclusion. Read on to learn more about transition signals and how to use them to conclude your essays.

Transition Signals

Transition signals link sentences together cohesively, enabling easy reading and comprehension. They are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence and separated from the remaining words with a comma. There are several types of transition signals, including those to:

●  show the order of a sequence of events (e.g., first, then, next)

●  introduce an example (e.g., specifically, for instance)

●  indicate a contrasting idea (e.g., but, however, although)

●  present an additional idea (e.g., also, in addition, plus)

●  indicate time (e.g., beforehand, meanwhile, later)

●  compare (e.g., likewise, similarly)

●  show cause and effect (e.g., thus, as a result)

●  mark the conclusion – which we’ll focus on in this guide.

When you reach the end of an essay, you should start the concluding paragraph with a transition signal that acts as a bridge to the summary of your key points. Check out some concluding transition signals below and learn how you can use them in your writing.

To Conclude…

This is a particularly versatile closing statement that can be used for almost any kind of essay, including both formal and informal academic writing. It signals to the reader that you will briefly restate the main idea. As an alternative, you can begin the summary with “to close” or “in conclusion.” In an argumentative piece, you can use this phrase to indicate a call to action or opinion:

To conclude, Abraham Lincoln was the best president because he abolished slavery.

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As Has Been Demonstrated…

To describe how the evidence presented in your essay supports your argument or main idea, begin the concluding paragraph with “as has been demonstrated.” This phrase is best used for research papers or articles with heavy empirical or statistical evidence.

As has been demonstrated by the study presented above, human activities are negatively altering the climate system.

The Above Points Illustrate…

As another transitional phrase for formal or academic work, “the above points illustrate” indicates that you are reiterating your argument and that the conclusion will include an assessment of the evidence you’ve presented.

The above points illustrate that children prefer chocolate over broccoli.

In a Nutshell…

A simple and informal metaphor to begin a conclusion, “in a nutshell” prepares the reader for a summary of your paper. It can work in narratives and speeches but should be avoided in formal situations.

In a nutshell, the Beatles had an impact on musicians for generations to come.

Overall, It Can Be Said…

To recap an idea at the end of a critical or descriptive essay, you can use this phrase at the beginning of the concluding paragraph. “Overall” means “taking everything into account,” and it sums up your essay in a formal way. You can use “overall” on its own as a transition signal, or you can use it as part of a phrase.

Overall, it can be said that art has had a positive impact on humanity.

Proofreading and Editing

Transition signals are crucial to crafting a well-written and cohesive essay. For your next writing assignment, make sure you include plenty of transition signals, and check out this post for more tips on how to improve your writing. And before you turn in your paper, don’t forget to have someone proofread your work. Our expert editors will make sure your essay includes all the transition signals necessary for your writing to flow seamlessly. Send in a free 500-word sample today!

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Robert Costello, Defense Witness in Trump Trial, Is Scolded by Judge

Mr. Costello tried to cast Michael D. Cohen, the witness at the heart of the prosecution’s case, as a liar, but the judge lost his patience with the witness.

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By Ben Protess and Matthew Haag

• May 20, 2024

After the prosecution rested its case against Donald J. Trump on Monday, the defense began a simple mission: destroy the credibility of the prosecution’s star witness, Michael D. Cohen.

That tactic may not have paid off as expected, as the judge in the case almost immediately lost his patience with the defense’s witness, Robert J. Costello, a lawyer and fixture in New York’s legal world who once advised Mr. Cohen.

Shortly after Mr. Costello took the stand on Monday, prosecutors objected to a series of questions. When the judge sided with the prosecution, Mr. Costello muttered “jeez,” registering his dismay and irking the judge, Juan M. Merchan. Mr. Costello tried to walk back his remark, mumbling under his breath that he wanted to “strike” it from the record.

The testimony continued, but after a few more objections, Justice Merchan again grew frustrated with the witness. He dismissed the jury, and excoriated him: “If you don’t like my ruling, you don't say, ‘jeez,’ and you don’t say, ‘strike it,’ because I’m the only one who can strike testimony in court,” he said, adding: “Are you staring me down?”

He then cleared the courtroom, dismissing reporters while allowing a group of Mr. Trump’s supporters to remain.

When onlookers left the room, according to a transcript, the judge told Mr. Costello that his conduct was “contemptuous” and said, “If you try to stare me down one more time I will remove you from the stand,” adding, to the defense lawyers, “I will strike his testimony, do you hear me?”

Mr. Costello asked, “Can I say something, please?” And Justice Merchan replied: “No. No. This is not a conversation.”

Mr. Costello has been around the New York legal world for decades and prides himself on not taking flack from anyone.

In 2018, Mr. Costello acted as Mr. Cohen’s back channel to Mr. Trump’s legal team. This role — which came by dint of Mr. Costello’s close ties to Mr. Trump’s personal lawyer at the time, Rudolph W. Giuliani — was mostly informal. Mr. Cohen never officially retained Mr. Costello or paid him a cent.

When questioning Mr. Cohen last week, the prosecution spotlighted his communications with Mr. Costello. Their emails and calls, Mr. Cohen said, left him with the impression that Mr. Costello was doing Mr. Trump’s bidding, delivering implicit instructions to, in the former fixer’s words, “stay in the fold, don’t flip, don’t speak.”

But Mr. Costello, a former federal prosecutor turned defense lawyer, disputes that characterization, and Mr. Cohen’s testimony opened the door for the defense to call him to tell the other side of the story.

After the unexpected break on Monday, Mr. Costello testified that he treated Mr. Cohen as a client and had only his interests at heart. He said he did not concern himself with Mr. Trump’s interests at that time. Prosecutors began cross-examining him before the jury was dismissed for the day just after 4:30 p.m.

Mr. Cohen, who pleaded guilty to federal charges in 2018, served more than a year behind bars. His crimes included orchestrating a hush-money payment to a porn star in the final days of the 2016 campaign, a deal at the center of the current state case against the former president. Mr. Cohen paid off the woman, Stormy Daniels, to silence her story of a sexual encounter with Mr. Trump.

The Cohen and Costello relationship began in the chaotic spring of 2018, after the F.B.I. searched Mr. Cohen’s home and office as part of the sprawling investigation.

They met through Jeffrey Citron, who was Mr. Costello’s law partner and Mr. Cohen’s acquaintance. Mr. Citron asked Mr. Cohen over email whether he wanted to connect with Mr. Costello and obtain “his insight into your situation, it would be my pleasure to arrange.” Mr. Cohen jumped at the offer: “I do. Can you connect me to him?”

When Mr. Trump hired Mr. Giuliani, Mr. Costello alerted Mr. Cohen to the potential upside: “I told you my relationship with Rudy which could be very very useful for you,” he wrote in an email. Mr. Cohen replied: “Great news.”

The records show that Mr. Costello pursued the relationship with Mr. Cohen.

As Mr. Costello lost patience, he wrote to Mr. Cohen complaining that he had “failed to communicate with me despite several text messages and emails.”

Mr. Costello also appeared to make a veiled reference to fear in Mr. Trump’s orbit that Mr. Cohen was poised to cooperate with prosecutors, writing: “We have continued our dialogue and need to bring you up to date concerning serious concerns on the part of our friends.”

Mr. Cohen was noncommittal. “When the right time comes, and now is not the right time, we will advance our conversations regarding this issue.”

But Mr. Cohen kept the channel open. For example, he sent Mr. Costello an article with the headline “Trump’s campaign to discredit Michael Cohen is already underway,” and added: “They are again on a bad path.”

And when Mr. Cohen’s relationship with Mr. Trump soured in summer 2018, he asked Mr. Costello to use Mr. Giuliani as a conduit for his assurances that he would remain loyal to Mr. Trump, according to Mr. Costello.

After Mr. Costello relayed the message, he told Mr. Cohen in an email that he had “conveyed all of your expressed concerns” to Mr. Giuliani “for transmission to his client” — the president. Mr. Cohen replied, thanking him.

Mr. Costello has said he was merely relaying messages from Mr. Trump’s legal team, including Mr. Giuliani, a former New York mayor. (Mr. Costello later represented Mr. Giuliani in criminal and congressional investigations.)

In one email to Mr. Cohen, Mr. Costello wrote, “Sleep well tonight, you have friends in high places.”

But in the end, no one remained friends, and much of the tension stemmed from money.

Mr. Costello and Mr. Cohen had a falling out, partly over unpaid legal bills. Last year, Mr. Costello testified before the grand jury that ultimately indicted Mr. Trump, seeking to undercut Mr. Cohen’s credibility.

Mr. Costello also sued Mr. Giuliani over delinquent bills.

And when Mr. Trump stopped paying Mr. Cohen’s legal fees, their relationship imploded as well. Mr. Cohen vowed to turn on Mr. Trump, a promise he is now fulfilling on the stand.

Ben Protess is an investigative reporter at The Times, writing about public corruption. He has been covering the various criminal investigations into former President Trump and his allies. More about Ben Protess

Matthew Haag writes about the intersection of real estate and politics in the New York region. He has been a journalist for two decades. More about Matthew Haag

Our Coverage of the Trump Hush-Money Trial

News and Analysis

The defense rested its case after Donald Trump declined to take the stand  at his own criminal trial. Closing arguments will take place on May 28.

The testimony of Robert Costello, the main witness for the defense, focused on his relationship with Michael Cohen , Trump’s former fixer and the prosecution’s star witness.

How are conservative and liberal media outlets covering Justice Juan Merchan, the judge in the trial? Here’s a look .

More on the Trump Investigations

Case Tracker:  Trump is facing multiple criminal cases related to his business and political activities. Follow the latest developments .

What if Trump Is Convicted?: Will any of the proceedings hinder Trump’s presidential campaign? Here is what we know, and what we don’t know .

Election Interference Cases: In Arizona , Georgia , Michigan  and Nevada , several allies of Trump are facing charges  related to efforts to keep him in power after he lost in 2020.

Trump on Trial Newsletter: Sign up here  to get the latest news and analysis  on the cases in New York, Florida, Georgia and Washington, D.C.