conduct a case study regarding the gender and development

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

A Case Study in Gender Analysis & Development: Evaluating an Integrated Program for Women's Empowerment in Mzuzu, Malawi

Twenty-First Century development experts acknowledge that successful sustainable development programming requires the active and persistent involvement of local stakeholders and women, both of which have historically been excluded from the most well-intentioned programs. In the Mzuzu region of Northern Malawi, one of the world's poorest countries further ravaged by HIV/AIDS, the vision of a brighter future has been growing for almost fifteen years, nurtured from dream to increasing reality by one of its own, Dr. Anna Msowoya-Keys. The Kwithu Community Based Organization (CBO), founded in 2004 by Dr. Keys, exemplifies the ideals of grassroots female community engagement. While there is a vast body of scholarship on economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa, this research seeks to expand the knowledge within the field of Gender and Development, specifically of grassroots women's empowerment efforts in the Northern region of Malawi, through a focused gender analysis of the integrated programming of the Kwithu CBO in Mzuzu, Malawi. Beneath the umbrella of Gender and Development, the concept of women's empowerment has become ubiquitous in development discourse, yet the precise definition can vary among practitioners, scholars, and program beneficiaries. Therefore, the initial phase of this study requires two steps, the first of which is to formulate an understanding of the current discourse defining the characteristics of empowerment as classified by respected scholars in the field, such as Caroline Moser, Naila Kabeer and Jane Parpart. The second step is a consideration of the myriad frameworks and methodologies that inform best-practice in the field of Gender and Development. These tools must include indicators that identify and value the interdependence between women's social and economic roles. Establishing the theoretical foundation of analysis as well as the practical methodology of evaluation to be used in conducting the research is as vital as the research itself. In other words, how and why information is collected is as important as what information is collected and from whom. These two preliminary steps involve an extensive review of relevant literature in the fields of Gender, Empowerment and Development, along with an analysis of the most current methodologies of evaluation and research. Once these steps are accomplished, the actual evaluation of the integrated programs of Kwithu CBO can begin.

Related Papers

Daniel Tangwireyi

DOI: 10.21276/sjahss.2018.6.1.39 Abstract:This exploratory sequential mixed methods design investigated the role of Community-based Organisations in empowering women in Wadzanai Community Development Trust (WCDT) of Mashonaland Central, Zimbabwe. Thirty female participants were first randomly selected and then selected by snowballing. In-depth face-to-face interviews and structured questionnaires were used to generate and gather data. The study’s first finding was that as a result of CBO, women’s rights as part of the global human rights were now observed in WCDT. Another finding from the study was that CBOs empowered women in WCDT with skills to start and manage their businesses. The other finding was that CBOs protected women against abuse. The fourth finding was that CBOs helped women with knowledge to start income generation activities. In view of the foregoing findings, five conclusions are made. First, CBOs promote observation of human rights, with women’s rights in particular...

Development in practice

Philippe Doneys

One criticism of how women's empowerment is operationalised in development interventions is the lack of consideration of its context specificity. This quantitative study investigates how women participants in development projects in Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam perceive the meaning of empowerment and the associated positive effects of participating in empowerment activities. The findings indicate that women's ideas of empowerment differ according to their cultural, economic and social contexts as well as from donor-driven definitions. Both similar and distinct positive effects of participating in empowerment activities are felt, highlighting the importance of incorporating what women prioritise when planning empowerment projects. ARTICLE HISTORY

rafiqul islam

Impact Alliance

Silvia Sarapura

This article presents insights of a unique approach to foster and support capacity development for women in rural settings. “The feminist capacity development approach” tackles relations and roles in order to reinforce ‘self’ (self-worth, self-esteem, self-reliance and selfhood). the approach fundaments on feminist research and concepts of capacity development. From a feminist perspective, capacity strengthening is intrinsically related to the significance of individual freedom, women benefit by defining their own preferences. By this way, women’s enabling environment is prepared to begin a transformational and participatory learning processes. Learning and participation foster spaces to share experiences and initiate dialogue. Women need to know and understand gender relations, develop sense of “self” and belief in their abilities and skills to secure desired changes and the right to control their lives. Rural women need to strengthen the ability to generate choices and exercise power to bargain. Therefore, they develop the ability to self- organize and influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and economic order in society. A case study in the rural Peru is provided as the example of carrying out capacity development from a feminist perspective.

International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences

Julia Situma

Richard K Phiri

ABSTRACT Women’s participation in irrigation farming is very crucial in the development commercial farming of any community. The fact that women form part of the community, their participation in such initiatives is very significant in as far as equal access to and control over socio-economic resources is concerned. Literature has shown that, in Blantyre, irrigation farming is one of the most practiced socio-economic empowerment activity in the district. Hence, this study aimed at assessing factors that affect women’s participation in socio-economic empowerment activities (irrigation farming) in TA Kunthembwe, Blantyre district in Malawi. The main objective of this study was to assess some of the factors that affect women’s participation in irrigation farming in TA Kunthembwe, Blantyre rural. Meanwhile, specific objectives were to find out different attitudes that affect women’s participation in irrigation farming, to determine if women’s literacy level can affect their involvement in irrigation farming and to find out if women are aware that irrigation farming is a socio-economic empowerment activity. The justification of this research is that, the findings will help policy makers to formulate policies that promote women participation in irrigation farming. The study will also be a referencing material for future scholars and researchers in topics related to this. Research method used was qualitative design. Meanwhile, sampling techniques and size was purposive technique. The study therefore concludes that, most women do participate in irrigation farming activities in TA Kunthembwe, most women are aware of the irrigation farming activities that are happening in the area, literacy level of women determines their capacity and ability to participate in socio-economic development activities like irrigation farming, most of the community members in the area have positive attitudes towards women who actively take part in irrigation farming. Study recommends that government and its partners should promote equal participation of women and men in irrigation farming activities through provision of basic gender equality trainings to lead farmers, government stakeholders should put more effort on sensitizing women about irrigation farming as a socio-economic empowerment activity

Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies

Zakari Abdullahi

Ngonidzashe Mutanana

Women empowerment in developmental projects is gaining traction in recent times. The study sought to explore the dimensions of women’s empowerment in developmental projects in the city of Kadoma. To achieve this purpose, the study employed a qualitative methodological approach with use of primary and secondary data collection tools such as interviews, observations, focus group discussions and document review. Findings from the study reveal that for sustainable development to be achieved, women need to be empowered. However, the research unpacked challenges that women are facing, hindering them to full participation in community development projects, which is contributing to the further underdevelopment of Kadoma. Women have limited access to resources yet they have a load of domestic responsibilities and there is less will to uplift them and hand them primary roles in development activities. The paper concludes that involving women in developmental projects and handing them power to...

ADEWUYI KOLAWOLE

George Ruheni

RELATED PAPERS

Azwan Farid

Jakub Ryszard Matyja

shesh mishra

Conexão 2.0

Eduardo Rueda Neto

Index on Censorship

Costas Douzinas

Physics Letters A

Gastao Krein

Innovaciones Educativas

Diana Martínez Alpízar

Anteneh fikrie

Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz

Mariane Stefani

Optics and Laser Technology

Orlando Frazão

Annals of Surgical Oncology

DONGRONG SITU

Journal of Surgical Research

Daniel Gelain

Jacques De Beer

Analytical Chemistry

Barry Lavine

Natural Resources

Shahbaz Ahmad

Dr.Sharif Uddin Ahmed Rana

Journal of human reproductive sciences

Anuradha Rao

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology

Elena Conde Montero

The Egyptian Journal of Fertility and Sterility

sondos ghazi

Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics

BOIAN KIROV

U of T多伦多大学毕业证书办理成绩单购买 办毕业证多伦多大学文凭学位证书在读证明

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• BMC Med Res Methodol

Why sex and gender matter in implementation research

Cara tannenbaum.

1 Insitute of Gender and Health, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Ottawa, Canada

2 Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada

Lorraine Greaves

3 British Columbia Centre of Excellence for Women’s Health, Vancouver, Canada

Ian D. Graham

4 University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Associated Data

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

There has been a recent swell in activity by health research funding organizations and science journal editors to increase uptake of sex and gender considerations in study design, conduct and reporting in order to ensure that research results apply to everyone. However, examination of the implementation research literature reveals that attention to sex and gender has not yet infiltrated research methods in this field.

The rationale for routinely considering sex and gender in implementation research is multifold. Sex and gender are important in decision-making, communication, stakeholder engagement and preferences for the uptake of interventions. Gender roles, gender identity, gender relations, and institutionalized gender influence the way in which an implementation strategy works, for whom, under what circumstances and why. There is emerging evidence that programme theories may operate differently within and across sexes, genders and other intersectional characteristics under various circumstances. Furthermore, without proper study, implementation strategies may inadvertently exploit or ignore, rather than transform thinking about sex and gender-related factors. Techniques are described for measuring and analyzing sex and gender in implementation research using both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The present paper describes the application of methods for integrating sex and gender in implementation research. Consistently asking critical questions about sex and gender will likely lead to the discovery of positive outcomes, as well as unintended consequences. The result has potential to strengthen both the practice and science of implementation, improve health outcomes and reduce gender inequities.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12874-016-0247-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Efforts to integrate sex and gender throughout all phases of the health research cycle have been rising sharply over the past two decades [ 1 – 4 ]. Since 2010, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research has been requiring researchers to indicate whether their research protocol accounts for sex or gender, using the term “sex” to refer to the biological attributes that distinguish male from female, and the term “gender” to refer to men and women’s socially constructed roles, identities and behaviors [ 5 , 6 ]. As of 2016, the U.S. National Institutes of Health Research asks applicants to explain how they plan to factor consideration of sex as a biological variable into their research design and analysis [ 7 , 8 ]. The Gender Advisory Group to the European Framework Program for Research and Innovation also mandates the Gender Dimension across all sectors [ 9 ]. Journal editors are encouraged to increase accountability around sex and gender reporting requirements, by using the Sex and Gender Equity in Research (SAGER) guidelines [ 10 , 11 ]. These events beg the question: how have research methods in implementation science addressed sex and gender? For the purpose of this article, we will use the term implementation research and practice (IRP) to include knowledge translation, implementation research and practice.

The opening argument for this debate article is that to date, despite the evidence on the impact of sex and gender on health, research methods in the field of implementation have neglected sex and gender considerations. An analysis of selected literature in IRP supports this proposition. For example, a review of the tables of contents and indexes of three popular implementation science texts [ 12 – 14 ] reveals that none devote a chapter to the role of sex and gender in implementation science. Only one includes gender in the index [ 14 ], which refers to a chapter in the text with a few lines describing how many sexually transmitted infection interventions targeting racial/ethnic minorities are gender specific and how the strategies to reach men and women may differ [ 15 ].

Searching the top 10 articles of 2015 as reported by Implementation Science (see Additional file 1 : Appendix 1) for the words sex or gender shows that only one makes a minor mention of gender as it relates to controlling for ‘clinician gender’ in a modeling exercise [ 16 ]. Sex and gender also do not appear to play a prominent role in implementation theories. For example, in Nilsen’s review [ 17 ] of implementation theories, models and frameworks, only 2 make minor references to gender [ 18 , 19 ]. One simply includes ‘gender’ as one of the barriers to optimal clinical practice under the category “health care professional/physician barriers” [ 18 ] and the other includes a footnote about a study they were citing, that “a fourth factor, gender of participants, was also related to program outcomes but was not included in their subsequent analysis” [ 19 ]. Furthermore, neither of the germinal papers on the Theoretical Domains Framework [ 20 , 21 ], a widely used and influential framework [ 22 ] that guides assessment of barriers to implementation, makes any reference to sex or gender. There is a domain in the framework that focuses on ‘social/professional role and identity’, which could capture elements of sex and gender, but usually tends to be limited to assessing professional roles and almost never identity, let alone sex or gender identity.

Turning to the knowledge synthesis literature on implementation, the Cochrane Collaboration’s Methods Equity group [ 23 ] is active in increasing awareness of the need and methods for sex and gender analysis in systematic reviews [ 23 – 25 ]. Both the Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) and Consumers and Communication review groups have official guidance in their resources for authors on equity [ 26 , 27 ]. A recent assessment of a sample of systematic reviews from these two groups however, reveals limited consideration of sex and gender in the written report. For example, of 12 EPOC and seven Consumer and Communication reviews published between July 2014 and May 2015, none addressed sex or gender in the analysis or implications sections of the report (Personal Communication, Jennifer Petkovic, Peter Tugwell and Vivian Welch on behalf of the Campbell and Cochrane Equity Methods Group, April 13, 2016). It is possible that the review authors did consider sex and gender in their analyses and determined it was unimportant. However, they failed to report this.

Little research has been undertaken or reported to inform how sex and gender impact IRP, as evidenced by this analysis of key texts, well-used conceptual models, and Cochrane reviews on implementation strategies. The objective of this paper is to describe the rationale for why and how sex and gender should be considered in IRP.

What is sex? What is gender?

A first step for understanding how to integrate sex and gender in IRP involves operationalizing the two terms, and recognizing different components of gender. The term sex refers to a biological construct, whereby an individual is defined as being male or female according to genetics, anatomy and physiology [ 6 , 7 , 11 , 28 – 32 ]. Researchers should use the term sex when describing the number of male or female patients or committee members, or when stratifying outcomes by male versus female participants or health care providers. It is more appropriate to say what the distribution by sex of a sample or target audience is, than to use the term ‘gender distribution.’ This is because gender is a multifaceted and fluid construct, influenced in a temporal manner by social and cultural contexts and environments to create gender norms [ 6 , 7 , 11 , 28 , 30 – 35 ]. Gender norms influence commonly accepted ways of how people behave, how they perceive themselves and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and resources in society [ 6 , 28 , 31 – 35 ]. Gender can be structured by, and operating within ethnicity, indigenous status, social status, sexuality, geography, socioeconomic status, education, age, disability/ability, migration status, and religion, requiring an intersectional approach to implementing practices, programs and policies [ 36 , 37 ]. The acronym “PROGRESS” can be used to remember these variables: place of residence, race/ethnicity/culture/language, occupation, gender/sex, religion, education, socioeconomic status, and social capital [ 38 ]. Researchers often understand gender as a function of gender roles (e.g. child care, housework), gender identity (e.g. personality traits such as being sensitive to the needs of others or having leadership abilities), gender relations (e.g. social support), and institutionalized gender (e.g. career opportunities, personal income, educational background) [ 6 , 28 , 34 ]. Gender as a broad term can also refer to the expressions and identities of girls, women, boys, men, and gender diverse people [ 39 , 40 ]. For this reason, definitions of sex and gender are evolving as science changes, and it remains challenging to easily separate the biological from the social. Sex and gender are often interrelated, interactive and potentially inseparable [ 6 , 11 ]. Given the epistemology of knowledge, and the social nature of implementation and behavior change, the effect of gender and other identity factors, either alone or in combination, can serve as barriers or enablers to the outcome or impact of IRP interventions.

Measuring and understanding sex and gender

Collecting and analyzing data on sex in IRP is relatively simple if using typical male and female categories. Sex can be self-reported, designated by an examination of external genitalia, or genetically determined based on an XX, XY or intersex genotype [ 11 ]. Data on sex-related factors can include measuring sex hormones, body and organ size, metabolism, or fat tissue distribution [ 41 ]. Gender is more complex, and can be operationalized along four different constructs: gender roles, gender identity, gender relations and institutionalized gender [ 6 , 28 , 31 , 32 ]. Table  1 defines these four constructs, gives examples of key questions that can be asked of each in IRP, and lists measures and methods for use in IRP research [ 6 , 28 , 31 , 32 , 42 – 44 ].

Relevance of four gender constructs to implementation research and practice

Traditionally, individuals are asked to categorize their sex as male or female and many assumptions, often based in gender and not biology, are made on the basis of their responses. Researchers are now rethinking this approach to be more inclusive of gender identity and expression [ 39 ]. A two-step approach to measuring sex and gender identity could first ask individuals to indicate their sex assigned at birth (male/female), and then ask the same individuals how they currently self-identify, which could include male, female, trans male/trans man, trans female/trans woman, gender queer/gender non-conforming; and provide space to self identify as another option not provided [ 40 ]. Similarly, participants could also be given the option to disclose sexual orientation and whether they consider themselves part of the lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender (LGBT) community.

The scales in Table  1 list measures that can be used to quantify different dimensions of gender. Researchers can also create gender scales using gender-related variables of relevance to their particular research topic [ 45 , 46 ]. Pelletier et al. created a composite gender score using 7 characteristics: 1) status on primary earner; 2) personal income; 3) number of hours per week spent doing housework; 4) status of primary person responsible for doing housework; 5) level of stress at home; 6) masculine traits; and 7) feminine traits. They were able to demonstrate that gender, independent of sex, predicts poor outcome after acute coronary syndrome, pointing to new areas of intervention [ 44 ].

Qualitative methods are also useful for the collection of data on specific dimensions of gender. Case studies, ethnography, narrative and descriptive qualitative approaches can provide evidence and contextualized insight across a range of participants’ personal characteristics, including those of sex and gender. Qualitative methods can also be used to explore concepts of institutionalized gender, and to gain a more in-depth understanding of gender as a barrier or enabler to the use of implementation interventions, the uptake of the evidence-informed clinical interventions or program and the outcomes of implementation efforts. A number of texts, casebooks, examples and online courses are available that provide guidance on how to conduct sex and gender science using commonly employed quantitative and qualitative methods [ 6 , 32 , 42 , 43 ].

The case for considering sex and gender in implementation research methods

Emerging evidence suggests that sex and gender are important in decision-making, stakeholder engagement, communication and preferences for the uptake of interventions. Furthermore, when gender norms, identities and relations are ignored, unintended consequences may occur. The following five scenarios give examples of when and why sex and gender should be measured and considered in implementation research:

• When the implementation of an intervention requires decision-making on the part of individuals or organizations . Decision-making is a critical component of behavior change interventions, and plays a key role in the uptake of new organizational practices and programs [ 47 ]. Research from the fields of business and management offer insights for IRP on important sex and gender factors related to decision-making [ 48 – 50 ]. Qualitative research conducted by Deloitte Consulting with 18 large business organizations suggests that female executives have a tendency to be more attuned to micro-level signaling during meetings, and may favour discovery options and iterative thinking during decision-making processes [ 48 ]. Male executives tend to end a conversation once they connect with a good idea or solution. Their female counterparts are inclined to be more inquisitive, wanting to hear everyone’s thoughts before deciding, and taking more time to find the ideal solution. Different leadership traits among male and female leaders can therefore influence the outcome of decision-making processes [ 49 , 50 ].
• When sex and gender dynamics may play a role in stakeholder engagement and conflict resolution . A survey queried reasoning methods among 624 corporate board directors, of whom 75 % were male and 25 % female [ 51 ]. Female directors scored significantly higher scores on the complex moral reasoning dimension, which implies attending more to relationships and to the challenge of balancing multiple stakeholders’ interests. Females may also engage in more collaboration and consensus building, not only to make sound decisions but also to elicit common support for a course of action [ 49 , 50 ]. The outcome of an implementation intervention may therefore depend on the sex and gender dynamics in each particular context.
• When communication strategies are being tested, as sex and gender may be differentially responsive to the choice of language used, the strength of persuasion of the communication strategy, and the way promotional information is processed . This is why sex and gender form the basis for market segmentation in the fields of marketing and consumer behaviour, where subtle changes in language and emotional appeal can have a differential effect on men and women’s attitudes towards the brand advertised and purchase intentions [ 52 ]. The way messages and interventions are primed or packaged to reflect gender norms or stereotypes may also influence the outcomes of health promotion interventions. For instance, priming individuals to the perception that women eat healthier foods than men leads both male and female study participants to prefer healthy foods, whereas priming masculinity results in unhealthy food preferences [ 53 ]. When the packaging and healthiness of the food are gender congruent (i.e., feminine packaging for a healthy food, masculine packaging for an unhealthy food) both male and female participants rate the product as more attractive, report that they would be more likely to purchase it, and even rate it as tasting better compared to when the product is stereotype incongruent.
• When negative or harmful gender stereotypes may impede the uptake and outcomes of an IRP initiative [ 54 ]. A realist review of the implementation of school-based interventions to prevent domestic abuse for children and young people reported that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender youth felt excluded from the programmes, as the content did not address gender identity or sexual orientation in high-risk populations [ 55 ]. Similarly, data suggest that masculine norms around emotional control and self-reliance are associated with recurrent non-suicidal self-injury [ 56 ]. Stigma related to healthcare seeking for male depression and suicide [ 57 , 58 ], may explain why women are more likely to benefit from psychosocial treatment for the prevention of suicide and suicidal ideation compared to men [ 59 ]. Some studies purport that gender bias in prescription patterns among health care providers results in more women receiving treatment with antidepressants for mental health [ 60 ] and pain symptoms, but only among female clinicians [ 61 ]. Men, on the other hand, may be preferentially managed with orthopaedic surgery to manage knee arthritis [ 62 ].
• When gendered power relations may inadvertently skew the uptake of information focused on women’s health needs, such as maternal and child health, sexual and reproductive health, or family planning [ 63 ]. This occurs in cultures and settings where male partners and head of households play a large role in female’s health-seeking behaviour due to their authority and decision-making role. For example, the introduction of health programs enhanced by mobile phone technologies overall fosters women’s empowerment in low-income countries [ 64 ]. However, in some cases these programs exacerbated gender relations and gender inequalities, such as when women were pressured to give the phones provided by the program to their husband if he did not already own a phone, or when conflicts about phone use led to cases of spousal abuse.

The World Health Organization outlines a spectrum of gender-responsive programs, illustrating the progression from the exploitative use of gender stereotypes in IRP messaging, through to accommodation and ultimate transformation to gender equity (Fig.  1 ) [ 65 , 66 ]. Making active choices reflecting content, messaging and decision-making processes during the implementation of an intervention can have a critical impact on gender equity for women and men. Gender transformative approaches are preferred as they anticipate unintended barriers and consequences and address the causes of gender-based health inequities where they exist [ 67 ]. For example, during implementation of a tobacco control program, investigators can decide to use motivational recruitment techniques that appeal to a person’s health and self-respect, as opposed to messaging that invokes and reinforces stereotypical gendered norms of sexual attractiveness, beauty claims or images based on masculinity or femininity [ 63 ]. Recent guidance based on qualitative research suggests de-linking messages for men and for women when promoting tobacco reduction during pregnancy and post partum, since the uptake of the intervention can be hindered by negative couple dynamics if the partners have different smoking behaviours or attitudes about smoking during this period [ 68 – 70 ]. Another transformative approach to encourage uptake of smoking cessation interventions would be to focus on a wider range of non-stereotypical gendered roles that include fathering for men and work for women as potential motivators.

A continuum of approaches for integrating sex and gender. Reproduced with permission from: Lorraine Greaves, Ann Pederson, Nancy Poole (Eds). Making It Better: Gender Transformative Health Promotion. Canadian Scholar’s Press/Women’s Press. 2014. Available at http://promotinghealthinwomen.ca/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Continuum-of-Approaches_colour.pdf Accessed March 20, 2016

Sex and gender can be therefore be pivotal at multiple points along the IRP process, from the content and messaging surrounding the intervention, to decision making around the uptake and unintended consequences of an intervention. Asking sex and gender questions can also elucidate enablers and barriers to the adoption of complex behavioral interventions. For example, examining the outcome of implementing a multidisciplinary cardiac rehabilitation program merits asking whether women or men have less time to devote to recovery and prevention activities due to gender-based expectations regarding their responsibilities at home. The potential advantages of including sex and gender in the study of other complex behavioral interventions (e.g., hand hygiene, reducing clinician's opioid prescribing, reducing falls in hospital, increasing vaccination rates, and obesity prevention) require further investigation. Measuring the way sex and gender influences these interventions may help elucidate potential mechanisms and contexts behind the success or failure of various IRP efforts, as shown in the examples above on tobacco cessation, healthy eating, depression and suicide, pain, heart disease and domestic violence.

Some research questions to drive the selection of methods

Researchers can start by asking a series of questions about how sex and gender can have an impact on their implementation initiative in order to determine the best way to measure and analyze the effect of sex and gender. First, how might sex or gender affect decision-making and stakeholder engagement, or facilitate or impede the uptake of evidence-informed practice, programs, policies? Second, how might sex based characteristics or prevailing gender norms or gender roles serve as barriers or enablers to the uptake of evidence-informed practices, programs, policies? Third, when and how should the communication strategy, wording or messaging be tailored across sex, gender or other identity characteristics? Fourth, when using participatory/collaborative or integrated knowledge translation research approaches, could the sex and gender of the researchers and knowledge users matter, and if so, how? Similarly, how might gender relations as a function of dyads or interpersonal dynamics within an organization, community, workplace or institution influence the outcome of the intervention? And finally, should the research protocol consider examining whether there are unintended impacts of implementation that exacerbate or diminish sex, gender or other diversity-related inequities? Table  2 lists a series of questions for researchers to consider when designing their IRP research. Additional opportunities for integrating sex and gender in IRP as relates to models of health systems research have been reviewed in detail elsewhere [ 33 ].

Some sex and gender research questions for researchers studying implementation

Another way to study issues of sex and gender in IRP resides in the realist approach which attempts to answer the question, “What works, for whom, in what circumstances, and why?” [ 47 ] This is accomplished through the identification and examination of underlying generative mechanisms or program theories associated with the implementation intervention or program, the conditions or contexts under which the mechanisms operate, and the pattern of outcomes produced. Realist evaluators may wish to examine sex and gender through the lens of this Context-Mechanism-Outcomes configuration for the evaluation of new initiatives, programs and scale-up [ 71 , 72 ].

Through this lens, context can be defined as the particular sub-groups for whom the outcomes were successful, the gender relations between the stakeholders, the sex and/or gender of the individuals who implemented the intervention, and the institutional, socio-economic, cultural and political conditions. Mechanism refers to the explanation of how a particular program’s resources work to change the reasoning and responses of participants to bring about the adoption of the clinical intervention or program that results in both intended and unintended outcomes. Outcomes are the impacts of the intervention. Some questions of how sex and gender considerations can align with the Context-Mechanism-Outcomes configuration are: How do gender roles, gender identity, gender relations, and institutionalized gender influence the way in which an implementation strategy works, for whom, under what circumstances and why? Or, how do program theories operate/work within and across sexes, genders and other diversity characteristics, in what circumstances and why? Finally, research results should be disaggregated and reported by sex or gender groups [ 11 ]. It is important to report whether there are similar effects or differences.

When critically appraising the publications of implementation research, reviewers should increasingly ask whether the reports consider sex and gender during a study’s life cycle, and if so, how? Table  3 provides a beginning list of questions that can be asked of implementation research to help the reader assess whether sex and gender have been adequately considered, and the extent to which this may have influenced the study findings and conclusions.

Questions to ask when appraising an implementation research or practice initiative for inclusion of sex and gender considerations

This paper argues that sex and gender should always be considered in implementation research. Considering sex and gender should be an essential component of IRP. Failing to integrate sex and gender may neglect an important determinant of knowledge use, reducing the effectiveness of implementation interventions, inadvertently reinforcing sex neutral claims and negative gender stereotypes, and possibly creating or increasing gender and health inequities in care and health outcomes. Only by consistently investigating sex and gender in a critical and reflective manner that addresses underlying gender inequities, will the field of IRP reach its full potential for meeting the requirements of scientific rigour, excellence and maximal impact.

Acknowledgments

We express gratitude to Jo Rycroft-Malone, Professor of Implementation & Health Services Research, Bangor University, United Kingdom, for providing direction to get out of the “realist swamp.” We also thank Krystle van Hoof, Assistant Director of the CIHR Institute of Gender and Health for her thoughtful comments, and Justin Presseau, Scientist at the Ottawa Hospital Research Institute for insightful discussions about sex and gender in implementation research and the Theoretical Domains Framework. IDG is a recipient of Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Foundation Grant Scheme, Inaugural competition, FDN #143237.

Institute of Gender and Health, Canadian Institutes of Health Research.

Availability of data and materials

Authors’ contributions.

CT, LG and IDG conceived and drafted the article. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Consent for publication

All authors consented.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Additional file.

Appendix 1. List of the top implementation science papers published in 2015. (DOCX 19 kb)

Contributor Information

Cara Tannenbaum, Email: [email protected] .

Lorraine Greaves, Email: ac.cb.wc@sevaergl .

Ian D. Graham, Email: ac.irho@mahargi .

• NAEYC Login
• Member Profile
• Hello Community
• Accreditation Portal
• Online Learning
• Online Store

Popular Searches:   DAP ;  Coping with COVID-19 ;  E-books ;  Anti-Bias Education ;  Online Store

Focus On Ethics: Gender Expression and Identity

You are here

We are pleased to have guest editor Katie Schaffer’s help in addressing this sensitive and timely issue. Katie brings extensive knowledge and insight regarding gender issues to this column.

Four-year-old Michael usually comes to school in jeans and a T-shirt but always goes to the dress-up area as soon as he arrives and puts on a dress or skirt.

On the day his mother was volunteering in the classroom, he walked in and immediately put on a ballerina skirt and sparkly shoes. She firmly told him to take them off and instead put on the firefighter’s hat and boots, try on the cowboy hat, or do “something that boys do.” Michael complied with his mother’s demand but soon left the dramatic play area.

When the children went outside to play, Michael’s mother told Ana, Michael’s teacher, that he consistently plays female roles at home and shows little interest in toys and activities typically associated with boys. She and her husband were very concerned about his behavior, and she asked Ana not to allow Michael to play with any “girl stuff” at school.

Ana also has observed that Michael strongly prefers playing with girls and chooses activities that are stereotypically feminine, like having tea parties and wearing dress-up clothes that have lots of ribbons and sequins. He also frequently tells the other children that he is really a girl and that he wants to be called “Michelle.”

Ana knows that some children begin to persistently identify with a gender different from their assigned sex at a very young age (Ehrensaft 2011; Fox 2015). (See “Glossary of Terms” for definitions of words and phrases used in this column.) She is also aware that the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct strongly supports maintaining close, collaborative relationships with families and respecting their child-rearing and cultural preferences. What is her most ethical response?

Responding to the issue

This scenario is similar to the one described in the Focus on Ethics column “Don’t Let My Son Dress Up as a Girl!” in the September 2017 issue of Young Children . In both cases, there is a conflict between a family’s request that its son not be allowed to engage in stereotypically feminine activities in school and a teacher’s belief that it is best for children to be encouraged to choose the activities that are most meaningful to them.

Our role as educators is to create a safe and reflective space for children to develop their identities and to counterbalance gender stereotypes.

Despite the similarities, there are some important differences between these two scenarios. Like Victor (the child described in the September 2017 column), many boys are fascinated by glittery clothing and enjoy playing a variety of roles—including feminine ones—in the dramatic play area. Michael’s interest in “girl stuff,” however, is not limited to playing with clothes and roles. Michael consistently gravitates to female-assigned pursuits, identifies as a girl, and asks to be called by a girl’s name. These are examples of how Michael’s gender expression (how a person shows their gender to the world through external choices) is currently gender nonconforming (it does not follow prevailing cultural and social expectations about what is appropriate for their gender). Michael may be—or ultimately identify as— trans or transgender (a person whose gender identity is different from the sex assigned at birth).

While there is nothing new about gender nonconforming behavior in early childhood settings, advice for how educators can best handle conflicting perspectives has been scarce or absent, and resources to help teachers work with children and their families on this issue have not been readily available (Kilman 2013).

As in previous columns, we will use the process described in Ethics and the Early Childhood Educator (Feeney & Freeman 2018) to systematically apply the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct (2011) to this situation. We will then consider the unique challenges presented by this case and explore some resources that might be helpful to teachers and administrators who are working with children like Michael and their families.

Our analysis is informed by contributions from students in the ECE 200, The Professional in Early Childhood Education, class at Portland Community College in Portland, Oregon; participants at the June 2018 NAEYC Professional Learning Institute in Austin, Texas; Briel Schmitz, head of Spruce Street School in Seattle, Washington; and Rabbi Meir Muller, assistant professor of early childhood education at the University of South Carolina and head of Cutler Jewish Day School in Columbia, South Carolina. We thank them for contributing to this analysis.

We begin with the first two steps of the process we use to address a workplace issue.

Identify the problem and determine if it involves ethics

This situation involves ethics because Ana must decide the right course of action to support a gender nonconforming or trans child and the child’s concerned family.

Determine if it is an ethical responsibility or an ethical dilemma

While we noticed similarities between Michael and Victor (from our 2017 column), we came to appreciate that Ana faced a more challenging situation than Victor’s teacher. She needed to respect Michael’s preferences while working effectively and sensitively with his parents.

After presenting the scenario to two groups of early childhood educators and doing some research and reflection, we came to the conclusion that Ana is facing an ethical responsibility (a situation with just one morally justified course of action), not an ethical dilemma (a situation for which there is more than one possible resolution, which can be justified in moral terms). Because we consider it an ethical responsibility to respect children’s gender self-determination, we will refer to Michael using her chosen name, Michelle, and chosen gender pronouns, she/her, for the remainder of the article.

Glossary of Terms

Assigned sex: The label given at birth—usually male or female —based on a variety of factors (usually genitalia, but sometimes also hormones and chromosomes). The term assigned at birth acknowledges that someone (often a doctor) is making a decision but there is far more biological, anatomical, and chromosomal variation than captured by the binary labels of male and female .

Gender: A social construct that categorizes and labels societal and cultural expectations (i.e., gender norms) for how people of different assigned sexes (and thus assigned genders) are supposed to act. Gender varies over time and from place to place.

Gender identity: How a person self-identifies their gender, which may include man , woman , genderqueer , or other gender identities. A person’s understanding of their gender identity can begin as early as age 2.

Gender expression: The way in which a person expresses their gender identity, typically through their appearance, affect, behavior, and activities.

Gender nonconforming: A term to describe a person whose behavior or appearance does not follow prevailing cultural and social expectations about what is appropriate to their assigned gender (and thus assigned sex). Some people who position their gender outside of a man/woman binary describe their gender as gender nonconforming or genderqueer .

Trans or transgender: A self-identification of a person whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex. For example, someone who was assigned female at birth but identifies as male might use the term transman .

Cis or cisgender: A person whose gender identity is the same as their assigned sex. For example, if the doctor said “It’s a boy,” and the child continues to identify as a boy/man, then he is cis or a cisman. People who are not trans are, therefore, cis.

Queer: A term that allows individuals to avoid the rigid categorization of straight and gay , and can indicate an attraction to people of many genders. For some, queer is also a political statement, expressing rejection of binary thinking and asserting that sexual orientation and gender identity are complex and potentially fluid. Although historically a derogatory term, queer has been reclaimed by many communities to have a positive connotation.

Sexuality: Sexuality is not just about sex. It is about individuals’ bodies, genders, feelings, relationships, and ways of experiencing intimacy. In this context, children’s healthy sexual development involves learning about their bodies, feelings, and relationships. Sexuality can also refer to sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions, and preferences. Sexual orientation often refers to whom we are sexually attracted. Some common terms for sexuality include bi (or bisexual ), gay , straight , and queer .

Guidance from the NAEYC Code

Let’s look at the guidance the NAEYC Code provides for this decision.

The groups who discussed this situation both concluded that they could not justify forbidding a child to behave in ways that express her strongly held sense of self and that, therefore, they could not comply with this family’s request to keep her from activities associated with girls or femininity. They agreed that Ana’s primary responsibility was to Michelle, and that she needed to honor Michelle’s ways of expressing her identity. The groups also emphasized the importance of Ana listening carefully to the family’s concerns and treating them with understanding and respect.

Some noted that Ana might feel she lacks the expertise to respond confidently to this situation. They recommended that she work closely with her director and seek out other knowledgeable professionals. Together, they could help her prepare to share information about young children’s developing gender identity with Michelle’s family, helping them understand their child’s request to be identified as a girl and to engage in play that she finds meaningful. For suggestions on how to engage families and respond to some of their concerns, see “ Practical Guidance for Teachers: Supporting the Families of Gender Nonconforming Children ”. It would also be important that Ana and the director work with the program’s other teachers and families to help them accept Michelle’s gender identity with kindness and understanding.

The Code’s Core Values, Ideals, and Principles

Respondents to this case found that the Code’s Core Values, Ideals, and Principles offered guidance that would help Ana address this family’s concerns. They noted, in particular, educators’ responsibilities to children and the importance of nurturing positive relationships with families. The following excerpts from the Code are those most applicable to this situation.

Core Values

• Base our work on knowledge of how children develop and learn
• Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family
• Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and colleague)
• Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust and respect

I-1.2 —To base program practices upon current knowledge and research in the field of early childhood education, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

I-1.3 —To recognize and respect the unique qualities, abilities, and potential of each child.

I-1.5 —To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development and that respect their dignity and their contributions.

I-2.2 —To develop relationships of mutual trust and create partnerships with the families we serve.

I-2.5 —To respect the dignity and preferences of each family and to make an effort to learn about its structure, culture, language, customs, and beliefs.

I-2.6 —To acknowledge families’ childrearing values and their right to make decisions for their children.

I-2.8 —To help family members enhance their understanding of their children . . . and support family members in the continuing development of their skills as parents.

P-1.1—Above all, we shall not harm children. We shall not participate in practices that are emotionally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous, exploitative, or intimidating to children. This principle has precedence over all others in this Code.

P-1.4 —We shall use two-way communications to involve all those with relevant knowledge (including families and staff) in decisions concerning a

child, as appropriate, ensuring confidentiality of sensitive information.

P-2.4 —We shall ensure that the family is involved in significant decisions affecting their child.

P-2.6 —As families share information with us about their children and families, we shall ensure that families’ input is an important contribution to the planning and implementation of the program.

The Code offers strong justification for a teacher to base her actions on the needs of the child and for honoring the family’s childrearing values and agreeing to their request. However, the Code also points educators toward putting the wellbeing of the child above all other concerns. P-1.1 takes precedence over all other items in the Code and supports Ana’s decision to place the highest priority on the best interests of the child.

Guidance for the director

These items from the Code’s Supplement for Program Administrators (2011) provide additional guidance for the director who is helping Ana address this issue:

P-1.1—We shall place the welfare and safety of children above other obligations (for example, to families, program personnel, employing agency, community). This item takes precedence over all others in this Supplement.

I-2.2 —To serve as a resource for families by providing information and referrals to services in the larger community.

P-2.10 —We shall respond to families’ requests to the extent that the requests are congruent with program philosophy, standards of good practice, and the resources of the program. We shall not honor any request that puts a child in a situation that would create physical or emotional harm. In such instances, we shall communicate with the family the reason(s) why the request was not honored and work toward an alternative solution.

Reflecting on the case

Gender curiosity in children is not a recent phenomenon. Young children have always engaged in various forms of gender play, exploration, and identification. However, in recent years there has been greater recognition of the range of ways that individuals can express their gender identity and significantly more representation of trans people and communities in mainstream media. While this has opened up space for conversations about gender nonconforming and trans-identified children, some adults (including some educators, parents, grandparents) still attempt to stop the behavior (as in the case of Michelle’s parents) or attempt to rigidly categorize the behavior (assuming they can predict the child’s ultimate identity).

It is important to note that in US society today, children who are assigned male at birth receive more intense gender scrutiny than children who are assigned female at birth. For instance, girls are often encouraged by their parents to explore and participate in games traditionally associated with boys. These children are often celebrated as “strong” and “independent.” However, when boys express interests in activities associated with girls, they are typically reprimanded, ostracized, or identified as problematic. This double standard stems from a culture that often demeans behavior associated with women and femininity.

This case warrants particularly careful consideration because of the potential lifelong consequences of respecting or refusing to respect Michelle’s view of herself. It is important that the adults in Michelle’s life be willing to honor who she says she is. Denying children the opportunity to express themselves by forcing them to accept adults’ views of gender-appropriate behavior is likely to damage relationships and the children’s sense of self, in addition to making their lives more difficult.

Teachers working with families who are concerned about how their children are expressing their gender identity need to be flexible and well prepared. It may be helpful to refresh their knowledge of child development, specifically identity development as it relates to concepts of gender. Gender is varied and dynamic. All of us express our gender differently over the course of our lives; children should be encouraged and supported to play, explore, and define the gender that feels right to them at the time (without an expectation of day-to-day or month-to-month consistency). Our role as educators is to create a safe and reflective space for children to develop their interests and identities and to counterbalance pervasive gender stereotypes.

Flexibility and preparation are also essential for supporting families. The most important thing that a teacher or director can do with families is listen carefully and try to understand their concerns. Some families may be worried about their children’s future school experiences during their middle childhood and teen years. They may be seeking assurance that their children will be safe, happy, and well adjusted. Other families may be interested in knowing if there is research that indicates that a transgender child can grow into a confident and well-adjusted adult. Families with strong religious or cultural beliefs that do not support gender nonconformity need to feel that their perspectives are being heard.

Teachers also need to have appropriate resources in mind for families, knowing that different families will be best supported in different ways. Some will be interested in reading scientific literature; others may just need someone to listen to and reassure them. At times, it may be appropriate to refer the family to a community resource person who is skilled in addressing questions of gender and sexual expression.

It may be helpful to remind family members that the ultimate goal is preserving their positive long-term relationships with their child. By sharing current information on child development, teachers may point out that there are things about the child that the family can neither change nor control. While they can’t change their child’s gender identity, they do have the power to strengthen the relationship by being loving and supportive no matter how their child self-identifies. (For more specifics to help you work effectively with families, see pages 91–93.)

As we pointed out in our September 2017 column about a father’s disapproval of his son dressing up in girl’s clothing, many child-rearing values are strongly rooted in families’ cultural beliefs. Sensitive teachers must carefully balance their responsibilities to children and to their families—this can be particularly challenging when working with groups that have strong positions about appropriate gender roles. Additional challenges arise when a child’s gender preference is at odds with their family culture and values. Those situations will call for exceptional cultural navigation skills and, most likely, additional support from experts and organizations in the community. We anticipate that this topic will continue to be addressed in early childhood education.

As a teacher, you have the ability to make the world a better place for children who are gender nonconforming, are gender creative, or identify as trans. One place to start is with an inclusive classroom that supports a variety of gender expressions and avoids perpetuating harmful gender stereotypes. There are simple ways to make classrooms more inclusive, like avoiding consistently dividing children into groups by gender. For example, think about how you call children to the door. Instead of calling boys, then girls, to line up at the door, you might ask children wearing red, then blue, then green, to get ready to go outside. You can incorporate pictures, books, and dress-up materials that avoid gender stereotypes into the classroom. And you can help children move beyond traditional gender roles by encouraging girls to pretend they are firefighters and boys to role-play as nurses. If possible, make your restrooms available to all genders. Respond to children’s fears, teach children to stand up for themselves if teased for their gender expressions, and validate their gender identities as they choose to express them. Strive to help all the children and adults in your program embrace a more inclusive, less restrictive view of gender.

Resources for Teachers and Families

Books and articles for adults.

Gender Born, Gender Made: Raising Healthy Gender-Nonconforming Children. Diane Ehrensaft (2011). This developmental and clinical psychologist provides clear advice about supporting children who do not conform to society’s narrowly defined gender categories.

The Transgender Child: A Handbook for Families and Professionals. Stephanie Brill & Rachel Pepper (2008). A comprehensive resource with information to help adults guide gender-variant and transgender children.

This Is How It Always Is: A Novel. Laurie Frankel (2017). A family’s journey of learning and acceptance begins when their 3-year-old son announces that he wants to be a girl when he grows up.

“Tate and the Pink Coat: Exploring Gender and Enacting Anti-Bias Principles.” Janice Kroeger, Abigail E. Recker, and Alexandra C. Gunn. 2019. This article presents current research on the importance of gender inclusivity in early childhood classrooms and offers practical tips to help teachers support children’s explorations of gender. NAEYC.org/resources/pubs/yc/mar2019/exploring-gender-enacting-anti-bias

Gender Spectrum . This website has links to resources that help programs create gender-sensitive and inclusive environments for all children. Includes resources for children, families, and teachers, and training materials addressing a wide range of topics. www.genderspectrum.org

Teaching Tolerance . This website contains resources for educators committed to diversity, equity, and justice, including classroom and professional development materials focused on race and ethnicity, religion, ability, class, immigration, gender and sexual identity, bullying, and bias. www.tolerance.org/topics

Gender Justice in Early Childhood . This website focuses specifically on young children and offers resources and links to help educators consider their language, teaching practices, and programs from a gender justice perspective. www.genderjusticeinearlychildhood.com

Children’s books

The Boy & the Bindi , by Vivek Shraya, illus. by Rajni Perera (2016). (Ages 4–8) A 5 year-old South Asian boy is fascinated with his mother’s bindi, the colored dot commonly worn in the middle of Hindu women’s foreheads. He wants to have one of his own. His mother agrees and teaches him about its cultural significance.

Elena’s Serenade , by Campbell Gleeson (2014). (Ages 3–8) A young Mexican girl admires her father’s glassblowing and wants to follow in his footsteps. However, pointing to her size and gender, he disapproves of her aspirations. She disguises herself as a boy to learn the craft and ultimately changes her father’s views. Told in both English and Spanish, the story explores the limiting nature of gender roles and the power of children to challenge adult thinking.

Introducing Teddy, by Jessica Walton, illus. by Dougal MacPherson (2016). (Ages 3–6) Errol and his teddy bear, Thomas, are best friends who do everything together. One day, Thomas tells Errol, “In my heart, I’ve always known that I’m a girl teddy, not a boy teddy.” Errol replies, “I don’t care if you’re a girl teddy or a boy teddy! What matters is that you are my friend.”

Julián Is a Mermaid , by Jessica Love (2018). (Ages 4–8) Inspired by women he sees on the subway who are colorfully dressed as mermaids, Julián dresses up like a mermaid when he gets home. He worries about how his grandmother will respond, but she celebrates his transformation.

My Princess Boy , by Cheryl Kilodavis, illus. by Suzanne DeSimone (2009). (Ages 4–8) This story is told from the perspective of the mother of a 4-year-old boy who likes to wear dresses and enjoys things that typically appeal to girls.

Sparkle Boy , by Lesléa Newman, illus. by Maria Mola (2017). (Ages 4–8) Casey loves blocks, puzzles, and his dump truck, but he also wants to try out the shimmer skirt, glittery nails, and bracelets his sister and his grandmother wear. The adults in his life support his choices, but he worries when older boys tease him.

Ehrensaft, D. 2011. Gender Born, Gender Made: Raising Healthy Gender-Nonconforming Children . New York: The Experiment.

Feeney, S., & N.K. Freeman. 2018. Ethics and the Early Childhood Educator: Using the NAEYC Code , 3rd ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Feeney, S., & N.K. Freeman. 2017. “Don’t Let My Son Dress Up as a Girl! – The Response.” Focus on Ethics. Young Children 72 (4): 90–93.

Fox, R.K. 2015. “Is He a Girl? Meeting the Needs of Children Who Are Gender Fluid.” Chap. 7 in Discussions on Sensitive Issues , ed. J.A. Sutterby, 161–76. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.

Kilman, C. 2013. “The Gender Spectrum: Move Beyond the Pink/ Blue Binary to Support Children Who Don’t Conform to Narrow Gender Norms.” Teaching Tolerance 44. www.tolerance.org/magazine/summer-2013/the-gender-spectrum .

NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children). 2011. “Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment.” Position statement. Washington, DC: NAEYC. NAEYC.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/Ethics%20Position%20 Statement2011_09202013update.pdf.

NAEYC. 2011. “Code of Ethical Conduct: Supplement for Early Childhood Program Administrators.” Washington, DC: NAEYC. NAEYC.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/Supplement%20PS2011. pdf.

Photographs: © Getty Images

Stephanie Feeney, PhD, is professor emerita of education at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. She is coauthor of NAEYC’s “Code of Ethical Conduct” and NAEYC’s books about professional ethics. She participated in the development of supplements to the code for adult educators and program administrators and has written extensively about ethics in early care and education. She is the author of numerous articles and books, including Professionalism in Early Childhood Education: Doing Our best for Young Children  and coauthor of Who Am I in the Lives of Children ?   [email protected]

Nancy K. Freeman, PhD, is professor emerita of education at the University of South Carolina in Columbia, where she was a member of the early childhood faculty. She has served as president of NAECTE and was a member of its board for many years. Nancy has written extensively on professional ethics since the 1990s, and has been involved in the Code’s revisions and in the development of its Supplements for Program Administrators and Adult Educators.   [email protected]

Katie Schaffer , BA, is a white, cis, queer woman dedicated to collectively envisioning and implementing liberatory educational practices. For the past six years, Katie has worked at the New York Early Childhood Professional Development Institute. Finding a dearth of teacher education courses or professional development opportunities on gender, sexuality, and LGBTQ families in early childhood settings, Katie has created a training series and built out a facilitation team that has provided support to preschools and child care centers across New York City.

Vol. 74, No. 5

Print this article

Case Study: Gender and Enterprise Development in Africa

• First Online: 30 March 2019

Cite this chapter

• Keren Naa Abeka Arthur 3  

621 Accesses

This chapter explores the question of how female micro entrepreneurs can transition into transformational entrepreneurs. Using case studies, the chapter draws on the experiences of successful women entrepreneurs who have succeeded in growing their businesses from micro enterprises into impactful ones. In addition, the chapter conducts a cross-case analysis and highlights lessons learnt for policy making.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Gender and Entrepreneurship in Angola: Narratives of the ‘Muambeiras’ of Lubango

Deconstructing the Myth: African Women Entrepreneurs’ Access to Resources

Women Entrepreneurs in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC): The LAC Difference

This case was written using primary data collected through an interview with Anita Osei-Assibey.

This case was written using data from secondary sources. Below is a list of sources referred to: Iwuoha, John-Paul. 2013a. Bimbeads Concept: How a bead jewelry making hobby became a million naira business. 14 March 2013. http://www.smallstarter.com/get-inspired/bimbeads-concept/ (Accessed 30 August 2018); https://bimbeads.com (Accessed 30 August 2018); BBC, British Broadcasting Corporation. 2012. The Nigerian woman who sold two necklaces and never looked back. 22 June 2012. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18535002 (Accessed 30 August 2018).

This case was written using data from secondary sources. Below is a list of sources referred to: Iwuoha, John-Paul. 2013b. Faustina Sakyi – The Ghanaian cassava farmer who turned her world around. 14 March 2013. http://www.smallstarter.com/get-inspired/faustina-sakyi/ (Accessed 30 August 2018); Samil, Roxanna. 2010. Ghana has another Yaa Asantewaa: A powerful lady cassava producer and community leader sets up shop in rural Ghana. 9 November 2010. ifad-un.blogspot.com/2010/11/ghana-has-another-yaa-asantewaa.html (Accessed 30 August 2018).

This case was written using data from secondary sources. Below is a list of sources referred to: Iwuoha, John-Paul. 2013c. Pigfarming. How this business is changing lives in Africa and everything you need to start your own. 23 August 2013. http://www.smallstarter.com/get-inspired/how-to-start-pig-farming-in-africa/ (Accessed 30 August 2018); Gospel, Emeka. 2018. How Anna Phosa Became one of Africa’s Biggest Pig Farmer. February 26, 2018. https://myafribusiness.com/anna-phosa-became-one-africas-biggest-pig-farmers/ (Accessed 31 August 2018).

This case was written using data from secondary sources. Below is a list of sources referred to: http://paulinecosmetics.com (Accessed 31 August 2018); Genga, Shirley. 2013. Homegrown Beauty. http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/lifestyle/ssrticle/2000093551/homegrown-beauty (Accessed 31 August 2018); Bizna. 2017. My Entrepreneurial story as The Founder and CEO of Pauline Cosmetics. 31 October 2017. https://biznakenya.com/entrepreneurial-story-founder-ceo-pauline-cosmetics/ (Accessed 31 August 2018).

Ardagna, S., & Lusardi, A. (2010). Explaining International Differences in Entrepreneurship: The Role of Individual Characteristics and Regulatory Constraints. In J. Lerner & A. Schoar (Eds.), International Differences in Entrepreneurship . Chicago: University of Chicago Press (for NBER).

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., & Kinnan, C. (2009). The Miracle of Microfinance? Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation . Working Paper. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Google Scholar  

de Mel, S., McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. (2005). Returns to Capital in Microenterprises: Evidence from a Field Experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123 (4), 1329–1372.

Article   Google Scholar  

Henry, C., Foss, L., & Ahl, H. (2015). Gender and Entrepreneurship Research: A Review of Methodological Approaches. International Small Business Journal, 34 (3), 1–25.

Jenssen, J. I. (2001). Social Networks, Resources and Entrepreneurship. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 2 , 103–109.

Maas, G., Jones, P., & Lockyer, J. (2016). Position Paper: International Centre for Transformational Entrepreneurship . Working Paper. Coventry: Coventry University.

Marmer, M. (2012). Transformational Entrepreneurship: Where Technology Meets Social Impact. Harvard Business Review .

Meyskens, M. I., Elaine, A., & Brush, C. G. (2011). Human Capital and Hybrid Ventures. In G. T. Lumpkin & J. A. Katz (Eds.), Social and Sustainable Entrepreneurship (Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence and Growth, Volume 13) (pp. 51–72). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Minniti, M. (2009). Gender Issues in Entrepreneurship. Foundation and Trends in Entrepreneurship, 5 (7–8), 497–621.

Schoar, A. (2010). The Divide Between Subsistence and Transformational Entrepreneurship . National Bureau of Economic Research. Chapter URL: http://www.nber.org/chapters/c11765 , pp. 57–81.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana

Keren Naa Abeka Arthur

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Keren Naa Abeka Arthur .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

International Centre for Transformational Entrepreneurship, Coventry University, Coventry, UK

Gideon Maas

School of Management, Swansea University, Swansea, UK

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Arthur, K.N.A. (2019). Case Study: Gender and Enterprise Development in Africa. In: Maas, G., Jones, P. (eds) Transformational Entrepreneurship Practices. Palgrave Pivot, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11524-1_4

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11524-1_4

Published : 30 March 2019

Publisher Name : Palgrave Pivot, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-11523-4

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-11524-1

eBook Packages : Business and Management Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research