definition presentation art

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

presentation

Definition of presentation

• fairing [ British ]
• freebee
• largess

Examples of presentation in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'presentation.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

15th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing presentation

• breech presentation

Dictionary Entries Near presentation

present arms

presentation copy

Cite this Entry

“Presentation.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/presentation. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of presentation, medical definition, medical definition of presentation, more from merriam-webster on presentation.

Nglish: Translation of presentation for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of presentation for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about presentation

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

Plural and possessive names: a guide, your vs. you're: how to use them correctly, every letter is silent, sometimes: a-z list of examples, more commonly mispronounced words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), popular in wordplay, it's a scorcher words for the summer heat, flower etymologies for your spring garden, 12 star wars words, 'swash', 'praya', and 12 more beachy words, 8 words for lesser-known musical instruments, games & quizzes.

• Subscriber Services
• For Authors
• Publications
• Archaeology
• Art & Architecture
• Bilingual dictionaries
• Classical studies
• Encyclopedias
• English Dictionaries and Thesauri
• Language reference
• Linguistics
• Media studies
• Medicine and health
• Names studies
• Performing arts
• Science and technology
• Social sciences
• Society and culture
• Overview Pages
• Subject Reference
• English Dictionaries
• Bilingual Dictionaries

Recently viewed (0)

• Save Search
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Related Content

Related overviews.

Michelangelo (1475—1564)

Lorenzo Monaco (c. 1370—1425)

Leonardo da Vinci (1452—1519)

Giorgio Vasari (1511—1574) Italian painter, architect, and biographer

See all related overviews in Oxford Reference »

More Like This

Show all results sharing this subject:

presentation drawing

Quick reference.

A term coined in the 20th century by the Hungarian art historian Johannes Wilde to describe certain drawings made by Michelangelo, for example those he gave as presents to various aristocratic young men. Presentation drawings were finished, non-utilitarian works of art, as opposed to preparatory drawings for a work in another medium. The earliest known presentation drawings dating from the Italian Renaissance are two drawings of the 1420s by Lorenzo Monaco.

From:   presentation drawing   in  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms »

Subjects: Art & Architecture

Related content in Oxford Reference

Reference entries.

View all related items in Oxford Reference »

Search for: 'presentation drawing' in Oxford Reference »

• Oxford University Press

PRINTED FROM OXFORD REFERENCE (www.oxfordreference.com). (c) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2023. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single entry from a reference work in OR for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice ).

date: 30 June 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [81.177.182.159]
• 81.177.182.159

Character limit 500 /500

What is Concept Art — Definition, Types & Iconic Examples

I n the vast, vibrant universe of art, there’s a special realm that often goes unnoticed by the casual observer. It’s called concept art, and it’s more than just pretty pictures on a canvas. It’s the backbone of some of your favorite movies, video games, and even theme parks. Concept art is the creative force that shapes these worlds long before they reach your screen or doorstep.

What is Concept Art Defined By?

First, let’s define concept art.

Diving into the heart of the matter, let's unravel the true definition and purpose of Concept Art in the field of creative industry.

CONCEPT ART DEFINITION

What is concept art.

Concept Art is essentially the visual representation of an idea before it is developed into a final product. It is used in various industries to define the look and feel of a product, movie, video game, or animation before it is produced. 

Concept Art provides a tangible, visual blueprint, allowing teams to unify their vision and move forward in the creation process with a clear direction. It is the intersection of imagination and reality, the first step in bringing fantastical worlds and compelling characters to life. 

What is Concept Art Used For?

• Vision Realization
• Team Alignment
• Project Direction

Who Creates Concept Art for Films?

The role of concept artists.

As the architects of imagination, concept artists play a crucial role in the creative industry. These artists are the pioneers, entrusted with the task of translating abstract ideas into concrete visuals. 

Their canvases are blank slates, ready to be adorned with the blueprints of uncharted worlds, enigmatic characters, and unique aesthetics.

SO YOU WANT TO BE A CONCEPT ARTIST?

What concept artists do.

Concept artists begin with a brief, a kernel of an idea, or a narrative. They then utilize their artistic skills and creative vision to develop a series of images or designs that align with this initial concept. This process often involves sketching, digital painting, or creating 3D models. These visuals are then presented to directors, producers, or developers, serving as a guide for the final product.

Different Industries Where Concept Artists Are Needed

The need for concept artists spans a multitude of industries, each demanding its unique aesthetic and conceptual focus. 

Video Games : In the gaming industry, concept artists design everything from characters, and environments, to the objects players interact with. Their work sets the visual tone of the game and influences the player's in-game experiences.

So You Wanna Make Games?  •  Episode 2: Concept Art

Film : Concept artists in film work closely with directors and production designers to bring their vision to life. Concept art in film is used to create visuals for settings, props, and sometimes even characters, contributing significantly to the movie's overall look and feel.

Animation : In animation , concept artists lay the groundwork for the entire animated piece. They dream up characters, storyboard scenes, and establish the animation's overall visual style, playing an integral role in shaping the animated universe.

Having explored what Concept Art is and the pivotal role concept artists play across various industries, let's now delve into the creative process behind Concept Art, detailing the journey from initial idea to final visual masterpiece.

How is Film Concept Art Created?

The creative process of concept art.

Concept Art is more than just a visual masterpiece; it's a creative journey. This process transforms a mere idea into a tangible piece of art. Here's a closer look at the stages involved.

Initial Ideas and Brainstorming

The seed of the creative process lies in the initial ideas and brainstorming. At this stage, concept artists often participate in collaborative sessions with directors , producers, or game designers to understand the vision of the project. Artists may discuss themes, styles, and overall aesthetics, taking inspiration from various sources. These sessions are about exploring possibilities, pushing boundaries, and discovering the potential of the initial concept.

Sketching and Creating Drafts

Once the initial ideas have been laid out, concept artists proceed to the sketching and drafting stage. This is where ideas begin to take a tangible form. Artists might start with rough sketches, experimenting with various designs, color schemes , and compositions. 

Concept Art Process  •  Part 1: Sketching

Whether it's a character, a piece of environment, or a prop, each element undergoes several iterations. Digital tools like Photoshop or 3D modeling software may be used to refine these drafts.

Finalizing Designs and Presenting to Clients or Teams

The final stage involves refining and finalizing designs. At this point, the artist incorporates the feedback received during the drafting stage, fine-tuning the design to its minutest details. The final concept art is a polished, comprehensive visual representation of the idea, ready to guide the production team.

Once finalized, the concept artist presents their designs to the clients or teams. This presentation is crucial for aligning everyone with the project's visual direction. The finalized concept art now stands as a visual guidepost, directing every decision made in the project's subsequent production stages.

Related Posts

• Best Animation Software →
• What is Characterization? →
• VFX Compositing Techniques Explained →

Styles of Concept Art

Tools of the trade.

Concept Art creation is a complex process that requires a precise set of tools. From traditional materials to modern digital software, the choices can be overwhelming, but each contributes to the unique look and feel of the final design.

Here is a great video on tips to using these tools combined with consistency and curiosity to become a better concept artist.

How to Get Better at Concept Art. Really.

Traditional tools used in concept art.

Traditional tools have been the bedrock of the arts for centuries and continue to play a vital role in Concept Art today.

Sketchbooks : Sketchbooks are the starting point for most artists. They allow for spontaneous creativity, enabling artists to jot down ideas, sketch characters, or map out environments at any time.

Pencils and Pens : Pencils and pens offer versatility. From broad strokes to fine details, they provide a variety of line weights and styles.

Markers and Paints : Markers, watercolors, and acrylic paints add color to concept drawings. They help convey mood, atmosphere, and lighting within a design.

Digital Tools and Software Commonly Used by Modern Concept Artists

In the modern era, digital tools have become just as crucial as traditional ones. They provide a new level of flexibility, precision, and efficiency in Concept Art creation.

Graphics Tablets : A graphics tablet provides a natural, intuitive way for artists to draw digitally. It offers pressure sensitivity and precision, which can be essential for creating detailed work.

Photoshop : Adobe Photoshop is a staple in digital art. Its myriad of features like layers, brushes, and filters make it ideal for creating and modifying Concept Art.

3D Modeling Software : Software like Blender or Maya enables artists to create 3D models of characters or environments. This can be particularly helpful in presenting a more realistic view of a design.

Digital Painting Software : Platforms like Procreate or Corel Painter are designed specifically for digital painting, offering a range of brushes and effects that mimic traditional painting techniques.

Concept art is at the heart of visual storytelling, transforming ideas into captivating experiences. Whether it's video games, films, or animation, concept artists shape aesthetics and emotions, pushing creative boundaries. Let's appreciate the significant role of concept art in crafting immersive universes.

The Art Department in Film

Now that we have a firm understanding of concept art and its role in visual storytelling, let's delve deeper into the film industry's art department, the creative powerhouse that brings these concepts to life on the big screen.

Up Next: The Art Department in Film →

Showcase your vision with elegant shot lists and storyboards..

Create robust and customizable shot lists. Upload images to make storyboards and slideshows.

Learn More ➜

Leave a comment

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Pricing & Plans
• Product Updates
• Featured On
• StudioBinder Partners
• The Ultimate Guide to Call Sheets (with FREE Call Sheet Template)
• How to Break Down a Script (with FREE Script Breakdown Sheet)
• The Only Shot List Template You Need — with Free Download
• Managing Your Film Budget Cashflow & PO Log (Free Template)
• A Better Film Crew List Template Booking Sheet
• Best Storyboard Softwares (with free Storyboard Templates)
• Movie Magic Scheduling
• Gorilla Software
• Storyboard That

A visual medium requires visual methods. Master the art of visual storytelling with our FREE video series on directing and filmmaking techniques.

We’re in a golden age of TV writing and development. More and more people are flocking to the small screen to find daily entertainment. So how can you break put from the pack and get your idea onto the small screen? We’re here to help.

• Making It: From Pre-Production to Screen
• Ethos, Pathos & Logos — Definition and Examples of Persuasive Advertising Techniques
• Ultimate AV Script Template to Write Better Ads [FREE AV Script Template]
• What is Dramatic Irony? Definition and Examples
• What is Situational Irony? Definition and Examples
• How to Write a Buzzworthy Explainer Video Script [Free Template]
• 0 Pinterest

30 Presentation Terms & What They Mean

Delivering a captivating presentation is an art that requires more than just confidence and oratory skills. From the design of your slides to the way you carry yourself on stage, every little detail contributes to the overall effectiveness of your presentation. For those who wish to master this art, getting familiar with the associated terminology is a great place to start.

In this article, we’ll explore “30 Presentation Terms & What They Mean,” shedding light on the key terms and concepts in the world of presentations. Whether you’re a professional looking to refine your skills, a student aiming to ace your next presentation, or just someone curious about the subject, this guide is sure to provide you with valuable insights.

Dive in as we explore everything from slide decks and speaker notes to body language and Q&A sessions.

Each term is elaborated in depth, giving you a comprehensive understanding of their meanings and applications. This knowledge will not only make you more comfortable with presentations but will also empower you to deliver them more effectively.

2 Million+ PowerPoint Templates, Themes, Graphics + More

Download thousands of PowerPoint templates, and many other design elements, with a monthly Envato Elements membership. It starts at $16 per month, and gives you unlimited access to a growing library of over 2,000,000 presentation templates, fonts, photos, graphics, and more.

Business PPT Templates

Corporate & pro.

Animated PPT Templates

Fully animated.

BeMind Minimal Template

Ciri Template

Pitch PowerPoint

Explore PowerPoint Templates

Table of Contents

• Speaker Notes
• White Space
• Aspect Ratio
• Grid System
• Master Slide
• Infographic
• Data Visualization
• Call-to-Action (CTA)
• Color Palette
• Negative Space
• Storyboarding
• Bullet Points
• Eye Contact
• Body Language
• Q&A Session

1. Slide Deck

A slide deck, in its most basic sense, is a collection of slides that are presented in sequence to support a speech or presentation. The slides typically contain key points, graphics, and other visual aids that make the presentation more engaging and easier to understand.

Beyond merely displaying information, a well-crafted slide deck can tell a story, create an emotional connection, or illustrate complex concepts in a digestible way. Its design elements, including the choice of colors, fonts, and images, play a significant role in how the presentation is received by the audience.

2. Speaker Notes

Speaker notes are a feature in presentation software that allows presenters to add notes or cues to their slides. These notes are only visible to the presenter during the presentation. They can include additional information, reminders, prompts, or even the full script of the speech.

While the audience sees the slide deck, the speaker can use these notes as a guide to ensure they cover all necessary points without memorizing the entire speech. It’s essential to use speaker notes strategically – they should aid the presentation, not become a script that hinders natural delivery.

A template is a pre-designed layout for a slide deck. It typically includes a set design, color scheme, typefaces, and placeholders for content like text, images, and graphs. Templates can significantly reduce the time and effort required to create a professional-looking presentation.

While templates can be incredibly helpful, it’s important to choose one that aligns with the theme, purpose, and audience of the presentation. Customizing the template to match your brand or topic can further enhance its effectiveness.

4. Transition

In the realm of presentations, a transition refers to the visual effect that occurs when you move from one slide to the next. Simple transitions include fade-ins and fade-outs, while more complex ones might involve 3D effects, wipes, or spins.

Transitions can add a touch of professionalism and dynamism to a presentation when used correctly. However, overuse or choosing flashy transitions can be distracting and detract from the content. The key is to use transitions that complement the presentation’s tone and pace without overshadowing the message.

5. Animation

Animation is the process of making objects or text in your slide deck appear to move. This can involve anything from making bullet points appear one by one, to having graphics fly in or out, to creating a simulation of a complex process. Animation can add interest, emphasize points, and guide the audience’s attention throughout the presentation.

While animations can make a presentation more engaging, they must be used judiciously. Excessive or overly complex animations can distract the audience, complicate the message, and look unprofessional. As with transitions, animations should support the content, not detract from it.

6. Multimedia

Multimedia refers to the combination of different types of media — such as text, images, audio, video, and animation — within a single presentation. Incorporating multimedia elements can make a presentation more engaging, cater to different learning styles, and aid in explaining complex ideas.

However, it’s important to ensure that multimedia elements are relevant, high-quality, and appropriately scaled for the presentation. Additionally, depending on the presentation venue, technical considerations such as file sizes, internet speed, and audio quality need to be taken into account when using multimedia.

7. White Space

In the context of presentation design, white space (or negative space) refers to the unmarked portions of a slide, which are free of text, images, or other visual elements. Despite its name, white space doesn’t necessarily have to be white — it’s any area of a slide not filled with content.

White space can give a slide a clean, balanced look and can help draw attention to the most important elements. It can also reduce cognitive load, making it easier for the audience to process information. Good use of white space is often a key difference between professional and amateur designs.

8. Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is the proportional relationship between a slide’s width and height. It’s typically expressed as two numbers separated by a colon, such as 4:3 or 16:9. The first number represents the width, and the second represents the height.

The choice of aspect ratio can affect how content fits on the screen and how the presentation appears on different displays. For instance, a 16:9 aspect ratio is often used for widescreen displays, while a 4:3 ratio may be more suitable for traditional computer monitors and projectors.

9. Grid System

The grid system is a framework used to align and layout design elements in a slide. It’s comprised of horizontal and vertical lines that divide the slide into equal sections or grids.

The grid system aids in creating visual harmony, balance, and consistency across slides. It can guide the placement of text, images, and other elements, ensuring that they’re evenly spaced and aligned. It’s an important tool for maintaining a professional and organized appearance in a presentation.

10. Readability

Readability refers to how easy it is for an audience to read and understand the text on your slides. It involves factors such as font size, typeface, line length, spacing, and contrast with the background.

Ensuring good readability is crucial in presentations. If your audience can’t easily read and understand your text, they’ll be more likely to disengage. Large fonts, simple language, high-contrast color schemes, and ample white space can enhance readability.

11. Infographic

An infographic is a visual representation of information, data, or knowledge. They’re used in presentations to communicate complex data in a clear, concise, and engaging way. Infographics can include charts, graphs, icons, pictures, and text.

While infographics can effectively communicate complex ideas, they must be designed carefully. Too much information, confusing visuals, or a lack of a clear hierarchy can make an infographic difficult to understand. It’s important to keep the design simple and focus on the key message.

To embed in a presentation context means to incorporate external content, such as a video, a document, or a website, directly into a slide. When an object is embedded, it becomes part of the presentation file and can be viewed or played without leaving the presentation.

Embedding can be a useful tool to incorporate interactive or supplementary content into a presentation. However, it’s important to remember that it can increase the file size of the presentation and may require an internet connection or specific software to function correctly.

13. Palette

A palette, in terms of presentations, refers to the set of colors chosen to be used throughout the slide deck. This can include primary colors for backgrounds and text, as well as secondary colors for accents and highlights.

The right color palette can help convey the mood of a presentation, reinforce branding, and increase visual interest. It’s important to choose colors that work well together and provide enough contrast for readability. Tools like color wheel or color scheme generators can be helpful in choosing a harmonious palette.

14. Vector Graphics

Vector graphics are digital images created using mathematical formulas rather than pixels. This means they can be scaled up or down without losing quality, making them ideal for presentations that may be viewed on different screen sizes.

Vector graphics often have smaller file sizes than their pixel-based counterparts (raster graphics), which can help keep your presentation file manageable. Common types of vector graphics include logos, icons, and illustrations.

15. Mood Board

A mood board is a collection of images, text, colors, and other design elements that serve as visual inspiration for a presentation. It helps establish the aesthetic, mood, or theme of the presentation before the design process begins.

Creating a mood board can be a valuable step in the presentation design process. It can help you visualize how different elements will work together, communicate your design ideas to others, and maintain consistency across your slides.

16. Hierarchy

In design, hierarchy refers to the arrangement of elements in a way that implies importance. In presentations, visual hierarchy helps guide the viewer’s eye to the most important elements first.

Hierarchy can be created through the use of size, color, contrast, alignment, and whitespace. Effective use of hierarchy can make your slides easier to understand and keep your audience focused on the key points.

17. Stock Photos

Stock photos are professionally taken photographs that are bought and sold on a royalty-free basis. They can be used in presentations to add visual interest, convey emotions, or illustrate specific concepts.

While stock photos can enhance a presentation, it’s important to use them judiciously and choose images that align with your presentation’s tone and content. Overuse of generic or irrelevant stock photos can make a presentation feel impersonal or unprofessional.

18. Sans Serif

Sans serif refers to a category of typefaces that do not have small lines or strokes attached to the ends of larger strokes. Sans serif fonts are often used in presentations because they’re typically easier to read on screens than serif fonts, which have these small lines.

Some popular sans serif fonts for presentations include Helvetica, Arial, and Calibri. When choosing a font for your slides, readability should be a primary consideration.

19. Hyperlink

A hyperlink, or link, is a clickable element in a slide that directs the viewer to another slide in the deck, a different document, or a web page. Hyperlinks can be used in presentations to provide additional information or to navigate to specific slides.

While hyperlinks can be useful, they should be used sparingly and appropriately. Links that direct the viewer away from the presentation can be distracting and disrupt the flow of your talk.

PDF stands for Portable Document Format. It’s a file format that preserves the fonts, images, graphics, and layout of any source document, regardless of the computer or software used to create it. Presentations are often saved and shared as PDFs to ensure they look the same on any device.

While a PDF version of your presentation will maintain its appearance, it won’t include interactive elements like animations, transitions, and hyperlinks. Therefore, it’s best used for distributing slide handouts or when the presentation software used to create the deck isn’t available.

21. Raster Graphics

Raster graphics are digital images composed of individual pixels. These pixels, each a single point with its own color, come together to form the full image. Photographs are the most common type of raster graphics.

While raster graphics can provide detailed and vibrant images, they don’t scale well. Enlarging a raster image can lead to pixelation, where the individual pixels become visible and the image appears blurry. For this reason, raster images in presentations should be used at their original size or smaller.

22. Typeface

A typeface, often referred to as a font, is a set of characters with the same design. This includes letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and sometimes symbols. Typefaces can have different styles and weights, such as bold or italic.

The choice of typeface can significantly impact the readability and mood of a presentation. For example, serif typefaces can convey tradition and authority, while sans serif typefaces can appear modern and clean. The key is to choose a typeface that aligns with the purpose and audience of your presentation.

23. Visual Content

Visual content refers to the graphics, images, charts, infographics, animations, and other non-text elements in a presentation. These elements can help capture the audience’s attention, enhance understanding, and make the presentation more memorable.

While visual content can enhance a presentation, it’s important not to overload slides with too many visual elements, as this can confuse or overwhelm the audience. All visual content should be relevant, clear, and support the overall message of the presentation.

24. Call to Action

A call to action (CTA) in a presentation is a prompt that encourages the audience to take a specific action. This could be anything from visiting a website, signing up for a newsletter, participating in a discussion, or implementing a suggested strategy.

A strong CTA aligns with the goals of the presentation and is clear and compelling. It often comes at the end of the presentation, providing the audience with a next step or a way to apply what they’ve learned.

25. Thumbnails

In presentations, thumbnails are small versions of the slides that are used to navigate through the deck during the design process. They provide an overview of the presentation’s flow and can help identify inconsistencies in design.

Thumbnails are typically displayed in the sidebar of presentation software. They allow you to easily move, delete, or duplicate slides, and can provide a visual check for overall consistency and flow.

26. Aspect Ratio

27. interactive elements.

Interactive elements are components in a presentation that the audience can interact with. These could include hyperlinks, embedded quizzes, interactive infographics, or multimedia elements like audio and video.

Interactive elements can make a presentation more engaging and memorable. However, they require careful planning and should always be tested before the presentation to ensure they work as intended.

28. Placeholders

In the context of presentations, placeholders are boxes that are included in a slide layout to hold specific types of content, such as text, images, or charts. They guide the placement of content and can help ensure consistency across slides.

Placeholders can be especially useful when working with templates, as they provide a predefined layout to follow. However, they should be used flexibly – not every placeholder needs to be used, and additional elements can be added if necessary.

29. Master Slide

The master slide is the top slide in a hierarchy of slides that stores information about the theme and slide layouts of a presentation. Changes made to the master slide, such as modifying the background, fonts, or color scheme, are applied to all other slides in the presentation.

Master slides can help ensure consistency across a presentation and save time when making global changes. However, it’s important to note that individual slides can still be modified independently if necessary.

In presentations, a layout refers to the arrangement of elements on a slide. This includes the placement of text, images, shapes, and other elements, as well as the use of space and alignment.

Choosing the right layout can make your slides look organized and professional, guide the viewer’s eye, and enhance your message. Most presentation software offers a variety of pre-defined layouts, but these can usually be modified to better suit your content and design preferences.

What is Public Speaking? [Definition, Importance, Tips Etc!]

By: Author Shrot Katewa

If you are an ambitious professional, you will have to engage in some form of public speaking at some point in time in your life! The truth is, it is better to start with public speaking sooner rather than later! However, to better understand the subject, we must start with the definition of public speaking.

Public speaking is the art of conveying a message verbally to an audience of more than one individual. An average public speaker addresses a crowd of over 50 people, while some keynote presenters can expect an audience of a few thousand. With digital public speaking, this can be scaled infinitely.

In this post, you will learn everything you need to know to get started with public speaking, including why it is essential in the modern world, what skills make up the art form, and what you can expect when trying to turn your public speaking skills into a revenue-generating business or career.

Why is Public Speaking Important?

With over 77% of people having some degree of public speaking anxiety, according to Very Well Mind , and some positioning it as a greater fear than that of death itself, you might wonder why one needs to conquer such fear? What could be so essential about public speaking, after all?

Public speaking is critical because it allows you to connect with a group of people and persuade them to see things your way. It is the highest form of scaled influence and has existed as a change-making phenomenon in politics, society, and culture for over 2000 years.

Compare this to any social media platform, CEO-position duration, and professorship, and you’ll see that public speaking has been the most persistent form of influencing across time. In other words, it is transferrable and timeless.

You don’t have to worry about it going out of fashion because it has outlasted the fashion industry itself. Every other position of power relies on some degree of public speaking skills, even if an individual is not actively delivering keynotes.

What Are Public Speaking Skills?

At this point, you might be thinking, “wait, how is public speaking different from public speaking skills?” And I understand that because people often assume public speaking itself is a skill. Public Speaking is a performance art that relies on multiple skills to deliver a cohesive presentation of a singular skill.

Public speaking skills are the pillars that hold up an excellent presentation and include argument construction, audience engagement, stage presence management, timely delivery, and appropriate pacing. You can also improve your public speaking by using humor, rhetorical questions, and analogies.

Argument Construction

The way you position an argument matters more than the argument itself. That’s why in most rhetorical classes, you’re made to pick the “for” or “against” side at random, so you get good at making arguments regardless of the legitimacy of the position.

Usually, an argument follows the “problem,” “potential solution,” “reasons the said solution is the best” model though some constructions include countering general skepticism regarding a proposed solution.

Audience Engagement

This skill will help you lengthen your talk without having to script every second, but that’s not its primary goal. Audience engagement shouldn’t be used as fluff but as a means to retain your public’s attention, especially if a topic is particularly dry or the talk is too long.

Stage Presence Management

This is the aspect of audience engagement that has more to do with yourself. For instance, if you ask a question, you’re getting your audience’s attention by engaging with them.

However, if you strike a particular pose, make an exaggerated gesture, or simply carry yourself in a way that draws attention, you’re managing your stage presence (and increasing your audience’s involvement).

Timely Delivery

Timing is critical in public speaking because, given the fact that speechwriters exist, one can get away without constructing an argument or even writing the words to their talk. However, you cannot get away with bad delivery because if you don’t hold your audience’s attention, you’re only speaking to yourself.

Appropriate Pacing

Pacing your talk is essential because you cannot dump data on your audience without producing a cognitive overload. That’s why you must balance information with rhetoric and pace your presentation to bring your audience along with you.

Importance of Public Speaking Skills for Students

Whether you’re a student thinking of joining a public speaking club or a debating society, or a teacher looking to introduce your students to public speaking, knowing that it is an extracurricular art form that brings the greatest number of long-term benefits to students can be quite comforting.

The importance of public speaking for students lies in its cognitive benefits and social significance. Students who learn public speaking are more confident, can communicate their ideas better, and use speaking as a tool to polish their thoughts. This sets them up for success in public-facing roles.

More importantly, these benefits go hand-in-hand with long-term career success and social satisfaction because, unlike academic skills, public speaking expertise remains beneficial even after students say goodbye to their respective universities.

Benefits of Public Speaking

As mentioned above, the benefits of public speaking often outlast the student life and remain relevant to personal success. Whether you choose a corporate job or want to be a full-time speaker, you will be able to take the skills you build as a speaker and apply them to your life.

Benefits of public speaking include but aren’t limited to higher self-confidence, clarity of thought, personal satisfaction with one’s ability to communicate, a larger network, some degree of organic celebrity status, and higher levels of charisma.

Higher Self-Confidence

Self-confidence, as essential as it is, is a tricky subject because it relies entirely on one’s self-image. And if you don’t view yourself as confident, you aren’t confident.

The best way to improve your confidence is to observe yourself being confident : i.e., get into an activity that requires confidence. Given that oratory is one of the earliest art forms developed by humans, we can safely assume that it is also the one that has more inherent prestige involved.

Clarity of Thought

Public speaking forces one to learn new words and improves how one structures an argument. Since speaking also allows us to think and formulate thoughts into full-fledged concepts, a public speaker is better able to think with clarity.

Improved Ability to Communicate

Building on clarity of thought, one’s ability to communicate is enhanced once they have thought through their positions and arguments. Public speaking helps you communicate better in both the content and delivery of your thoughts.

Better Network

Humans are social animals, and networking is intrinsic to our success. They say that most of life’s significant events aren’t “what” events (as in “what happened?”) but “who” events (as in “who did you connect with?” or “who connected with you?”). Public speaking affords you the confidence to multiply the odds of better “who” events.

Natural Celebrity

We admire those who can do what we can’t. And since public speaking is such a valuable artform regarding which over 77% of people have trouble, it is pretty straightforward to conclude that the one who can pull this off will have higher social status among any group.

Increased Charisma

Finally, building on the previous perk of better social status, with Olivia Fox-Cabane’s definition of charisma as power and empathy, one can see how an organic celebrity status among one’s friend circle can also lead to improved charisma.

That said, not every public speaker is charismatic all the time. And to make sure you make the most of your ability to be charismatic as a public speaker, check out Fox Cabane’s book .

Types of Public Speaking

In the artform’s infancy, public speaking was public speaking. There was nothing else but an individual speaking to fellow city residents in a forum, trying to persuade them to get behind a certain reform or rollback one. Now public speaking has branched into various types.

Types of public speaking are divided across two dimensions: medium and mission .

Digital public speaking, on-stage speeches, and pre-recorded talks are three types differentiated by category. Keynote address, seminar, and debate are three forms differentiated by end-result.

• Division by medium allows us to see the type of speech by the method of delivery. You can conduct keynote, seminar, and debate in the digital type, but a live discussion is very likely off the table when you’re uploading a pre-recorded talk.
• Division by end-result allows us to see how public speaking can differ depending on the content format regardless of delivery. You can give a keynote address on stage or even have it pre-recorded. As long as you get the key point across, you’re doing your job.

Apple’s keynotes are consumed far more often online than they are in-person. So, being clear on the end result allows hybridization across different formats, especially with technology. Still, you should optimize the content and delivery of your talk for the medium you set as the primary one and let the others be optional.

In other words, if you’re conducting a seminar and interaction matters, do not sacrifice live interaction trying to force your seminar into a pre-recorded format.

However, once the seminar has been delivered digitally, or in person, the video can be uploaded as pre-recorded for those who want to follow along or are simply curious about your seminar’s content and might sign up for the next one.

To understand which format or type to set as your primary one, you must know the pros and cons of each kind of public speaking.

Digital public speaking emerged alongside the telethon selling format on cable TV. While the first telethons weren’t entirely digital, the format’s inception lies firmly in this period because TV’s shift to streaming brought about the first boom in digital public speaking.

In 2020, there was yet another shift as Corporate America got thoroughly familiarized with Zoom, a digital conferencing tool.

And once people knew how to use it to participate in meetings, listening to live talks was only a few clicks away. Zoom launched webinar mode, making it even more convenient to start giving talks to a large digital audience.

Still, there are multiple platforms through which you can engage in digital public speaking, including Facebook Live, Youtube Streaming, and even Twitch.

Pros of Digital Public Speaking

• Low overhead – You don’t need to book a conference center; people don’t have to pay to fly.  
• Easy for higher frequency – You can easily deliver more talks in a shorter period, thanks to the lack of traveling involved.

Cons of Digital Public Speaking

• Harder to hold the audience’s attention – Task-switching is the key obstacle in digital public speaking, making it harder to deliver keynotes. However, interactive digital workshops really thrive in this environment.

Pros of on-Stage Public Speaking

• Better translates to other arenas – If you learn to speak from the stage, you can speak to smaller groups, give talks digitally, and hold a confident conversation. This doesn’t always work the other way: Zoom maestros aren’t as equipped to give a talk from a stage.  
• Instant authority – The Lab Coat Effect is one where we automatically infer authority if someone resembles a figure of authority. That’s why stage presentations are important for big ideas. The audience is more receptive when they see you on a stage regardless of your credentials.

Cons of on-Stage Public Speaking

• Limits the ability to interact – Since the format allows monologuing, it can be easy to get carried away giving your talk without bringing the audience along. In some instances, it can be downright tough to engage more personally with people because the crowd is too big.  
• Hard to master – While it can ultimately be an advantage, you must recognize it for the drawback that is initially, as getting on stage is difficult for most people with no prior experience. Even seasoned public speakers admit to being nervous before each talk.

Pros of Pre-Recorded Talks

• Room for error – Since pre-recorded talks are not live, you can get away with making errors, especially if you’re adept at editing. You also don’t have to be in front of a crowd and can talk to the camera as if it were your friend. This allows even the uninitiated to get involved with public speaking without taking extensive training.  
• Simultaneous delivery for multiple talks – While it isn’t important for most people to give multiple tasks at once, it is possible to do so with a set of pre-recorded talks. If you’re a busy executive or a business owner, you can be more productive. If you’re trying to elevate your career as a professional speaker, a few pre-recorded webinars delivered to potential clients for free can help get your foot in the door without too much effort.

Cons of Pre-Recorded Talks

• Can become a crutch – The convenience of these talks is also their greatest drawback. You cannot give pre-recorded talks exclusively because that severely limits your public speaking muscles. Using them in conjunction with other forms of speaking is the ideal balance for skill maintenance and productivity boosting.  
• Lower engagement – Since you are not able to interact live, you’re limited to predetermined engagement tools like asking people to imagine a scenario or posing rhetorical questions. You can pop in live at the end of your talk to take live questions. This hybridization or pre-recorded public speaking with digital public speaking is best for consultants and thought leaders.

Examples of Public Speaking

To be a great public speaker, you must consume great relevant content. That’s why you need to know what type of audio content constitutes public speaking. The following section covers examples of public speaking:

Basic Elements of Public Speaking

Now that you know what kind of content you should consume as a budding public speaker let’s look at the key elements to watch out for. Most well-constructed speeches will include the following:

• Signposting – The beginning portion introduces not just the topic but sections of the talk, including what will be addressed later on. Look at the third paragraph of this post to get an idea of what signposting is.  
• Main argument – This rests in the body of the speech, where the speaker makes the main point. You should never make a point without supporting it with logic, fact, and even a compelling narrative.  
• Supporting the argument – As mentioned above, your argument needs support. Use analogies, metaphors, and of course, data to back up the point you’re making.  
• Recap – The conclusion is the final part where your talk’s recap sits. Here, you tell your audience briefly the main points you have made without taking them down the details lane.

Tips to Become a Better Public Speaker

To become a better public speaker, you must use the observe, internalize, and practice formula. Here’s how you should go about it:

• Observe – Look at the types and examples of public speaking listed in this article and consume different talks that fall into all sorts of categories. Don’t rely too much on one speaker, or you may inadvertently become a knock-off.  
• Internalize – By consuming content without judgment, you’ll start to internalize what you find compelling. You must let go of conscious deconstruction tendencies and simply consume content until it is second nature to you.  
• Practice – Finally, the toughest and the most critical part of becoming a public speaker is simply practicing more often. Find opportunities to give talks. If you don’t find on-stage openings, simply give recorded talks or even stream your keynote. With enough practice, you’ll find your talks rising to the level of great public speakers whose content you so thoroughly consumed.

Credit to cookie_studio (on Freepik) for the featured image of this article (further edited)

• Games & Quizzes
• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction
• Shape and mass
• Volume and space
• Time and movement
• Principles of design
• Design relationships between painting and other visual arts
• Techniques and methods
• Fresco secco
• Buon fresco
• Watercolour
• Synthetic mediums
• French pastels
• Oil pastels
• Glass paintings
• Ivory painting
• Sand, or dry, painting
• Mechanical mediums
• Mixed mediums
• Mural painting
• Easel and panel painting
• Miniature painting
• Manuscript illumination and related forms
• Scroll painting
• Screen and fan painting
• Modern forms
• Kinds of imagery
• Portraiture
• Other subjects

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Tate - Painting
• LiveAbout - An Introduction to Painting
• Boise State Pressbooks - Introduction To Art - Painting
• Art in Context - What is Painting? – Explore the World of Visual Art Painting
• Humanities LibreTexts - Painting
• painting - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• painting - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

painting , the expression of ideas and emotions, with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities, in a two-dimensional visual language . The elements of this language—its shapes, lines, colours, tones, and textures—are used in various ways to produce sensations of volume, space, movement, and light on a flat surface. These elements are combined into expressive patterns in order to represent real or supernatural phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme, or to create wholly abstract visual relationships. An artist’s decision to use a particular medium, such as tempera , fresco , oil , acrylic , watercolour or other water-based paints, ink , gouache , encaustic , or casein , as well as the choice of a particular form, such as mural , easel, panel, miniature, manuscript illumination , scroll, screen or fan, panorama , or any of a variety of modern forms, is based on the sensuous qualities and the expressive possibilities and limitations of those options. The choices of the medium and the form, as well as the artist’s own technique, combine to realize a unique visual image.

(Read Sister Wendy’s Britannica essay on viewing art.)

Earlier cultural traditions—of tribes, religions, guilds, royal courts, and states—largely controlled the craft, form, imagery, and subject matter of painting and determined its function, whether ritualistic, devotional, decorative, entertaining, or educational. Painters were employed more as skilled artisans than as creative artists . Later the notion of the “fine artist” developed in Asia and Renaissance Europe. Prominent painters were afforded the social status of scholars and courtiers; they signed their work, decided its design and often its subject and imagery, and established a more personal—if not always amicable—relationship with their patrons .

During the 19th century painters in Western societies began to lose their social position and secure patronage. Some artists countered the decline in patronage support by holding their own exhibitions and charging an entrance fee. Others earned an income through touring exhibitions of their work. The need to appeal to a marketplace had replaced the similar (if less impersonal) demands of patronage, and its effect on the art itself was probably similar as well. Generally, artists in the 20th century could reach an audience only through commercial galleries and public museums, although their work may have been occasionally reproduced in art periodicals. They may also have been assisted by financial awards or commissions from industry and the state. They had, however, gained the freedom to invent their own visual language and to experiment with new forms and unconventional materials and techniques. For example, some painters combined other media, such as sculpture , with painting to produce three-dimensional abstract designs. Other artists attached real objects to the canvas in collage fashion or used electricity to operate coloured kinetic panels and boxes. Conceptual artists frequently expressed their ideas in the form of a proposal for an unrealizable project, while performance artists were an integral part of their own compositions . The restless endeavour to extend the boundaries of expression in art produced continuous international stylistic changes. The often bewildering succession of new movements in painting was further stimulated by the swift interchange of ideas by means of international art journals, traveling exhibitions, and art centres. Such exchanges accelerated in the 21st century with the explosion of international art fairs and the advent of social media , the latter of which offered not only new means of expression but direct communication between artists and their followers. Although stylistic movements were hard to identify, some artists addressed common societal issues, including the broad themes of racism, LGBTQ rights, and climate change .

This article is concerned with the elements and principles of design in painting and with the various mediums, forms, imagery, subject matter, and symbolism employed or adopted or created by the painter. For the history of painting in ancient Egypt , see Egyptian art and architecture . The development of painting in different regions is treated in a number of articles: Western painting ; African art ; Central Asian arts ; Chinese painting ; Islamic arts ; Japanese art ; Korean art ; Native American art ; Oceanic art and architecture ; South Asian arts ; Southeast Asian arts . For the conservation and restoration of paintings, see art conservation and restoration . For a discussion of the forgery of works of art, see forgery . For a discussion of the role of painting and other arts in religion, as well as of the use of religious symbols in art, see religious symbolism and iconography . For information on other arts related to painting, see articles such as drawing ; folk art ; printmaking .

Elements and principles of design

The design of a painting is its visual format: the arrangement of its lines, shapes, colours, tones, and textures into an expressive pattern . It is the sense of inevitability in this formal organization that gives a great painting its self-sufficiency and presence.

The colours and placing of the principal images in a design may be sometimes largely decided by representational and symbolic considerations . Yet it is the formal interplay of colours and shapes that alone is capable of communicating a particular mood, producing optical sensations of space, volume, movement, and light and creating forces of both harmony and tension , even when a painting’s narrative symbolism is obscure.

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

What It Takes to Give a Great Presentation

• Carmine Gallo

Five tips to set yourself apart.

Never underestimate the power of great communication. It can help you land the job of your dreams, attract investors to back your idea, or elevate your stature within your organization. But while there are plenty of good speakers in the world, you can set yourself apart out by being the person who can deliver something great over and over. Here are a few tips for business professionals who want to move from being good speakers to great ones: be concise (the fewer words, the better); never use bullet points (photos and images paired together are more memorable); don’t underestimate the power of your voice (raise and lower it for emphasis); give your audience something extra (unexpected moments will grab their attention); rehearse (the best speakers are the best because they practice — a lot).

I was sitting across the table from a Silicon Valley CEO who had pioneered a technology that touches many of our lives — the flash memory that stores data on smartphones, digital cameras, and computers. He was a frequent guest on CNBC and had been delivering business presentations for at least 20 years before we met. And yet, the CEO wanted to sharpen his public speaking skills.

• Carmine Gallo is a Harvard University instructor, keynote speaker, and author of 10 books translated into 40 languages. Gallo is the author of The Bezos Blueprint: Communication Secrets of the World’s Greatest Salesman  (St. Martin’s Press).

Partner Center

Art Presentation – When Walls Have Meaning

by armandlee | Oct 1, 2015

Art presentation, like other artistic expressions, has become more experimental, more conceptual, more varied, and more personal. Interior design has evolved to meet the emotional and intellectual needs of more educated and worldly clients by challenging convention in the use of space, materials, scale, color, and texture. Personal and public spaces, like everything else, are becoming more interactive. Even traditional environments are filled with eclectic collections from family legacies, world travels, and expressions of personal interest.

As an integral part of interior design, art presentation must work on three dimensions: respecting the art, accessorizing the setting, and reflecting the importance of the art to the owner. Of these three, how the owner feels about the art is the driving force. Custom art presentation, which effectively balances all these considerations, requires an almost infinite assortment of profiles, finishes, and design details.

The Importance of the Art

In cases where the art is seen primarily as an investment, the presentation would be done to preserve and enhance its monetary value. In that case, archival presentation, conserving historic elements where possible, or using period-appropriate, formal presentation techniques would be a likely solution.

However, most important art is not valued primarily as an investment. Most art is used to set a tone and express ideas and feelings that are specific to the owner. Whether it is to evoke a comforting nostalgia, ritualize an event, impart energy or serenity, playfulness, humor, irony, worldly sophistication, personal style, or a simple appreciation of beauty, the presentation can greatly enhance that aspect of the artwork that is important to the owner. Only when the art presentation reinforces the emotional and intellectual relationship between the owner and the art does the presentation ‘feel right.’

Accessorizing the Setting

Where is the art to be displayed and how is it used? Is it in an intimate, personal space? Or will it be displayed in a formal, public one? Is the art to be a central focus, independently adding to the emotional and intellectual quality or the space? Or is it primarily to support the design idea?

Making appropriate framing and art presentation choices requires a close partnership with the designer. Site visits can help the art presenter understand the genre, and get accurate field measurements. Custom finish samples can be prepared to take into the setting or to coordinate with other suppliers. Custom profiles can be created to reference an important shape or pattern. Custom mirror engraving and silvering can be used to help the designer achieve a particular look or mood. Custom hanging methods, including an analysis of the appropriate angle at which to hang, lean, or cant the art of the wall can all influence the impact of the art. For three-dimensional works, cabinet or pedestal designs that complement the art and the setting require the design and fabrication skills of a fine cabinetmaker. The art of presentation is doing whatever it takes to get the details right.

With so many design rules being broken for interest and effect, understanding the underlying design principle for the space in which the artwork will reside is essential for satisfying art presentation. One of the more common design challenges is incorporating contemporary art in a traditional setting, or classic art in a contemporary setting. Frames and presentation treatments that make that transition comfortable frequently have ambiguous references to period design rendered with an unusual finish or a change in scale. The Tulip frame, shown right, combines sleek lines and a silver finish common in contemporary design, with a fluid carved corner detail more common to Art Nouveau. It is appropriate in traditional as well as contemporary settings, used as a mirror or as a complement to art.

Another common role for art is to add drama and formality to an ‘industrial’ or high-tech setting where the finish materials are exposed brick, brushed, rusted or painted steel, or hewn beam. ‘Organic’ finishes over profiles with strong, architectural, and graphic lines are a new formal language for art presentation. For example, the Deco Step frame, shown right, combines geometric forms frequently found in Art Deco design and architecture. The 12K white-gold finish is toned to gives it an organic texture unusual in fine finishes, with the fleeting impression of brushed steel.

The quality of light within the space is also an important consideration. Should UV protective glass be used? Is an independent light source required?

Respecting the Art

After understanding the emotional and physical context for the art, the final presentation decisions are driven by the art itself. Appropriate presentation means respecting the kind and level of detail, the strength of line, the color palette, the subject matter, and the materials used.

Effective presentation of artwork is as much an art as the creation of the art itself. Working knowledge of art history gives the art presenter a context that makes “respecting the art” possible. The eclectic nature of contemporary design requires a balance between convention and novelty. Having trained artists and art historians on staff with expertise in contemporary as well as classical art gives designers the creative resources to break “new ground” in the world of design with confidence.

Articles and Features

A Guide to Abstract Art

By Alice Godwin

From the feverish drips of Jackson Pollock to the geometric shapes of Piet Mondrian, the story of abstract art through Western art history is one filled with twists and turns. Abstraction is one of the myriad styles that make up the landscape of contemporary art . But to understand how abstraction has evolved, it is essential to start from the beginning.

What is Abstract Art?

The definition of this artistic style is rooted in the representation of reality (or lack thereof!). Abstract artists exchange a faithful depiction of the world for a constellation of forms, colors, and gestures that together, conjure an intangible landscape of emotion and sensation.

A Short History of Abstraction

The history of abstract art painting and sculpture is impossible to map as a linear progression. Instead, this dynamic movement has stopped and started, splintered, and sparked entire rebellions against itself.

The Camera & Pioneers of Abstract Art

One of the crucial events in the tale of modern abstract art was the birth of photography in the early 19th century. For the first time, anyone who possessed a camera had the ability to capture the visible world. The function of art was forever changed; artists were no longer the custodians of reality, but explorers, free to tread the unknown paths of form and color with abandon.

J.M.W Turner’s transcendent vistas abstracted land and seascapes into a sublime suggestion of nature. Claude Monet and the Impressionists rebelled against academic painting in pursuit of the effects of light and atmosphere. Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque deconstructed reality by harnessing multiple viewpoints within a single Cubist work of art. Each of these movements paved the way for the eruption of abstraction that would occur in the 20th century, heralded by the crisis of the First World War.

The Early 20th Century Avant-Garde

With the turn of the century, abstraction took its place at the forefront of the avant-garde, challenging the status quo of representational art. In a letter to his gallerist, the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky claimed he had made the first ever abstract picture in 1911. In fact, the Swedish artist Hilma af Klint had beaten him to the punch, making her first radical abstract art paintings in 1906, years before Kandinsky would rid himself of representational content. Af Klint’s beguiling works spoke to a symbolic world of enigmatic forms and colors, which she claimed were inspired by the guiding hands of spirits.

Kazimir Malevich’s The Black Square (1915) epitomized the revolution of abstraction at this moment. With its haunting simplicity, The Black Square marked a return to zero hour and was unveiled at The Last Exhibition of Futurist Painting 0.10 in St. Petersburg as if it were a Russian Orthodox icon. Both Malevich and Kandinsky were pioneers of Non-Objective Art, which was devoid of any reference to the visible world. Piet Mondrian would similarly distill his art into an array of horizontal and vertical lines in primary colors, described as “the plastic expression of true reality.”

The Rise of Abstract Expressionism Art

In the 1940s, another critical language of abstraction appeared in New York City, which shifted the center of the art world’s gravity across the Atlantic. Jackson Pollock , named the greatest living painter in the United States by Life Magazine in 1949, pioneered an explosive method of dripping and splashing paint onto raw canvas laid on the floor. These gestures were an outpouring of the self, filled with poetic spontaneity. Rather than taking inspiration from the forms and hues of nature, Pollock declared: “I am nature.” Pollock and the other titans of Abstract Expressionism —Franz Kline, Arshile Gorky, and Willem de Kooning—gathered nightly at the Cedar Tavern in downtown Manhattan to discuss this new approach to abstraction.

Riotous gestures gave way to a second phase of Abstract Expressionism in the 1950s, which harnessed the expressive potential of color. Helen Frankenthaler’s soak-stain technique of pouring paint over unprimed canvas laid the foundations for a generation of Color Field painters, including Kenneth Noland, Sam Gilliam , and Mark Rothko . These artists conjured magnificent fields of color, in which figure and ground were one. Rothko enveloped the viewer in such an intense encounter with color that his paintings could bring them to tears.

By the 1960s and 1970s, an abstract minimalist art style of purity and order had emerged, rooted in the lessons of Malevich. Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Donald Judd, Frank Stella , and Agnes Martin viewed art as possessing its own reality, rather than imitating another. Amongst the most famous abstract art of this period was Andre’s arrangement of bricks and Flavin’s neon works , as well as Judd’s rectilinear structures.

Abstraction & Contemporary Art

The identity of abstract art has continued to evolve into the 21st century. Artists such as Albert Oehlen and Christopher Wool pull apart the traditions of abstract art and embrace new technologies that test the very boundaries of what a painting can be. The future of abstraction is impossible to predict. But abstract artists will undoubtedly continue to plumb the depths of emotion and experience that lie beyond the visible world.

Collecting Abstract Art

Abstract works of art possess a vast appeal for collectors, who are able to infer their own meanings from their fabric of form and color. From radiant prime tones to the more restrained palettes of black and white, examples of wall abstract art can be found to suit any home decor.

To date, the most expensive painting of abstract art is Willem de Kooning’s Interchange (1955), sold privately in 2015 for $300 million, followed by Jackson Pollock’s Number 17A (1948), which also was sold privately in 2015 for $200 million. The market continues to thrive, as historic abstract artists once overlooked are now brought into the light. Most notably, the works of women and Black artists, have received growing recognition in recent years, including Joan Mitchell , Alma Thomas , Howardena Pindell , Lee Krasner , Stanley Whitney , Frank Bowling , and Jack Whitten . As galleries and auction houses continue to bring abstract art for sale, taste for this pivotal movement in the history of art remains robust.

Relevant sources to learn more

Discover abstract art for sale on Artland

Learn more about the art movements that had a crucial role in the development of abstract art: Symbolism Impressionism Post-Impressionism Fauvism Expressionism Cubism Constructivism Suprematism De Stijl Bauhaus Abstract Expressionism Op Art Minimalism

Keep reading on Artland Magazine Rethinking Abstract Expressionism: read about the Ninth Street Women Line Art. Follow where it leads Learn about Op Art

Wondering where to start?

• Table of Contents
• Random Entry
• Chronological
• Editorial Information
• About the SEP
• Editorial Board
• How to Cite the SEP
• Special Characters
• Advanced Tools
• Support the SEP
• PDFs for SEP Friends
• Make a Donation
• SEPIA for Libraries
• Entry Contents

Bibliography

Academic tools.

• Friends PDF Preview
• Author and Citation Info
• Back to Top

The Definition of Art

The definition of art is controversial in contemporary philosophy. Whether art can be defined has also been a matter of controversy. The philosophical usefulness of a definition of art has also been debated.

Contemporary definitions can be classified with respect to the dimensions of art they emphasize. One distinctively modern, conventionalist, sort of definition focuses on art’s institutional features, emphasizing the way art changes over time, modern works that appear to break radically with all traditional art, the relational properties of artworks that depend on works’ relations to art history, art genres, etc. – more broadly, on the undeniable heterogeneity of the class of artworks. The more traditional, less conventionalist sort of definition defended in contemporary philosophy makes use of a broader, more traditional concept of aesthetic properties that includes more than art-relational ones, and puts more emphasis on art’s pan-cultural and trans-historical characteristics – in sum, on commonalities across the class of artworks. Hybrid definitions aim to do justice to both the traditional aesthetic dimension as well as to the institutional and art-historical dimensions of art, while privileging neither.

1. Constraints on Definitions of Art

2.1 some examples, 3.1 skepticisms inspired by views of concepts, history, marxism, feminism, 3.2 some descendants of skepticism, 4.1 conventionalist definitions: institutional and historical, 4.2 institutional definitions, 4.3 historical definitions.

• 4.4 Functional (mainly aesthetic) definitions

4.5 Hybrid (Disjunctive) Definitions

5. conclusion, other internet resources, related entries.

Any definition of art has to square with the following uncontroversial facts: (i) entities (artifacts or performances) intentionally endowed by their makers with a significant degree of aesthetic interest, often greatly surpassing that of most everyday objects, first appeared hundreds of thousands of years ago and exist in virtually every known human culture (Davies 2012); (ii) such entities are partially comprehensible to cultural outsiders – they are neither opaque nor completely transparent; (iii) such entities sometimes have non-aesthetic – ceremonial or religious or propagandistic – functions, and sometimes do not; (iv) such entities might conceivably be produced by non-human species, terrestrial or otherwise; and it seems at least in principle possible that they be extraspecifically recognizable as such; (v) traditionally, artworks are intentionally endowed by their makers with properties, often sensory, having a significant degree of aesthetic interest, usually surpassing that of most everyday objects; (vi) art’s normative dimension – the high value placed on making and consuming art – appears to be essential to it, and artworks can have considerable moral and political as well as aesthetic power; (vii) the arts are always changing, just as the rest of culture is: as artists experiment creatively, new genres, art-forms, and styles develop; standards of taste and sensibilities evolve; understandings of aesthetic properties, aesthetic experience, and the nature of art evolve; (viii) there are institutions in some but not all cultures which involve a focus on artifacts and performances that have a high degree of aesthetic interest but lack any practical, ceremonial, or religious use; (ix) entities seemingly lacking aesthetic interest, and entities having a high degree of aesthetic interest, are not infrequently grouped together as artworks by such institutions; (x) lots of things besides artworks – for example, natural entities (sunsets, landscapes, flowers, shadows), human beings, and abstract entities (theories, proofs, mathematical entities) – have interesting aesthetic properties.

Of these facts, those having to do with art’s contingent cultural and historical features are emphasized by some definitions of art. Other definitions of art give priority to explaining those facts that reflect art’s universality and continuity with other aesthetic phenomena. Still other definitions attempt to explain both art’s contingent characteristics and its more abiding ones while giving priority to neither.

Two general constraints on definitions are particularly relevant to definitions of art. First, given that accepting that something is inexplicable is generally a philosophical last resort, and granting the importance of extensional adequacy, list-like or enumerative definitions are if possible to be avoided. Enumerative definitions, lacking principles that explain why what is on the list is on the list, don’t, notoriously, apply to definienda that evolve, and provide no clue to the next or general case (Tarski’s definition of truth, for example, is standardly criticized as unenlightening because it rests on a list-like definition of primitive denotation; see Field 1972; Devitt 2001; Davidson 2005). Corollary: when everything else is equal (and it is controversial whether and when that condition is satisfied in the case of definitions of art), non-disjunctive definitions are preferable to disjunctive ones. Second, given that most classes outside of mathematics are vague, and that the existence of borderline cases is characteristic of vague classes, definitions that take the class of artworks to have borderline cases are preferable to definitions that don’t (Davies 1991 and 2006; Stecker 2005).

Whether any definition of art does account for these facts and satisfy these constraints, or could account for these facts and satisfy these constraints, are key questions for aesthetics and the philosophy of art.

2. Definitions From the History of Philosophy

Classical definitions, at least as they are portrayed in contemporary discussions of the definition of art, take artworks to be characterized by a single type of property. The standard candidates are representational properties, expressive properties, and formal properties. So there are representational or mimetic definitions, expressive definitions, and formalist definitions, which hold that artworks are characterized by their possession of, respectively, representational, expressive, and formal properties. It is not difficult to find fault with these simple definitions. For example, possessing representational, expressive, and formal properties cannot be sufficient conditions, since, obviously, instructional manuals are representations, but not typically artworks, human faces and gestures have expressive properties without being works of art, and both natural objects and artifacts produced solely for homely utilitarian purposes have formal properties but are not artworks.

The ease of these dismissals, though, serves as a reminder of the fact that classical definitions of art are significantly less philosophically self-contained or freestanding than are most contemporary definitions of art. Each classical definition stands in close and complicated relationships to its system’s other complexly interwoven parts – epistemology, ontology, value theory, philosophy of mind, etc. Relatedly, great philosophers characteristically analyze the key theoretical components of their definitions of art in distinctive and subtle ways. For these reasons, understanding such definitions in isolation from the systems or corpuses of which they are parts is difficult, and brief summaries are invariably somewhat misleading. Nevertheless, some representative examples of historically influential definitions of art offered by major figures in the history of philosophy should be mentioned.

Plato holds in the Republic and elsewhere that the arts are representational, or mimetic (sometimes translated “imitative”). Artworks are ontologically dependent on, imitations of, and therefore inferior to, ordinary physical objects. Physical objects in turn are ontologically dependent on, and imitations of, and hence inferior to, what is most real, the non-physical unchanging Forms. Grasped perceptually, artworks present only an appearance of an appearance of the Forms, which are grasped by reason alone. Consequently, artistic experience cannot yield knowledge. Nor do the makers of artworks work from knowledge. Because artworks engage an unstable, lower part of the soul, art should be subservient to moral realities, which, along with truth, are more metaphysically fundamental and, properly understood, more humanly important than, beauty. The arts are not, for Plato, the primary sphere in which beauty operates. The Platonic conception of beauty is extremely wide and metaphysical: there is a Form of Beauty, which can only be known non-perceptually, but it is more closely related to the erotic than to the arts. (See Janaway 1998, the entry on Plato’s aesthetics , and the entry on Plato on Rhetoric and Poetry .)

Kant has a definition of art, and of fine art; the latter, which Kant calls the art of genius, is “a kind of representation that is purposive in itself and, though without an end, nevertheless promotes the cultivation of the mental powers for sociable communication” (Kant, Critique of the Power of Judgment , Guyer translation, section 44, 46).) When fully unpacked, the definition has representational, formalist and expressivist elements, and focuses as much on the creative activity of the artistic genius (who, according to Kant, possesses an “innate mental aptitude through which nature gives the rule to art”) as on the artworks produced by that activity. Kant’s aesthetic theory is, for architectonic reasons, not focused on art. Art for Kant falls under the broader topic of aesthetic judgment, which covers judgments of the beautiful, judgments of the sublime, and teleological judgments of natural organisms and of nature itself. So Kant’s definition of art is a relatively small part of his theory of aesthetic judgment. And Kant’s theory of aesthetic judgment is itself situated in a hugely ambitious theoretical structure that, famously, aims, to account for, and work out the interconnections between, scientific knowledge, morality, and religious faith. (See the entry on Kant’s Aesthetics and Teleology and the general entry on Immanuel Kant .)

Hegel’s account of art incorporates his view of beauty; he defines beauty as the sensuous/perceptual appearance or expression of absolute truth. The best artworks convey, by sensory/perceptual means, the deepest metaphysical truth. The deepest metaphysical truth, according to Hegel, is that the universe is the concrete realization of what is conceptual or rational. That is, what is conceptual or rational is real, and is the imminent force that animates and propels the self-consciously developing universe. The universe is the concrete realization of what is conceptual or rational, and the rational or conceptual is superior to the sensory. So, as the mind and its products alone are capable of truth, artistic beauty is metaphysically superior to natural beauty (Hegel, Lectures , [1886, 4]). A central and defining feature of beautiful works of art is that, through the medium of sensation, each one presents the most fundamental values of its civilization. [ 1 ] Art, therefore, as a cultural expression, operates in the same sphere as religion and philosophy, and expresses the same content as they. But art “reveals to consciousness the deepest interests of humanity” in a different manner than do religion and philosophy, because art alone, of the three, works by sensuous means. So, given the superiority of the conceptual to the non-conceptual, and the fact that art’s medium for expressing/presenting culture’s deepest values is the sensual or perceptual, art’s medium is limited and inferior in comparison with the medium that religion uses to express the same content, viz., mental imagery. Art and religion in turn are, in this respect, inferior to philosophy, which employs a conceptual medium to present its content. Art initially predominates, in each civilization, as the supreme mode of cultural expression, followed, successively, by religion and philosophy. Similarly, because the broadly “logical” relations between art, religion and philosophy determine the actual structure of art, religion, and philosophy, and because cultural ideas about what is intrinsically valuable develop from sensuous to non-sensuous conceptions, history is divided into periods that reflect the teleological development from the sensuous to the conceptual. Art in general, too, develops in accord with the historical growth of non-sensuous or conceptual conceptions from sensuous conceptions, and each individual art-form develops historically in the same way (Hegel, Lectures ; Wicks 1993, see also the entries on Hegel and on Hegel’s Aesthetics ).

For treatments of other influential definitions of art, inseparable from the complex philosophical systems or corpuses in which they occur, see, for example, the entries on 18th Century German Aesthetics , Arthur Schopenhauer , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Dewey’s Aesthetics .

3. Skepticism about Definitions of Art

Skeptical doubts about the possibility and value of a definition of art have figured importantly in the discussion in aesthetics since the 1950s, and though their influence has subsided somewhat, uneasiness about the definitional project persists. (See section 4, below, and also Kivy 1997, Brand 2000, and Walton 2007).

A common family of arguments, inspired by Wittgenstein’s famous remarks about games (Wittgenstein 1953), has it that the phenomena of art are, by their nature, too diverse to admit of the unification that a satisfactory definition strives for, or that a definition of art, were there to be such a thing, would exert a stifling influence on artistic creativity. One expression of this impulse is Weitz’s Open Concept Argument: any concept is open if a case can be imagined which would call for some sort of decision on our part to extend the use of the concept to cover it, or to close the concept and invent a new one to deal with the new case; all open concepts are indefinable; and there are cases calling for a decision about whether to extend or close the concept of art. Hence art is indefinable (Weitz 1956). Against this it is claimed that change does not, in general, rule out the preservation of identity over time, that decisions about concept-expansion may be principled rather than capricious, and that nothing bars a definition of art from incorporating a novelty requirement.

A second sort of argument, less common today than in the heyday of a certain form of extreme Wittgensteinianism, urges that the concepts that make up the stuff of most definitions of art (expressiveness, form) are embedded in general philosophical theories which incorporate traditional metaphysics and epistemology. But since traditional metaphysics and epistemology are prime instances of language gone on conceptually confused holiday, definitions of art share in the conceptual confusions of traditional philosophy (Tilghman 1984).

A third sort of argument, more historically inflected than the first, takes off from an influential study by the historian of philosophy Paul Kristeller, in which he argued that the modern system of the five major arts [painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, and music] which underlies all modern aesthetics … is of comparatively recent origin and did not assume definite shape before the eighteenth century, although it had many ingredients which go back to classical, mediaeval, and Renaissance thought. (Kristeller, 1951) Since that list of five arts is somewhat arbitrary, and since even those five do not share a single common nature, but rather are united, at best, only by several overlapping features, and since the number of art forms has increased since the eighteenth century, Kristeller’s work may be taken to suggest that our concept of art differs from that of the eighteenth century. As a matter of historical fact, there simply is no stable definiendum for a definition of art to capture.

A fourth sort of argument suggests that a definition of art stating individually necessary and jointly sufficient conditions for a thing to be an artwork, is likely to be discoverable only if cognitive science makes it plausible to think that humans categorize things in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions. But, the argument continues, cognitive science actually supports the view that the structure of concepts mirrors the way humans categorize things – which is with respect to their similarity to prototypes (or exemplars), and not in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions. So the quest for a definition of art that states individually necessary and jointly sufficient conditions is misguided and not likely to succeed (Dean 2003). Against this it has been urged that psychological theories of concepts like the prototype theory and its relatives can provide at best an account of how people in fact classify things, but not an account of correct classifications of extra-psychological phenomena, and that, even if relevant, prototype theory and other psychological theories of concepts are at present too controversial to draw substantive philosophical morals from (Rey 1983; Adajian 2005).

A fifth argument against defining art, with a normative tinge that is psychologistic rather than sociopolitical, takes the fact that there is no philosophical consensus about the definition of art as reason to hold that no unitary concept of art exists. Concepts of art, like all concepts, after all, should be used for the purpose(s) they best serve. But not all concepts of art serve all purposes equally well. So not all art concepts should be used for the same purposes. Art should be defined only if there is a unitary concept of art that serves all of art’s various purposes – historical, conventional, aesthetic, appreciative, communicative, and so on. So, since there is no purpose-independent use of the concept of art, art should not be defined (Mag Uidhir and Magnus 2011; cf. Meskin 2008). In response, it is noted that some account of what makes various concepts of art concepts of art is still required; this leaves open the possibility of some degree of unity beneath the apparent multiplicity. The fact (if it is one) that different concepts of art are used for different purposes does not itself imply that they are not connected in ordered, to-some-degree systematic ways. The relation between (say) the historical concept of art and the appreciative concept of art is not an accidental, unsystematic relation, like that between river banks and savings banks, but is something like the relation between Socrates’ healthiness and the healthiness of Socrates’ diet. That is, it is not evident that there exist a mere arbitrary heap or disjunction of art concepts, constituting an unsystematic patchwork. Perhaps there is a single concept of art with different facets that interlock in an ordered way, or else a multiplicity of concepts that constitute a unity because one is at the core, and the others depend asymmetrically on it. (The last is an instance of core-dependent homonymy; see the entry on Aristotle , section on Essentialism and Homonymy.) Multiplicity alone doesn’t entail pluralism.

A sixth, broadly Marxian sort of objection rejects the project of defining art as an unwitting (and confused) expression of a harmful ideology. On this view, the search for a definition of art presupposes, wrongly, that the concept of the aesthetic is a creditable one. But since the concept of the aesthetic necessarily involves the equally bankrupt concept of disinterestedness, its use advances the illusion that what is most real about things can and should be grasped or contemplated without attending to the social and economic conditions of their production. Definitions of art, consequently, spuriously confer ontological dignity and respectability on social phenomena that probably in fact call more properly for rigorous social criticism and change. Their real function is ideological, not philosophical (Eagleton 1990).

Seventh, the members of a complex of skeptically-flavored arguments, from feminist philosophy of art, begin with premises to the effect that art and art-related concepts and practices have been systematically skewed by sex or gender. Such premises are supported by a variety of considerations. (a) The artworks the Western artistic canon recognizes as great are dominated by male-centered perspectives and stereotypes, and almost all the artists the canon recognizes as great are men – unsurprisingly, given economic, social, and institutional impediments that prevented women from making art at all. Moreover, the concept of genius developed historically in such a way as to exclude women artists (Battersby, 1989, Korsmeyer 2004). (b) The fine arts’ focus on purely aesthetic, non-utilitarian value resulted in the marginalization as mere “crafts” of items of considerable aesthetic interest made and used by women for domestic practical purposes. Moreover, because all aesthetic judgments are situated and particular, there can be no such thing as disinterested taste. If there is no such thing as disinterested taste, then it is hard to see how there could be universal standards of aesthetic excellence. The non-existence of universal standards of aesthetic excellence undermines the idea of an artistic canon (and with it the project of defining art). Art as historically constituted, and art-related practices and concepts, then, reflect views and practices that presuppose and perpetuate the subordination of women. The data that definitions of art are supposed to explain are biased, corrupt and incomplete. As a consequence, present definitions of art, incorporating or presupposing as they do a framework that incorporates a history of systematically biased, hierarchical, fragmentary, and mistaken understandings of art and art-related phenomena and concepts, may be so androcentric as to be untenable. Some theorists have suggested that different genders have systematically unique artistic styles, methods, or modes of appreciating and valuing art. If so, then a separate canon and gynocentric definitions of art are indicated (Battersby 1989, Frueh 1991). In any case, in the face of these facts, the project of defining art in anything like the traditional way is to be regarded with suspicion (Brand, 2000).

An eighth argument sort of skeptical argument concludes that, insofar as almost all contemporary definitions foreground the nature of art works , rather than the individual arts to which (most? all?) artworks belong, they are philosophically unproductive (Lopes, 2014). [ 2 ] The grounds for this conclusion concern disagreements among standard definitions as to the artistic status of entities whose status is for theoretical reasons unclear – e.g., things like ordinary bottleracks (Duchamp’s Bottlerack ) and silence (John Cage’s 4′33″ ). If these hard cases are artworks, what makes them so, given their apparent lack of any of the traditional properties of artworks? Are, they, at best, marginal cases? On the other hand, if they are not artworks, then why have generations of experts – art historians, critics, and collectors – classified them as such? And to whom else should one look to determine the true nature of art? (There are, it is claimed, few or no empirical studies of art full stop, though empirical studies of the individual arts abound.) Such disputes inevitably end in stalemate. Stalemate results because (a) standard artwork-focused definitions of art endorse different criteria of theory choice, and (b) on the basis of their preferred criteria, appeal to incompatible intuitions about the status of such theoretically-vexed cases. In consequence, disagreements between standard definitions of art that foreground artworks are unresolvable. To avoid this stalemate, an alternative definitional strategy that foregrounds the arts rather than individual artworks, is indicated. (See section 4.5.)

Philosophers influenced by the moderate Wittgensteinian strictures discussed above have offered family resemblance accounts of art, which, as they purport to be non-definitions, may be usefully considered at this point. Two species of family resemblance views will be considered: the resemblance-to-a-paradigm version, and the cluster version.

On the resemblance-to-a-paradigm version, something is, or is identifiable as, an artwork if it resembles, in the right way, certain paradigm artworks, which possess most although not necessarily all of art’s typical features. (The “is identifiable” qualification is intended to make the family resemblance view something more epistemological than a definition, although it is unclear that this really avoids a commitment to constitutive claims about art’s nature.) Against this view: since things do not resemble each other simpliciter , but only in at least one respect or other, the account is either far too inclusive, since everything resembles everything else in some respect or other, or, if the variety of resemblance is specified, tantamount to a definition, since resemblance in that respect will be either a necessary or sufficient condition for being an artwork. The family resemblance view raises questions, moreover, about the membership and unity of the class of paradigm artworks. If the account lacks an explanation of why some items and not others go on the list of paradigm works, it seems explanatorily deficient. But if it includes a principle that governs membership on the list, or if expertise is required to constitute the list, then the principle, or whatever properties the experts’ judgments track, seem to be doing the philosophical work.

The cluster version of the family resemblance view has been defended by a number of philosophers (Bond 1975, Dissanayake 1990, Dutton 2006, Gaut 2000). The view typically provides a list of properties, no one of which is a necessary condition for being a work of art, but which are jointly sufficient for being a work of art, and which is such that at least one proper subset thereof is sufficient for being a work of art. Lists offered vary, but overlap considerably. Here is one, due to Gaut: (1) possessing positive aesthetic properties; (2) being expressive of emotion; (3) being intellectually challenging; (4) being formally complex and coherent; (5) having the capacity to convey complex meanings; (6) exhibiting an individual point of view; (7) being original; (8) being an artifact or performance which is the product of a high degree of skill; (9) belonging to an established artistic form; (10) being the product of an intention to make a work of art (Gaut 2000). The cluster account has been criticized on several grounds. First, given its logical structure, it is in fact equivalent to a long, complicated, but finite, disjunction, which makes it difficult to see why it isn’t a definition (Davies 2006). Second, if the list of properties is incomplete, as some cluster theorists hold, then some justification or principle would be needed for extending it. Third, the inclusion of the ninth property on the list, belonging to an established art form , seems to regenerate (or duck), rather than answer, the definitional question. Finally, it is worth noting that, although cluster theorists stress what they take to be the motley heterogeneity of the class of artworks, they tend with surprising regularity to tacitly give the aesthetic a special, perhaps unifying, status among the properties they put forward as merely disjunctive. One cluster theorist, for example, gives a list very similar to the one discussed above (it includes representational properties, expressiveness, creativity, exhibiting a high degree of skill, belonging to an established artform), but omits aesthetic properties on the grounds that it is the combination of the other items on the list which, combined in the experience of the work of art, are precisely the aesthetic qualities of the work (Dutton 2006). Gaut, whose list is cited above, includes aesthetic properties as a separate item on the list, but construes them very narrowly; the difference between these ways of formulating the cluster view appears to be mainly nominal. And an earlier cluster theorist defines artworks as all and only those things that belong to any instantiation of an artform, offers a list of seven properties all of which together are intended to capture the core of what it is to be an artform, though none is either necessary or sufficient, and then claims that having aesthetic value (of the same sort as mountains, sunsets, mathematical theorems) is “what art is for ” (Bond 1975).

4. Contemporary Definitions

Definitions of art attempt to make sense of two different sorts of facts: art has important historically contingent cultural features, as well as trans-historical, pan-cultural characteristics that point in the direction of a relatively stable aesthetic core. (Theorists who regard art as an invention of eighteenth-century Europe will, of course, regard this way of putting the matter as tendentious, on the grounds that entities produced outside that culturally distinctive institution do not fall under the extension of “art” and hence are irrelevant to the art-defining project (Shiner 2001). Whether the concept of art is precise enough to justify this much confidence about what falls under its extension claim is unclear.) Conventionalist definitions take art’s contingent cultural features to be explanatorily fundamental, and aim to capture the phenomena – revolutionary modern art, the traditional close connection of art with the aesthetic, the possibility of autonomous art traditions, etc. – in social/historical terms. Classically-flavored or traditional definitions (also sometimes called “functionalist”) definitions reverse this explanatory order. Such classically-flavored definitions take traditional concepts like the aesthetic (or allied concepts like the formal, or the expressive) as basic, and aim to account for the phenomena by making those concepts harder – for example, by endorsing a concept of the aesthetic rich enough to include non-perceptual properties, or by attempting an integration of those concepts (e.g., Eldridge, section 4.4 below) .

Conventionalist definitions deny that art has essential connection to aesthetic properties, or to formal properties, or to expressive properties, or to any type of property taken by traditional definitions to be essential to art. Conventionalist definitions have been strongly influenced by the emergence, in the twentieth century, of artworks that seem to differ radically from all previous artworks. Avant-garde works like Marcel Duchamp’s “ready-mades” – ordinary unaltered objects like snow-shovels ( In Advance of the Broken Arm ) and bottle-racks – conceptual works like Robert Barry’s All the things I know but of which I am not at the moment thinking – 1:36 PM; June 15, 1969 , and John Cage’s 4′33″ , have seemed to many philosophers to lack or even, somehow, repudiate, the traditional properties of art: intended aesthetic interest, artifactuality, even perceivability. Conventionalist definitions have also been strongly influenced by the work of a number of historically-minded philosophers, who have documented the rise and development of modern ideas of the fine arts, the individual arts, the work of art, and the aesthetic (Kristeller, Shiner, Carroll, Goehr, Kivy).

Conventionalist definitions come in two varieties, institutional and historical. Institutionalist conventionalism, or institutionalism, a synchronic view, typically hold that to be a work of art is to be an artifact of a kind created, by an artist, to be presented to an artworld public (Dickie 1984). Historical conventionalism, a diachronic view, holds that artworks necessarily stand in an art-historical relation to some set of earlier artworks.

The groundwork for institutional definitions was laid by Arthur Danto, better known to non-philosophers as the long-time influential art critic for the Nation . Danto coined the term “artworld”, by which he meant “an atmosphere of art theory.” Danto’s definition has been glossed as follows: something is a work of art if and only if (i) it has a subject (ii) about which it projects some attitude or point of view (has a style) (iii) by means of rhetorical ellipsis (usually metaphorical) which ellipsis engages audience participation in filling in what is missing, and (iv) where the work in question and the interpretations thereof require an art historical context (Danto, Carroll). Clause (iv) is what makes the definition institutionalist. The view has been criticized for entailing that art criticism written in a highly rhetorical style is art, lacking but requiring an independent account of what makes a context art historical , and for not applying to music.

The most prominent and influential institutionalism is that of George Dickie. Dickie’s institutionalism has evolved over time. According to an early version, a work of art is an artifact upon which some person(s) acting on behalf of the artworld has conferred the status of candidate for appreciation (Dickie 1974). Dickie’s more recent version consists of an interlocking set of five definitions: (1) An artist is a person who participates with understanding in the making of a work of art. (2) A work of art is an artifact of a kind created to be presented to an artworld public. (3) A public is a set of persons the members of which are prepared in some degree to understand an object which is presented to them. (4) The artworld is the totality of all artworld systems. (5) An artworld system is a framework for the presentation of a work of art by an artist to an artworld public (Dickie 1984). Both versions have been widely criticized. Philosophers have objected that art created outside any institution seems possible, although the definition rules it out, and that the artworld, like any institution, seems capable of error. It has also been urged that the definition’s obvious circularity is vicious, and that, given the inter-definition of the key concepts (artwork, artworld system, artist, artworld public) it lacks any informative way of distinguishing art institutions systems from other, structurally similar, social institutions (D. Davies 2004, pp. 248–249, notes that both the artworld and the “commerceworld” seem to fall under that definition). Early on, Dickie claimed that anyone who sees herself as a member of the artworld is a member of the artworld: if this is true, then unless there are constraints on the kinds of things the artworld can put forward as artworks or candidate artworks, any entity can be an artwork (though not all are), which appears overly expansive. Finally, Matravers has helpfully distinguished strong and weak institutionalism. Strong institutionalism holds that there is some reason that is always the reason the art institution has for saying that something is a work of art. Weak institutionalism holds that, for every work of art, there is some reason or other that the institution has for saying that it is a work of art (Matravers 2000). Weak institutionalism, in particular, raises questions about art’s unity: if absolutely nothing unifies the reasons that the artworld gives for conferring art-hood on things, then the unity of the class of artworks is vanishingly small. Conventionalist views, with their emphasis on art’s heterogeneity, swallow this implication. From the perspective of traditional definitions, doings so underplays art’s substantial if incomplete unity, while leaving it a puzzle why art would be worth caring about.

Some recent versions of institutionalism depart from Dickie’s by accepting the burden, which Dickie rejected, of providing a substantive, non-circular account of what it is to be an art institution or an artworld. One, due to David Davies, does so by building in Nelson Goodman’s account of aesthetic symbolic functions. Another, due to Abell, combines Searle’s account of social institutions with Gaut’s characterization of art-making properties, and builds an account of artistic value on that coupling.

Davies’ neo-institutionalism holds that making an artwork requires articulating an artistic statement, which requires specifying artistic properties, which in turn requires the manipulation of an artistic vehicle. Goodman’s “symptoms of the aesthetic” are utilized to clarify the conditions under which a practice of making is a practice of artistic making: on Goodman’s view, a symbol functions aesthetically when it is syntactically dense, semantically dense, relatively replete, and characterized by multiple and complex reference (D. Davies 2004; Goodman 1968; see the entry on Goodman’s aesthetics ). Manipulating an artistic vehicle is in turn possible only if the artist consciously operates with reference to shared understandings embodied in the practices of a community of receivers. So art’s nature is institutional in the broad sense (or, perhaps better, socio-cultural). By way of criticism, Davies’ neo-institutionalism may be questioned on the grounds that, since all pictorial symbols are syntactically dense, semantically dense, relatively replete, and often exemplify the properties they represent, it seems to entail that every colored picture, including those in any catalog of industrial products, is an artwork (Abell 2012).

Abell’s institutional definition adapts Searle’s view of social kinds: what it is for some social kind, F , to be F is for it to be collectively believed to be F (Abell 2012; Searle 1995, 2010; and see the entry on social institutions ). On Abell’s view, more specifically, an institution’s type is determined by the valued function(s) that it was collectively believed at its inception to promote. The valued functions collective belief in which make an institution an art institution are those spelled out by Gaut in his cluster account (see section 3.1, above). That is, something is an art institution if and only if it is an institution whose existence is due to its being perceived to perform certain functions, which functions form a significant subset of the following: promoting positive aesthetic qualities; promoting the expression of emotion; facilitating the posing of intellectual challenges, and the rest of Gaut’s list. Plugging in Gaut’s list yields the final definition: something is an artwork if and only if it is the product of an art institution (as just defined) and it directly effects the effectiveness with which that institution performs the perceived functions to which its existence is due. One worry is whether Searle’s account of institutions is up to the task required of it. Some institutional social kinds have this trait: something can fail to be a token of that kind even if there is collective agreement that it counts as a token of that kind. Suppose someone gives a big cocktail party, to which everyone in Paris invited, and things get so out of hand that the casualty rate is greater than the Battle of Austerlitz. Even if everyone thinks the event was a cocktail party, it is possible (contrary to Searle) that they are mistaken: it may have been a war or battle. It’s not clear that art isn’t like this. If so, then the fact that an institution is collectively believed to be an art institution needn’t suffice to make it so (Khalidi 2013; see also the entry on social institutions ). [ 3 ] A second worry: if its failure to specify which subsets of the ten cluster properties suffice to make something an artwork significantly flaws Gaut’s cluster account, then failure to specify which subsets of Gaut’s ten properties suffice to make something an art institution significantly flaws Abellian institutionalism.

Historical definitions hold that what characterizes artworks is standing in some specified art-historical relation to some specified earlier artworks, and disavow any commitment to a trans-historical concept of art, or the “artish.” Historical definitions come in several varieties. All of them are, or resemble, inductive definitions: they claim that certain entities belong unconditionally to the class of artworks, while others do so because they stand in the appropriate relations thereto. According to the best known version, Levinson’s intentional-historical definition, an artwork is a thing that has been seriously intended for regard in any way preexisting or prior artworks are or were correctly regarded (Levinson 1990). A second version, historical narrativism, comes in several varieties. On one, a sufficient but not necessary condition for the identification of a candidate as a work of art is the construction of a true historical narrative according to which the candidate was created by an artist in an artistic context with a recognized and live artistic motivation, and as a result of being so created, it resembles at least one acknowledged artwork (Carroll 1993). On another, more ambitious and overtly nominalistic version of historical narrativism, something is an artwork if and only if (1) there are internal historical relations between it and already established artworks; (2) these relations are correctly identified in a narrative; and (3) that narrative is accepted by the relevant experts. The experts do not detect that certain entities are artworks; rather, the fact that the experts assert that certain properties are significant in particular cases is constitutive of art (Stock 2003).

The similarity of these views to institutionalism is obvious, and the criticisms offered parallel those urged against institutionalism. First, historical definitions appear to require, but lack, any informative characterization of art traditions (art functions, artistic contexts, etc.) and hence any way of informatively distinguishing them (and likewise art functions, or artistic predecessors) from non -art traditions (non-art functions, non-artistic predecessors). Correlatively, non-Western art, or alien, autonomous art of any kind appears to pose a problem for historical views: any autonomous art tradition or artworks – terrestrial, extra-terrestrial, or merely possible – causally isolated from our art tradition, is either ruled out by the definition, which seems to be a reductio , or included, which concedes the existence of a supra-historical concept of art. So, too, there could be entities that for adventitious reasons are not correctly identified in historical narratives, although in actual fact they stand in relations to established artworks that make them correctly describable in narratives of the appropriate sort. Historical definitions entail that such entities aren’t artworks, but it seems at least as plausible to say that they are artworks that are not identified as such. Second, historical definitions also require, but do not provide a satisfactory, informative account of the basis case – the first artworks, or ur-artworks, in the case of the intentional-historical definitions, or the first or central art-forms, in the case of historical functionalism. Third, nominalistic historical definitions seem to face a version of the Euthyphro dilemma. For either such definitions include substantive characterizations of what it is to be an expert, or they don’t. If, on one hand, they include no characterization of what it is to be an expert, and hence no explanation as to why the list of experts contains the people it does, then they imply that what makes things artworks is inexplicable. On the other hand, suppose such definitions provide a substantive account of what it is to be an expert, so that to be an expert is to possess some ability lacked by non-experts (taste, say) in virtue of the possession of which they are able to discern historical connections between established artworks and candidate artworks. Then the definition’s claim to be interestingly historical is questionable, because it makes art status a function of whatever ability it is that permits experts to discern the art-making properties.

Defenders of historical definitions have replies. First, as regards autonomous art traditions, it can be held that anything we would recognize as an art tradition or an artistic practice would display aesthetic concerns, because aesthetic concerns have been central from the start, and persisted centrally for thousands of years, in the Western art tradition. Hence it is an historical, not a conceptual truth that anything we recognize as an art practice will centrally involve the aesthetic; it is just that aesthetic concerns that have always dominated our art tradition (Levinson 2002). The idea here is that if the reason that anything we’d take to be a Φ-tradition would have Ψ-concerns is that our Φ-tradition has focused on Ψ-concerns since its inception, then it is not essential to Φ-traditions that they have Ψ-concerns, and Φ is a purely historical concept . But this principle entails, implausibly, that every concept is purely historical. Suppose that we discovered a new civilization whose inhabitants could predict how the physical world works with great precision, on the basis of a substantial body of empirically acquired knowledge that they had accumulated over centuries. The reason we would credit them with having a scientific tradition might well be that our own scientific tradition has since its inception focused on explaining things. It does not seem to follow that science is a purely historical concept with no essential connection to explanatory aims. (Other theorists hold that it is historically necessary that art begins with the aesthetic, but deny that art’s nature is to be defined in terms of its historical unfolding (Davies 1997).) Second, as to the first artworks, or the central art-forms or functions, some theorists hold that an account of them can only take the form of an enumeration. Stecker takes this approach: he says that the account of what makes something a central art form at a given time is, at its core, institutional, and that the central artforms can only be listed (Stecker 1997 and 2005). Whether relocating the list at a different, albeit deeper, level in the definition renders the definition sufficiently informative is an open question. Third, as to the Euthyphro -style dilemma, it might be held that the categorial distinction between artworks and “mere real things” (Danto 1981) explains the distinction between experts and non-experts. Experts are able, it is said, to create new categories of art. When created, new categories bring with them new universes of discourse. New universes of discourse in turn make reasons available that otherwise would not be available. Hence, on this view, it is both the case that the experts’ say-so alone suffices to make mere real things into artworks, and also true that experts’ conferrals of art-status have reasons (McFee 2011).

4.4 Traditional (mainly aesthetic) definitions

Traditional definitions take some function(s) or intended function(s) to be definitive of artworks. Here only aesthetic definitions, which connect art essentially with the aesthetic – aesthetic judgments, experience, or properties – will be considered. Different aesthetic definitions incorporate different views of aesthetic properties and judgments. See the entry on aesthetic judgment .

As noted above, some philosophers lean heavily on a distinction between aesthetic properties and artistic properties, taking the former to be perceptually striking qualities that can be directly perceived in works, without knowledge of their origin and purpose, and the latter to be relational properties that works possess in virtue of their relations to art history, art genres, etc. It is also, of course, possible to hold a less restrictive view of aesthetic properties, on which aesthetic properties need not be perceptual; on this broader view, it is unnecessary to deny what it seems pointless to deny, that abstracta like mathematical entities and scientific laws possess aesthetic properties.)

Monroe Beardsley’s definition holds that an artwork: “either an arrangement of conditions intended to be capable of affording an experience with marked aesthetic character or (incidentally) an arrangement belonging to a class or type of arrangements that is typically intended to have this capacity” (Beardsley 1982, 299). (For more on Beardsley, see the entry on Beardsley’s aesthetics .) Beardsley’s conception of aesthetic experience is Deweyan: aesthetic experiences are experiences that are complete, unified, intense experiences of the way things appear to us, and are, moreover, experiences which are controlled by the things experienced (see the entry on Dewey’s aesthetics ). Zangwill’s aesthetic definition of art says that something is a work of art if and only if someone had an insight that certain aesthetic properties would be determined by certain nonaesthetic properties, and for this reason the thing was intentionally endowed with the aesthetic properties in virtue of the nonaesthetic properties as envisaged in the insight (Zangwill 1995a,b). Aesthetic properties for Zangwill are those judgments that are the subject of “verdictive aesthetic judgments” (judgements of beauty and ugliness) and “substantive aesthetic judgements” (e.g., of daintiness, elegance, delicacy, etc.). The latter are ways of being beautiful or ugly; aesthetic in virtue of a special close relation to verdictive judgments, which are subjectively universal. Other aesthetic definitions build in different accounts of the aesthetic. Eldridge’s aesthetic definition holds that the satisfying appropriateness to one another of a thing’s form and content is the aesthetic quality possession of which is necessary and sufficient for a thing’s being art (Eldridge 1985). Or one might define aesthetic properties as those having an evaluative component, whose perception involves the perception of certain formal base properties, such as shape and color (De Clercq 2002), and construct an aesthetic definition incorporating that view.

Views which combine features of institutional and aesthetic definitions also exist. Iseminger, for example, builds a definition on an account of appreciation, on which to appreciate a thing’s being F is to find experiencing its being F to be valuable in itself, and an account of aesthetic communication (which it is the function of the artworld to promote) (Iseminger 2004).

Aesthetic definitions have been criticized for being both too narrow and too broad. They are held to be too narrow because they are unable to cover influential modern works like Duchamp’s ready-mades and conceptual works like Robert Barry’s All the things I know but of which I am not at the moment thinking – 1:36 PM; June 15, 1969 , which appear to lack aesthetic properties. (Duchamp famously asserted that his urinal, Fountain , was selected for its lack of aesthetic features.) Aesthetic definitions are held to be too broad because beautifully designed automobiles, neatly manicured lawns, and products of commercial design are often created with the intention of being objects of aesthetic appreciation, but are not artworks. Moreover, aesthetic views have been held to have trouble making sense of bad art (see Dickie 2001; Davies 2006, p. 37). Finally, more radical doubts about aesthetic definitions center on the intelligibility and usefulness of the aesthetic. Beardsley’s view, for example, has been criticized by Dickie, who has also offered influential criticisms of the idea of an aesthetic attitude (Dickie 1965, Cohen 1973, Kivy 1975).

To these criticisms several responses have been offered. First, the less restrictive conception of aesthetic properties mentioned above, on which they may be based on non-perceptual formal properties, can be deployed. On this view, conceptual works would have aesthetic features, much the same way that mathematical entities are often claimed to (Shelley 2003, Carroll 2004). Second, a distinction may be drawn between time-sensitive properties, whose standard observation conditions include an essential reference to the temporal location of the observer, and non-time-sensitive properties, which do not. Higher-order aesthetic properties like drama, humor, and irony, which account for a significant part of the appeal of Duchamp’s and Cage’s works, on this view, would derive from time-sensitive properties (Zemach 1997). Third, it might be held that it is the creative act of presenting something that is in the relevant sense unfamiliar, into a new context, the artworld, which has aesthetic properties. Or, fourth, it might be held that (Zangwill’s “second-order” strategy) works like ready-mades lack aesthetic functions, but are parasitic upon, because meant to be considered in the context of, works that do have aesthetic functions, and therefore constitute marginal borderline cases of art that do not merit the theoretical primacy they are often given. Finally, it can be flatly denied that the ready-mades were works of art (Beardsley 1982).

As to the over-inclusiveness of aesthetic definitions, a distinction might be drawn between primary and secondary functions. Or it may be maintained that some cars, lawns, and products of industrial design are on the art/non-art borderline, and so don’t constitute clear and decisive counter-examples. Or, if the claim that aesthetic theories fail to account for bad art depends on holding that some works have absolutely no aesthetic value whatsoever, as opposed to some non-zero amount, however infinitesimal, it may be wondered what justifies that assumption.

Hybrid definitions characteristically disjoin at least one institutional component with at least one aesthetic component, aiming thereby to accommodate both more traditional art and avant-garde art that appears to lack any significant aesthetic dimension. (Such definitions could also be classified as institutional, on the grounds that they make provenance sufficient for being a work of art.) Hence they inherit a feature of conventionalist definitions: in appealing to art institutions, artworlds, arts, art functions, and so on, they either include substantive accounts of what it is to be an art institution/world/genre/-form/function, or are uninformatively circular.

One such disjunctive definition, Longworth and Scarantino’s, adapts Gaut’s list of ten clustering properties, where that list (see 3.5 above) includes institutional properties (e.g., belonging to an established art form) and traditional ones (e.g., possessing positive aesthetic properties); see also Longworth and Scarantino 2010. The core idea is that art is defined by a disjunction of minimally sufficient and disjunctively necessary conditions; to say that a disjunct is a minimally sufficient constitutive condition for art-hood, is to say that every proper subset of it is insufficient for art-hood. An account of what it is for a concept to have disjunctive defining conditions is also supplied. The definition of art itself is as follows: ∃ Z ∃ Y (Art iff ( Z ∨ Y )), where (a) Z and Y , formed from properties on Gaut’s cluster list, are either non-empty conjunctions or non-empty disjunctions of conjunctions or individual properties; (b) there is some indeterminacy over exactly which disjuncts are sufficient; (c) Z does not entail Y and Y does not entail Z ; (d) Z does not entail Art and Y does not entail Art. Instantiation of either Z or Y suffices for art-hood; something can be art only if at least one of Z , Y is instantiated; and the third condition is included to prevent the definition from collapsing into a classical one. The account of what it is for concept C to have disjunctive defining conditions is as follows: C iff ( Z ∨ Y ), where (i) Z and Y are non-empty conjunctions or non-empty disjunctions of conjunctions or individual properties; (ii) Z does not entail Y and Y does not entail Z ; (iii) Z does not entail C and Y does not entail C. A worry concerns condition (iii): as written, it seems to render the account of disjunctive defining conditions self-contradictory. For if Z and Y are each minimally sufficient for C , it is impossible that Z does not entail C and that Y does not entail C . If so, then nothing can satisfy the conditions said to be necessary and sufficient for a concept to have disjunctive defining conditions.

A second disjunctive hybrid definition, with an historical cast, Robert Stecker’s historical functionalism, holds that an item is an artwork at time t , where t is not earlier than the time at which the item is made, if and only if it is in one of the central art forms at t and is made with the intention of fulfilling a function art has at t or it is an artifact that achieves excellence in achieving such a function (Stecker 2005). A question for Stecker’s view is whether or not it provides an adequate account of what it is for a function to be an art function, and whether, consequently, it can accommodate anti-aesthetic or non-aesthetic art. The grounds given for thinking that it can are that, while art’s original functions were aesthetic, those functions, and the intentions with which art is made, can change in unforeseeable ways. Moreover, aesthetic properties are not always preeminent in art’s predecessor concepts (Stecker 2000). A worry is that if the operative assumption is that if x belongs to a predecessor tradition of T then x belongs to T , the possibility is not ruled out that if, for example, the tradition of magic is a predecessor tradition of the scientific tradition, then entities that belong to the magic tradition but lacking any of the standard hallmarks of science are scientific entities.

A third hybrid definition, also disjunctive, is the cladistic definition defended by Stephen Davies. who holds that something is art (a) if it shows excellence of skill and achievement in realizing significant aesthetic goals, and either doing so is its primary, identifying function or doing so makes a vital contribution to the realization of its primary, identifying function, or (b) if it falls under an art genre or art form established and publicly recognized within an art tradition, or (c) if it is intended by its maker/presenter to be art and its maker/presenter does what is necessary and appropriate to realizing that intention (Davies, 2015). (In biology, a clade is a segment in the tree of life: a group of organisms and the common ancestor they share.) Artworlds are to be characterized in terms of their origins: they begin with prehistoric art ancestors, and grow into artworlds. Hence all artworks occupy a line of descent from their prehistoric art ancestors; that line of descent comprises an art tradition that grows into an artworld. So the definition is bottom-up and resolutely anthropocentric. A worry: the view seems to entail that art traditions can undergo any changes whatsoever and remain art traditions, since, no matter how distant, every occupant of the right line of descent is part of the art tradition. This seems to amount to saying that as long as they remain traditions at all, art traditions cannot die. Whether art is immortal in this sense seems open to question. A second worry is that the requirement that every art tradition and artworld stand in some line of descent from prehistoric humanoids makes it in principle impossible for any nonhuman species to make art, as long as that species fails to occupy the right location in the tree of life. While the epistemological challenges that identifying artworks made by nonhumans might pose could be very considerable, this consequence of the cladistic definition’s emphasis on lineage rather than traits raises a concern about excessively insularity.

A fourth hybrid definition is the “buck-passing” view of Lopes, which attempts an escape from the stalemate between artwork-focused definitions over avant-garde anti-aesthetic cases by adopting a strategy that shifts the focus of the definition of art away from artworks. The strategy is to recenter philosophical efforts on different problems, which require attention anyway: (a) the problem of giving an account of each individual art, and (b) the problem of defining what it is to be an art, the latter by giving an account of the larger class of normative/appreciative kinds to which the arts (and some non-arts) belong. For, given definitions of the individual arts, and a definition of what it is to be an art, if every artwork belongs to at least one art (if it belongs to no existing art, then it pioneers a new art), then a definition of artwork falls out: x is a work of art if and only if x is a work of K, where K is an art (Lopes 2014). When fully spelled out, the definition is disjunctive: x is a work of art if and only if x is a work belonging to art 1 or x is a work belonging to art 2 or x is a work belonging to art 3 …. Most of the explanatory work is done by the theories of the individual arts, since, given the assumption that every artwork belongs to at least one art, possession of theories of the individual arts would be necessary and sufficient for settling the artistic or non-artistic status of any hard case, once it is determined what art a given work belongs to. As to what makes a practice an art, Lopes’ preferred answer seems to be institutionalism of a Dickiean variety: an art is an institution in which artists (persons who participate with understanding in the making of artworks) make artworks to be presented to an artworld public. (Lopes 2014, Dickie 1984) Thus, on this view, it is arbitrary which activities are artworld systems: there is no deeper answer to the question of what makes music an art than that it has the right institutional structure. [ 4 ] So it is arbitrary which activities are arts. Two worries. First, the key claim that every work of art belonging to no extant art pioneers a new art may be defended on the grounds that any reason to say that a work belonging to no extant artform is an artwork is a reason to say that it pioneers a new artform. In response, it is noted that the question of whether or not a thing belongs to an art arises only when, and because, there is a prior reason for thinking that the thing is an artwork. So it seems that what it is to be an artwork is prior, in some sense, to what it is to be an art. Second, on the buck-passing theory’s institutional theory of the arts, which activities are arts is arbitrary. This raises a version of the question that was raised about the cladistic definition’s ability to account for the existence of art outside our (Hominin) tradition. Suppose the connection between a practice’s traits and its status as an art are wholly contingent. Then the fact that a practice in another culture that although not part of our tradition had most of the traits of one of our own arts would be no reason to think that practice was an art, and no reason to think that the objects belonging to it were artworks. It is not clear that we are really so in the dark when it comes to determining whether practices in alien cultures or traditions are arts.

Conventionalist definitions account well for modern art, but have difficulty accounting for art’s universality – especially the fact that there can be art disconnected from “our” (Western) institutions and traditions, and our species. They also struggle to account for the fact that the same aesthetic terms are routinely applied to artworks, natural objects, humans, and abstracta. Aesthetic definitions do better accounting for art’s traditional, universal features, but less well, at least according to their critics, with revolutionary modern art; their further defense requires an account of the aesthetic which can be extended in a principled way to conceptual and other radical art. (An aesthetic definition and a conventionalist one could simply be conjoined. But that would merely raise, without answering, the fundamental question of the unity or disunity of the class of artworks.) Which defect is the more serious one depends on which explananda are the more important. Arguments at this level are hard to come by, because positions are hard to motivate in ways that do not depend on prior conventionalist and functionalist sympathies. If list-like definitions are flawed because uninformative, then so are conventionalist definitions, whether institutional or historical. Of course, if the class of artworks, or of the arts, is a mere chaotic heap, lacking any genuine unity, then enumerative definitions cannot be faulted for being uninformative: they do all the explaining that it is possible to do, because they capture all the unity that there is to capture. In that case the worry articulated by one prominent aesthetician, who wrote earlier of the “bloated, unwieldy” concept of art which institutional definitions aim to capture, needs to be taken seriously, even if it turns out to be ungrounded: “It is not at all clear that these words – ‘What is art?’ – express anything like a single question, to which competing answers are given, or whether philosophers proposing answers are even engaged in the same debate…. The sheer variety of proposed definitions should give us pause. One cannot help wondering whether there is any sense in which they are attempts to … clarify the same cultural practices, or address the same issue” (Walton 2007).

• Abell, Catharine, 2012, “Art: What It Is and Why It Matters,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , 85: 671–691.
• Adajian, Thomas, 2005, “On the Prototype Theory of Concepts and the Definition of Art,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 63: 231–236.
• –––, 2012, “Defining Art,” in A. Ribeiro (ed.) 2012, pp. 39–56.
• Battersby, Christine, 1989, Gender and Genius: Towards a Feminist Aesthetics , London: The Women’s Press.
• Beardsley, Monroe, 1982, The Aesthetic Point of View , Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
• Bond, E. J., 1975, “The Essential Nature of Art.” American Philosophical Quarterly , 12: 177–183.
• Brand, Peggy Zeglin, 2000, “Glaring Omissions in Traditional Theories of Art,” in N. Carroll (ed.) 2000, pp. 175–198.
• Carroll, Noel, 1993, “Historical Narratives and the Philosophy of Art”, The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 51(3): 313–26.
• –––, 2001, Beyond Aesthetics , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• –––, 2004, “Non-Perceptual Aesthetic Properties.” British Journal of Aesthetics , 44: 413–423.
• Carroll, Noel (ed.), 2000, Theories of Art Today , Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Cohen, Ted, 1973, “Aesthetic/Non-aesthetic and the concept of taste: a critique of Sibley’s position”, Theoria , 39(1–3): 113–152.
• Danto, Arthur, 1981, The Transfiguration of the Commonplace , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Davidson, Donald, 2005, Truth and Predication , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Davies, David, 2004, Art as Performance , Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
• Davies, Stephen, 1991, Definitions of Art , Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• –––, 1997, “First Art and Art’s Definition,” Southern Journal of Philosophy , 35: 19–34
• –––, 2000, “Non-Western Art and Art’s Definition,” in N. Carroll (ed.) 2000, pp. 199–217 .
• –––, 2006, The Philosophy of Art , Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• –––, 2012, The Artful Species , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• –––, 2015, “ Defining Art and Artworlds,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 73(4): 375–384.
• Davies, Stephen, and Sukla, Ananta (eds.), 2003, Art and Essence , Westport, CT: Praeger.
• Dean, Jeffery, 2003, “The Nature of Concepts and the Definition of Art,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 61: 29–35.
• Devitt, Michael, 2001, “The Metaphysics of Truth,” in Michael Lynch (ed.), The Nature of Truth , Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 579–611.
• DeClerq, Rafael, 2002, “The Concept of an Aesthetic Property,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 60: 167–172.
• Dickie, George, 1965, “Beardsley’s Phantom Aesthetic Experience”, Journal of Philosophy , 62(5): 129–136.
• –––, 1974, Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis , Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• –––, 1984, The Art Circle , New York: Haven.
• –––, 2001, Art and Value , Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
• Dissanayake, Ellen, 1990, What is Art For? , Bellingham: University of Washington Press.
• Dutton, Denis, 2006, “A Naturalist Definition of Art,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 64: 367–377.
• –––, 2008, The Art Instinct , New York: Bloomsbury Press.
• Eagleton, Terry, 1990, The Ideology of the Aesthetic , London: Basil Blackwell.
• Eldridge, Richard, 1985, “Form and Content: An Aesthetic Theory of Art,” British Journal of Aesthetics , 25(4): 303–316.
• Field, Hartry, 1972, “Tarski’s Theory of Truth,” The Journal of Philosophy , 69: 347–375.
• Frueh, Joanna, 1991, “Towards a Feminist Theory of Art,” in Feminist Art Criticism: An Anthology , A. Raven, C. Langer and J. Frueh (eds.), Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 153–165.
• Gaut, Berys, 2000, “The Cluster Account of Art,” in N. Carroll (ed.) 2000, pp. 25–45.
• Goehr, Lydia, 1994, The Imaginary Museum of Musical Works , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Goldman, Alan, 1995, Aesthetic Value , Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
• Goodman, Nelson, 1968, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols , Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
• Hegel, G.W.F., Lectures , translated by Bernard Bosanquet in The Introduction to Hegel's Philosophy of Fine Art , London: Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co., 1886; reprinted as Introductory Lectures on Aesthetics , edited and with an Introduction by Michael Inwood, London: Penguin, 1993. [Page reference is to the 1886 translation.]
• Iseminger, Gary, 2004, The Aesthetic Function of Art , Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Janaway, Christopher, 1998, Images of Excellence: Plato’s Critique of the Arts , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Kant, Immanuel, 2000, Critique of the Power of Judgment , Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Khalidi, Muhammed, 2013, “Three Kinds of Social Kinds,” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , 90(1): 96–112.
• Kivy, Peter, 1975, “What Makes ‘Aesthetic’ Terms Aesthetic?” Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , 36(2): 197–211.
• –––, 1997, Philosophies of the Arts , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Kristeller, Paul, 1951, “The Modern System of the Arts,” Journal of the History of Ideas , 12: 496–527.
• Levinson, Jerrold, 1990, Music, Art, and Metaphysics , Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• –––, 2002, “The Irreducible Historicality of the Concept of Art”, British Journal of Aesthetics , 42(4): 367–379.
• –––, 2005, “What Are Aesthetic Properties?” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society , 79: 191–210.
• Longworth, F., and A. Scarantino, 2010, “The Disjunctive Theory of Art: The Cluster Account Reformulated,” British Journal of Aesthetics , 50(2): 151–167.
• Lopes, D.M., 2008,“Nobody Needs a Theory of Art” Journal of Philosophy , 105: 109–127.
• –––, 2014, Beyond Art , Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• McFee, Graham, 2011, Artistic Judgment: A Framework for Philosophical Aesthetics , London: Springer.
• Mag Uidhir, C. and Magnus, P. D., 2011, “Art Concept Pluralism” Metaphilosophy , 42: 183–97.
• Matravers, Derek, 2000, “The Institutional Theory: A Protean Creature,” British Journal of Aesthetics , 40: 242–250.
• Meskin, Aaron, 2008,“From Defining Art to Defining the Individual Arts: The Role of Theory in the Philosophies of Arts” in Stock and Thomson-Jones (eds.) 2008, pp. 125–150.
• Plato, 1997, Complete Works , John M. Cooper (ed.), Indianapolis: Hackett.
• Rey, Georges, 1983, “Concepts and Stereotypes,” Cognition , 15: 237–262.
• Ribeiro, Anna Christina (ed.), 2012, Continuum Companion to Aesthetics , London: Continuum.
• Shelley, James, 2003, “The Problem of Non-Perceptual Art.” British Journal of Aesthetics , 43: 363–378.
• Sibley, Frank, 1959, “Aesthetic Concepts,” Philosophical Review , 74: 135–159.
• Shiner, Larry, 2001, The Invention of Art , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• –––, 2003, “Western and Non-Western Concepts of Art: Universality and Authenticity” in S. Davies and A. Sukla (eds.) 2003, pp. 143–157.
• Stecker, Robert, 1997, Artworks: Definition, Meaning, Value , University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
• Stecker, Robert, 2000, “Is It Reasonable to Attempt to Define Art” in N. Carroll (ed.) 2000, pp. 45–64.
• –––, 2005, Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art , Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
• Stock, Kathleen, and Thomson-Jones, Katherine, 2008, New Waves in Aesthetics , London: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Tilghman, Benjamin, 1984, But Is It Art? , Oxford: Blackwell.
• Walton, Kendall, 1997, “Review of Art and the Aesthetic ,” Philosophical Review , 86: 97–101.
• –––, 2007, “Aesthetics – What?, Why?, and Wherefore?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 65(2): 147–162.
• Wicks, R., 1993, “ Hegel’s Aesthetics,” in F. Beiser (ed.), Cambridge Companion to Hegel , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 348–377.
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1953, Philosophical Investigations , G.E.M. Anscombe and R. Rhees (eds.), G.E.M. Anscombe (trans.), Oxford: Blackwell.
• –––, 1968, Philosophical Investigations , Oxford: Blackwell.
• Weitz, Morris, 1956, “The Role of Theory in Aesthetics,” Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , 15: 27–35.
• Zangwill, Nick, 1995a, “Groundrules in the Philosophy of Art,” Philosophy , 70: 533–544.
• –––, 1995b, “The Creative Theory of Art,” American Philosophical Quarterly , 32: 315–332
• –––, 2001, The Metaphysics of Beauty , Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Zemach, Eddy, 1997, Real Beauty , University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

How to cite this entry . Preview the PDF version of this entry at the Friends of the SEP Society . Look up topics and thinkers related to this entry at the Internet Philosophy Ontology Project (InPhO). Enhanced bibliography for this entry at PhilPapers , with links to its database.

[Please contact the author with suggestions.]

aesthetics: aesthetic judgment | aesthetics: German, in the 18th century | Aristotle, General Topics: aesthetics | Dewey, John: aesthetics | Kant, Immanuel: aesthetics and teleology | Nietzsche, Friedrich | Plato: rhetoric and poetry | Schopenhauer, Arthur

Copyright © 2018 by Thomas Adajian < adajiatr @ jmu . edu >

• Accessibility

Support SEP

Mirror sites.

View this site from another server:

• Info about mirror sites

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is copyright © 2023 by The Metaphysics Research Lab , Department of Philosophy, Stanford University

Library of Congress Catalog Data: ISSN 1095-5054

Summary of Modern Art

Modern art represents an evolving set of ideas among a number of painters, sculptors, photographers , performers, and writers who - both individually and collectively - sought new approaches to art making. Although modern art began, in retrospect, around 1850 with the arrival of Realism , approaches and styles of art were defined and redefined throughout the 20 th century. Practitioners of each new style were determined to develop a visual language that was both original and representative of the times.

Overview of Modern Art

The rapid growth of industry and the progress of technology propelled artists to represent the world in new and innovative ways. The result was an art that took on new colors, alternative forms, emotional expressions, and experiments in abstraction.

The Important Artists and Works of Modern Art

Impression, Sunrise

Artist: Claude Monet

In this seminal work of modern art, Monet's loose handling of paint and his focus on light and atmosphere within the landscape scene are all key characteristics of Impressionism, which is widely considered the first fully modern movement. Monet's use of abstraction evokes what the artist sensed or experienced while painting the scene, which was a highly unusual approach for a painter to adopt at the time. The title of the work, Impression, Sunrise not only provided critics with the name that the movement would later receive, but also conveys the transitory, fleeting and subjective nature of the painting. It is Monet's visual impression of what he observed during that sunrise.

Oil on canvas - Musée Marmottan Monet

The Large Bathers

Artist: Paul Cézanne

The Large Bathers is one of the finest examples of Cézanne's exploration of the theme of the modern, heroic nude within a natural setting. The series of nudes are arranged into a variety of positions, like objects in a still life, under the pointed arch formed by the intersection of trees and the sky. Cézanne was attempting a departure from the Impressionist motifs of light and natural effect and instead composed this scene as a series of carefully constructed figures, as if creating sculpture with his paintbrush. He was more concerned with the way the forms occupied space than with recording his visual observations. This destruction of regular illusionism and the radical foray into increased abstraction is considered an important precursor to Cubism.

Oil on canvas - The Philadelphia Museum of Art

Les Demoiselles d'Avignon

Artist: Pablo Picasso

For Les Demoiselles d'Avignon , Picasso gathered inspiration from a variety of sources, including African tribal art, Expressionism, and the Post-Impressionist paintings of Paul Cézanne. Assimilating these seemingly disparate sources in one piece was a new approach to art making and conveys just how much artists' perspectives expanded with the rise of modernism. The painting originally raised significant controversy for its depiction of a brothel scene and for the jagged, protruding, and abstract forms used to depict the women. It is also widely considered the artwork that launched the Cubism movement. The multiplicity of styles incorporated within this work - from Iberian sculpture referenced in the women's' bodies to the sculptural deconstruction of space derived from Cézanne - not only represent a clear turning point in Picasso's career, but make the painting an incredibly distinct achievement of the modern era.

Oil on canvas - The Museum of Modern Art, New York City

Artist: Marcel Duchamp

Duchamp's invention of the readymade - a manufactured, found object divorced from its utilitarian purpose and presented in a new way as art - helped redefine what constituted a work of art within the modern era. Henceforth, a unique work of art no longer required the act of creation by the artist or visual evidence of the artist's hand in its production, the artist merely needed to designate the work as art for it to be considered as such. Duchamp's Fountain is a mass-produced porcelain urinal, turned on its back and inscribed with the name R. Mutt, a combination of a plumbing company name and a comic. By using an everyday, prefabricated object Duchamp forced the viewer to reconsider the definition of art and who makes that definition. This work in particular, and other readymades, were major influences on the later movements of Pop art, which focused on combining low and high art, and Conceptualism, wherein the idea behind the artwork is as important as the final object.

Porcelain - The Philadelphia Museum of Art

The Persistence of Memory

Artist: Salvador Dalí

This iconic Surrealist painting naturalistically depicts an otherworldly landscape where time is a series of melting watches surrounded by swarming ants that hint at decay, an organic process which held great fascination for Dalí. He sought to portray "images of concrete irrationality," bringing haunting dreamscapes, like this allegorically empty space where time has no power, out of the subconscious mind and onto the canvas. Dalí's celebrated and vivid imagination, his fascination with dream imagery and metaphor, and his exploration into the human subconscious all follow the key characteristics of the Surrealism movement in the early-20 th century.

Autumn Rhythm (Number 30)

Artist: Jackson Pollock

Through the development of his "drip" style of painting, and thedelicate dance executed in the process of creating the work, Jackson Pollock helped define the idea of Action Painting. With these paintings, Pollock - one of the most famous Abstract Expressionists - discovered a new abstract, visual language for his unconscious that moved beyond the Freudian symbolism of the Surrealists. He broke up the rigid, shallow space of Cubist pictures, replacing it with a dense web of lines and forms, like an unfathomable galaxy of stars. In some respects this work evokes both Impressionism and Surrealism, in the loose, gestural application of the paint and the unconscious nature of the expression laid down on the canvas.

Enamel on canvas - The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City

Artist: Jasper Johns

Flag , Johns' first major work, broke away from the emotionally driven style of the Abstract Expressionists by portraying a recognizable, everyday object, which according to Johns is "seen but not looked at." Although the work is representational, the painting is also abstract in its many textures, layers, and materials, including strips of newspaper painted over with encaustic, and the tactile brush strokes that create a painterly, expressive surface. Johns turns a flag, a three-dimensional object, into a two-dimensional painting. This practice of appropriating familiar objects recalled the practices of the earlier Dadaists, particularly Marcel Duchamp, who revolutionized modern art with the readymade. Johns' approach with his Flag paintings renewed interest in Dada and was as an important precursor to Pop art particularly through his use of everyday, mass-produced objects.

Encaustic, oil, and collage on fabric mounted on plywood, three panels - The Museum of Modern Art, New York City

Marilyn Diptych

Artist: Andy Warhol

Andy Warhol completed this work (the first of many devoted to Marilyn Monroe) shortly after the actress's untimely death in August 1962. The image of Monroe, which Warhol recycled and used for all his Marilyn silkscreen paintings, was taken from a publicity shot originally used for the film Niagara . Not dissimilar from Warhol's motifs of Campbell's soup cans or Brillo boxes, the artist stacks and repeats the same image of Monroe here as if she were a consumer product in a grocery store. By juxtaposing the bright colors with monochrome in the diptych, Warhol alludes to her mortality. Though Warhol was a great admirer of the actress, he acknowledged in this and similar works that celebrity was itself a consumer product. Marilyn Diptych is designed as both a tribute to the late icon and a harsh commentary on how we had come to treat these pop cultural icons in the modern era.

Silkscreen ink on synthetic polymer paint on canvas - The Museum of Modern Art, New York City

One Ton Prop (House of Cards)

Artist: Richard Serra

One Ton Prop presages Serra's mature works, where gravity, weight, counterforce, sinuous movement, and other physical and visual properties are embodied by steel. This sculpture, consisting of four rolled sheets of lead propped on each other, is less a visual exercise for the viewer and more of an intellectual one, obliging one to contemplate the physical properties that allow the piece to remain upright rather than collapse. The unprecedented complexity of such a work is fairly typical of post-minimal sculpture, which relied upon a variety of visual sources and theories for inspiration. While One Ton Prop embodies certain principles of Minimalism, Conceptualism, and even Dada, it is generally referred to as Process art because the process of its construction is inherent and apparent in the final work. The multiplicity of sources and possible styles is typical of the pluralist contemporary world, and the contemporary art that goes with it.

Lead antimony, four plates - The Museum of Modern Art, New York City

Definition of Modern Art

Modern art is the creative world's response to the rationalist practices and perspectives of the new lives and ideas provided by the technological advances of the industrial age that caused contemporary society to manifest itself in new ways compared to the past. Artists worked to represent their experience of the newness of modern life in appropriately innovative ways. Although modern art as a term applies to a vast number of artistic genres spanning more than a century, aesthetically speaking, modern art is characterized by the artist's intent to portray a subject as it exists in the world, according to his or her unique perspective and is typified by a rejection of accepted or traditional styles and values.

The Beginnings of Modern Art

Classical and early modern art.

The centuries that preceded the modern era witnessed numerous advancements in the visual arts, from the humanist inquiries of the Renaissance and Baroque periods to the elaborate fantasies of the Rococo style and the ideal physical beauty of 18 th -century European Neoclassicism . However, one prevalent characteristic throughout these early modern eras was an idealization of subject matter, whether human, natural, or situational. Artists typically painted not what they perceived with subjective eyes but rather what they envisioned as the epitome of their subject.

Age of Modernism and Art

The modern era arrived with the dawn of the industrial revolution in Western Europe in the mid-19 th century, one of the most crucial turning points in world history. With the invention and wide availability of such technologies as the internal combustion engine, large machine-powered factories, and electrical power generation in urban areas, the pace and quality of everyday life changed drastically. Many people migrated from the rural farms to the city centers to find work, shifting the center of life from the family and village in the country to the expanding urban metropolises. With these developments, painters were drawn to these new visual landscapes, now bustling with all variety of modern spectacles and fashions.

A major technological development closely-related to the visual arts was photography. Photographic technology rapidly advanced, and within a few decades a photograph could reproduce any scene with perfect accuracy. As the technology developed, photography became increasingly accessible to the general public. The photograph conceptually posed a serious threat to classical artistic modes of representing a subject, as neither sculpture nor painting could capture the same degree of detail as photography. As a result of photography's precision, artists were obliged to find new modes of expression, which led to new paradigms in art.

The Artist's Perspective and Modern Art

In the early decades of the 19 th century, a number of European painters began to experiment with the simple act of observation. Artists from across the continent, including portraitists and genre painters such as Gustave Courbet and Henri Fantin-Latour , created works that aimed to portray people and situations objectively, imperfections and all, rather than creating an idealized rendition of the subject. This radical approach to art would come to comprise the broad school of art known as Realism .

Also early in the 19 th century, the Romantics began to present the landscape not necessarily as it objectively existed, but rather as they saw and felt it. The landscapes painted by Caspar David Friedrich and J.M.W. Turner are dramatic representations that capture the feeling of the sublime that struck the artist upon viewing that particular scene in nature. This representation of a feeling in conjunction with a place was a crucial step for creating the modern artist's innovative and unique perspective.

Early Abstraction and Modern Art

Similarly, while some artists focused on objective representation, others shifted their artistic focus to emphasize the visual sensation of their observed subjects rather than an accurate and naturalistic depiction of them. This practice represents the beginnings of abstraction in the visual arts. Two key examples of this are James McNeill Whistler's Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket (1874) and Claude Monet 's Boulevard des Capucines (1873). In the former, the artist couples large splatters and small flecks of paint to create a portrait of a night sky illuminated by fireworks that was more atmospheric than representational. In the latter, Monet provides an aerial view of bustling modern Parisian life. In portraying this scene, Monet rendered the pedestrians and cityscape as an "impression," or in other words, a visual representation of a fleeting, subjective, and slightly abstracted, perspective.

Modern Art Themes and Concepts

Modern artists.

The history of modern art is the history of the top artists and their achievements. Modern artists have strived to express their views of the world around them using visual mediums. While some have connected their work to preceding movements or ideas, the general goal of each artist in the modern era was to advance their practice to a position of pure originality. Certain artists established themselves as independent thinkers, venturing beyond what constituted acceptable forms of "high art" at the time which were endorsed by traditional state-run academies and the upper-class patrons of the visual arts. These innovators depicted subject matter that many considered lewd, controversial, or even downright ugly.

The first modern artist to essentially stand on his own in this regard was Gustave Courbet , who in the mid-19 th century sought to develop his own distinct style. This was achieved in large part with his painting from 1849-1850, Burial at Ornans , which scandalized the French art world by portraying the funeral of a common man from a peasant village. The Academy bristled at the depiction of dirty farm workers around an open grave, as only classical myths or historical scenes were fitting subject matter for such a large painting. Initially, Courbet was ostracized for his work, but he eventually proved to be highly influential to subsequent generations of modern artists. This general pattern of rejection and later influence has been repeated by hundreds of artists in the modern era.

Modern Art Movements

The discipline of art history tends to classify individuals into units of like-minded and historically connected artists designated as the different movements and "schools." This simple approach of establishing categories is particularly apt as it applies to centralized movements with a singular objective, such as Impressionism , Futurism , and Surrealism . For example, when Claude Monet exhibited his painting Impression, Sunrise (1872) as part of a group exhibition in 1874, the painting and the exhibition as a whole were poorly received. However, Monet and his fellow artists were ultimately motivated and united by the criticism. The Impressionists thus set a precedent for future independently minded artists who sought to group together based on a singular objective and aesthetic approach.

This practice of grouping artists into movements is not always completely accurate or appropriate, as many movements or schools consist of widely diverse artists and modes of artistic representation. For example, Vincent van Gogh , Paul Gauguin , Georges Seurat and Paul Cézanne are considered the principal artists of Post-Impressionism , a movement named so because of the artists' deviations from Impressionist motifs as well as their chronological place in history. Unlike their predecessors, however, the Post-Impressionists did not represent a cohesive movement of artists who united under a single ideological banner. Furthermore, the case can be made that some artists do not fit into any particular movement or category. Key examples include the likes of Auguste Rodin , Amadeo Modigliani , and Marc Chagall . Despite these complications, the imperfect designation of movements allows the vast history of modern art to be broken down into smaller segments separated by contextual factors that aid in examining the individual artists and works.

The Avant-Garde and The Progression of Modern Art

The avant-garde is a term that derives from the French "vanguard," the lead division going into battle, literally advance guard, and its designation within modern art is very much like its military namesake. Generally speaking, most of the successful and creative modern artists were avante-gardes. Their objective in the modern era was to advance the practices and ideas of art, and to continually challenge what constituted acceptable artistic form in order to most accurately convey the artist's experience of modern life. Modern artists continually examined the past and revalued it in relation to the modern.

Modern, Contemporary, and Postmodern Art

Generally speaking, contemporary art is defined as any form of art in any medium that is produced in the present day. However, within the art world the term designates art that was made during and after the post-Pop art era of the 1960s. The dawn of Conceptualism in the late 1960s marks the turning point when modern art gave way to contemporary art. Contemporary art is a broad chronological delineation that encompasses a vast array of movements like Earth art , Performance art , Neo-Expressionism , and Digital art . It is not a clearly designated period or style, but instead marks the end of the periodization of modernism.

Postmodernism is the reaction to or a resistance against the projects of modernism, and began with the rupture in representation that occurred during the late 1960s. Modernism became the new tradition found in all the institutions against which it initially rebelled. Postmodern artists sought to exceed the limits set by modernism, deconstructing modernism's grand narrative in order to explore cultural codes, politics, and social ideology within their immediate context. It is this theoretical engagement with the ideologies of the surrounding world that differentiates postmodern art from modern art, as well as designates it as a unique facet within contemporary art. Features often associated with postmodern art are the use of new media and technology, like video, as well as the technique of bricolage and collage , the collision of art and kitsch, and the appropriation of earlier styles within a new context. Some movements commonly cited as Postmodern are: Conceptual art , Feminist art , Installation art and Performance art .

Useful Resources on Modern Art

• Modern Art Movements All major modern art movements, as well as a number of related styles and tendencies
• Modern Art Artists Comprehensive guide to the most important modern and contemporary artists
• The Progression of Modern Art This timeline displays the major trends and movements in modern art
• Top Modern Art Works This timeline is a guide to the 50 most important and groundbreaking works of art from the modern era
• The Shock of the New By Robert Hughes
• Art Since 1900 Our Pick By Hal Foster, Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh
• Theories of Modern Art: A Source Book by Artists and Critics By Herschel B. Chipp, Peter Selz, Joshua C. Taylor
• Art in Theory, 1900-2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas Our Pick By Charles Harrison and Dr. Paul J. Wood, eds.
• Defining Modern Art: Selected Writings of Alfred H. Barr, Jr. By Alfred Hamilton Barr, Irving Sandler, Amy Newman
• The Tradition of the New By Harold Rosenberg
• The Theory of the Avant-Garde By Renato Poggioli, Gerald Fitzgerald
• The Meanings of Modern Art By John Russell
• Museum of Modern Art's Library and Archives MoMA's physical and online archives provide among the world's most comprehensive surveys of modern and contemporary art
• The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Collection The SFMoMA collection features 30,000 works, with interactive educational resources for special topics in modern art
• Modern Art Notes Modern art and Contemporary art blog by Tyler Green
• Uncertainty: Modernity and Art Our Pick Episode from "This is Civilisation" British series
• Great Museums: In Our Time: The Museum of Modern Art Our Pick
• The Contemporary and the Historical Our Pick By Donald Kuspit / Artnet.com
• Modernist Painting By Clement Greenberg
• African Influences in Modern Art By Denise Murrell / Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University
• Art, Philosophy, and the Philosophy of Art By Arthur C. Danto

Related Artists

Related Movements & Topics

Content compiled and written by Justin Wolf

Edited and published by The Art Story Contributors

We use essential cookies to make Venngage work. By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Manage Cookies

Cookies and similar technologies collect certain information about how you’re using our website. Some of them are essential, and without them you wouldn’t be able to use Venngage. But others are optional, and you get to choose whether we use them or not.

Strictly Necessary Cookies

These cookies are always on, as they’re essential for making Venngage work, and making it safe. Without these cookies, services you’ve asked for can’t be provided.

Show cookie providers

• Google Login

Functionality Cookies

These cookies help us provide enhanced functionality and personalisation, and remember your settings. They may be set by us or by third party providers.

Performance Cookies

These cookies help us analyze how many people are using Venngage, where they come from and how they're using it. If you opt out of these cookies, we can’t get feedback to make Venngage better for you and all our users.

• Google Analytics

Targeting Cookies

These cookies are set by our advertising partners to track your activity and show you relevant Venngage ads on other sites as you browse the internet.

• Google Tag Manager
• Infographics
• Daily Infographics
• Popular Templates
• Accessibility
• Graphic Design
• Graphs and Charts
• Data Visualization
• Human Resources
• Beginner Guides

Blog Beginner Guides How To Make a Good Presentation [A Complete Guide]

How To Make a Good Presentation [A Complete Guide]

Written by: Krystle Wong Jul 20, 2023

A top-notch presentation possesses the power to drive action. From winning stakeholders over and conveying a powerful message to securing funding — your secret weapon lies within the realm of creating an effective presentation .  

Being an excellent presenter isn’t confined to the boardroom. Whether you’re delivering a presentation at work, pursuing an academic career, involved in a non-profit organization or even a student, nailing the presentation game is a game-changer.

In this article, I’ll cover the top qualities of compelling presentations and walk you through a step-by-step guide on how to give a good presentation. Here’s a little tip to kick things off: for a headstart, check out Venngage’s collection of free presentation templates . They are fully customizable, and the best part is you don’t need professional design skills to make them shine!

These valuable presentation tips cater to individuals from diverse professional backgrounds, encompassing business professionals, sales and marketing teams, educators, trainers, students, researchers, non-profit organizations, public speakers and presenters. 

No matter your field or role, these tips for presenting will equip you with the skills to deliver effective presentations that leave a lasting impression on any audience.

Click to jump ahead:

What are the 10 qualities of a good presentation?

Step-by-step guide on how to prepare an effective presentation, 9 effective techniques to deliver a memorable presentation, faqs on making a good presentation, how to create a presentation with venngage in 5 steps.

When it comes to giving an engaging presentation that leaves a lasting impression, it’s not just about the content — it’s also about how you deliver it. Wondering what makes a good presentation? Well, the best presentations I’ve seen consistently exhibit these 10 qualities:

1. Clear structure

No one likes to get lost in a maze of information. Organize your thoughts into a logical flow, complete with an introduction, main points and a solid conclusion. A structured presentation helps your audience follow along effortlessly, leaving them with a sense of satisfaction at the end.

Regardless of your presentation style , a quality presentation starts with a clear roadmap. Browse through Venngage’s template library and select a presentation template that aligns with your content and presentation goals. Here’s a good presentation example template with a logical layout that includes sections for the introduction, main points, supporting information and a conclusion: 

2. Engaging opening

Hook your audience right from the start with an attention-grabbing statement, a fascinating question or maybe even a captivating anecdote. Set the stage for a killer presentation!

The opening moments of your presentation hold immense power – check out these 15 ways to start a presentation to set the stage and captivate your audience.

3. Relevant content

Make sure your content aligns with their interests and needs. Your audience is there for a reason, and that’s to get valuable insights. Avoid fluff and get straight to the point, your audience will be genuinely excited.

4. Effective visual aids

Picture this: a slide with walls of text and tiny charts, yawn! Visual aids should be just that—aiding your presentation. Opt for clear and visually appealing slides, engaging images and informative charts that add value and help reinforce your message.

With Venngage, visualizing data takes no effort at all. You can import data from CSV or Google Sheets seamlessly and create stunning charts, graphs and icon stories effortlessly to showcase your data in a captivating and impactful way.

5. Clear and concise communication

Keep your language simple, and avoid jargon or complicated terms. Communicate your ideas clearly, so your audience can easily grasp and retain the information being conveyed. This can prevent confusion and enhance the overall effectiveness of the message. 

6. Engaging delivery

Spice up your presentation with a sprinkle of enthusiasm! Maintain eye contact, use expressive gestures and vary your tone of voice to keep your audience glued to the edge of their seats. A touch of charisma goes a long way!

7. Interaction and audience engagement

Turn your presentation into an interactive experience — encourage questions, foster discussions and maybe even throw in a fun activity. Engaged audiences are more likely to remember and embrace your message.

Transform your slides into an interactive presentation with Venngage’s dynamic features like pop-ups, clickable icons and animated elements. Engage your audience with interactive content that lets them explore and interact with your presentation for a truly immersive experience.

8. Effective storytelling

Who doesn’t love a good story? Weaving relevant anecdotes, case studies or even a personal story into your presentation can captivate your audience and create a lasting impact. Stories build connections and make your message memorable.

A great presentation background is also essential as it sets the tone, creates visual interest and reinforces your message. Enhance the overall aesthetics of your presentation with these 15 presentation background examples and captivate your audience’s attention.

9. Well-timed pacing

Pace your presentation thoughtfully with well-designed presentation slides, neither rushing through nor dragging it out. Respect your audience’s time and ensure you cover all the essential points without losing their interest.

10. Strong conclusion

Last impressions linger! Summarize your main points and leave your audience with a clear takeaway. End your presentation with a bang , a call to action or an inspiring thought that resonates long after the conclusion.

In-person presentations aside, acing a virtual presentation is of paramount importance in today’s digital world. Check out this guide to learn how you can adapt your in-person presentations into virtual presentations . 

Preparing an effective presentation starts with laying a strong foundation that goes beyond just creating slides and notes. One of the quickest and best ways to make a presentation would be with the help of a good presentation software . 

Otherwise, let me walk you to how to prepare for a presentation step by step and unlock the secrets of crafting a professional presentation that sets you apart.

1. Understand the audience and their needs

Before you dive into preparing your masterpiece, take a moment to get to know your target audience. Tailor your presentation to meet their needs and expectations , and you’ll have them hooked from the start!

2. Conduct thorough research on the topic

Time to hit the books (or the internet)! Don’t skimp on the research with your presentation materials — dive deep into the subject matter and gather valuable insights . The more you know, the more confident you’ll feel in delivering your presentation.

3. Organize the content with a clear structure

No one wants to stumble through a chaotic mess of information. Outline your presentation with a clear and logical flow. Start with a captivating introduction, follow up with main points that build on each other and wrap it up with a powerful conclusion that leaves a lasting impression.

Delivering an effective business presentation hinges on captivating your audience, and Venngage’s professionally designed business presentation templates are tailor-made for this purpose. With thoughtfully structured layouts, these templates enhance your message’s clarity and coherence, ensuring a memorable and engaging experience for your audience members.

Don’t want to build your presentation layout from scratch? pick from these 5 foolproof presentation layout ideas that won’t go wrong. 

4. Develop visually appealing and supportive visual aids

Spice up your presentation with eye-catching visuals! Create slides that complement your message, not overshadow it. Remember, a picture is worth a thousand words, but that doesn’t mean you need to overload your slides with text.

Well-chosen designs create a cohesive and professional look, capturing your audience’s attention and enhancing the overall effectiveness of your message. Here’s a list of carefully curated PowerPoint presentation templates and great background graphics that will significantly influence the visual appeal and engagement of your presentation.

5. Practice, practice and practice

Practice makes perfect — rehearse your presentation and arrive early to your presentation to help overcome stage fright. Familiarity with your material will boost your presentation skills and help you handle curveballs with ease.

6. Seek feedback and make necessary adjustments

Don’t be afraid to ask for help and seek feedback from friends and colleagues. Constructive criticism can help you identify blind spots and fine-tune your presentation to perfection.

With Venngage’s real-time collaboration feature , receiving feedback and editing your presentation is a seamless process. Group members can access and work on the presentation simultaneously and edit content side by side in real-time. Changes will be reflected immediately to the entire team, promoting seamless teamwork.

7. Prepare for potential technical or logistical issues

Prepare for the unexpected by checking your equipment, internet connection and any other potential hiccups. If you’re worried that you’ll miss out on any important points, you could always have note cards prepared. Remember to remain focused and rehearse potential answers to anticipated questions.

8. Fine-tune and polish your presentation

As the big day approaches, give your presentation one last shine. Review your talking points, practice how to present a presentation and make any final tweaks. Deep breaths — you’re on the brink of delivering a successful presentation!

In competitive environments, persuasive presentations set individuals and organizations apart. To brush up on your presentation skills, read these guides on how to make a persuasive presentation and tips to presenting effectively . 

Whether you’re an experienced presenter or a novice, the right techniques will let your presentation skills soar to new heights!

From public speaking hacks to interactive elements and storytelling prowess, these 9 effective presentation techniques will empower you to leave a lasting impression on your audience and make your presentations unforgettable.

1. Confidence and positive body language

Positive body language instantly captivates your audience, making them believe in your message as much as you do. Strengthen your stage presence and own that stage like it’s your second home! Stand tall, shoulders back and exude confidence. 

2. Eye contact with the audience

Break down that invisible barrier and connect with your audience through their eyes. Maintaining eye contact when giving a presentation builds trust and shows that you’re present and engaged with them.

3. Effective use of hand gestures and movement

A little movement goes a long way! Emphasize key points with purposeful gestures and don’t be afraid to walk around the stage. Your energy will be contagious!

4. Utilize storytelling techniques

Weave the magic of storytelling into your presentation. Share relatable anecdotes, inspiring success stories or even personal experiences that tug at the heartstrings of your audience. Adjust your pitch, pace and volume to match the emotions and intensity of the story. Varying your speaking voice adds depth and enhances your stage presence.

5. Incorporate multimedia elements

Spice up your presentation with a dash of visual pizzazz! Use slides, images and video clips to add depth and clarity to your message. Just remember, less is more—don’t overwhelm them with information overload. 

Turn your presentations into an interactive party! Involve your audience with questions, polls or group activities. When they actively participate, they become invested in your presentation’s success. Bring your design to life with animated elements. Venngage allows you to apply animations to icons, images and text to create dynamic and engaging visual content.

6. Utilize humor strategically

Laughter is the best medicine—and a fantastic presentation enhancer! A well-placed joke or lighthearted moment can break the ice and create a warm atmosphere , making your audience more receptive to your message.

7. Practice active listening and respond to feedback

Be attentive to your audience’s reactions and feedback. If they have questions or concerns, address them with genuine interest and respect. Your responsiveness builds rapport and shows that you genuinely care about their experience.

8. Apply the 10-20-30 rule

Apply the 10-20-30 presentation rule and keep it short, sweet and impactful! Stick to ten slides, deliver your presentation within 20 minutes and use a 30-point font to ensure clarity and focus. Less is more, and your audience will thank you for it!

9. Implement the 5-5-5 rule

Simplicity is key. Limit each slide to five bullet points, with only five words per bullet point and allow each slide to remain visible for about five seconds. This rule keeps your presentation concise and prevents information overload.

Simple presentations are more engaging because they are easier to follow. Summarize your presentations and keep them simple with Venngage’s gallery of simple presentation templates and ensure that your message is delivered effectively across your audience.

1. How to start a presentation?

To kick off your presentation effectively, begin with an attention-grabbing statement or a powerful quote. Introduce yourself, establish credibility and clearly state the purpose and relevance of your presentation.

2. How to end a presentation?

For a strong conclusion, summarize your talking points and key takeaways. End with a compelling call to action or a thought-provoking question and remember to thank your audience and invite any final questions or interactions.

3. How to make a presentation interactive?

To make your presentation interactive, encourage questions and discussion throughout your talk. Utilize multimedia elements like videos or images and consider including polls, quizzes or group activities to actively involve your audience.

In need of inspiration for your next presentation? I’ve got your back! Pick from these 120+ presentation ideas, topics and examples to get started. 

Creating a stunning presentation with Venngage is a breeze with our user-friendly drag-and-drop editor and professionally designed templates for all your communication needs. 

Here’s how to make a presentation in just 5 simple steps with the help of Venngage:

Step 1: Sign up for Venngage for free using your email, Gmail or Facebook account or simply log in to access your account. 

Step 2: Pick a design from our selection of free presentation templates (they’re all created by our expert in-house designers).

Step 3: Make the template your own by customizing it to fit your content and branding. With Venngage’s intuitive drag-and-drop editor, you can easily modify text, change colors and adjust the layout to create a unique and eye-catching design.

Step 4: Elevate your presentation by incorporating captivating visuals. You can upload your images or choose from Venngage’s vast library of high-quality photos, icons and illustrations. 

Step 5: Upgrade to a premium or business account to export your presentation in PDF and print it for in-person presentations or share it digitally for free!

By following these five simple steps, you’ll have a professionally designed and visually engaging presentation ready in no time. With Venngage’s user-friendly platform, your presentation is sure to make a lasting impression. So, let your creativity flow and get ready to shine in your next presentation!

Discover popular designs

Infographic maker

Brochure maker

White paper online

Newsletter creator

Flyer maker

Timeline maker

Letterhead maker

Mind map maker

Ebook maker

• The Magazine
• Stay Curious
• The Sciences
• Environment
• Planet Earth

Making Art Is A Uniquely Human Act, And One That Provides A Wellspring Of Health Benefits

The act of creating art serves as exercise for the brain and is integral to physical and mental health..

When you think about the word “art,” what comes to mind? A child’s artwork pinned to the fridge? A favorite artist whose work always inspires? Abstract art that is hard to understand?

Each of these assumes that making art is something that other people do, such as children or “those with talent.”

However, as I explain in my book “ The Expressive Instinct ,” art is intrinsic to human evolution and history. Just as sports or workouts exercise the body, creating art exercises the imagination and is essential to mental as well as physical well-being.

I am a professor of art therapy who studies how creative self-expression affects physical and emotional health. In our clinical research studies, my colleagues and I are finding that any form of creative self-expression – including drawing, painting, fiber arts, woodworking or photography – can reduce stress , improve mood and increase self-confidence.

As a sickly child who needed to stay home from school a lot, I found that making art helped me cope. Today, creating art is my sanctuary. I use it as a sounding board to better understand myself and a way to recharge and learn from the challenges of life.

The Uniquely Human Attribute of Creativity

Although everyone has their own concept of what defines art, one thing is universally true: Creativity is a defining feature of the human species.

How so? Well, human brains are not computers processing data. They are biological prediction machines that perceive the environment through memories and the senses, with the capacity to use that information to imagine plausible future scenarios.

These inherent predictive and imaginative capacities are the wellspring of humanity’s abilities to survive and thrive – because self-expression is a safety valve that helps us cope with uncertainty. No one truly knows the future; they must live each day not sure of what will happen tomorrow. Art can help us all practice this imaginative muscle in a useful way.

In our study examining brain activity while using virtual reality tools to create 3-D digital artwork, my team demonstrated that creative expression is a natural state of being . The brain naturally uses fewer cognitive resources to be expressive and creative, compared with the brain power needed to do a rote task that requires conscious effort.

Seemingly ordinary everyday activities can provide opportunities to tap into one’s natural creativity and imagination: whipping up a meal from leftovers, figuring out an alternate route to work, dancing a little jig in response to hearing a song, or planting and tending a garden.

We have repeatedly found in our studies that even a single session of real and honest self-expression can improve self-confidence and reduce feelings of stress , anxiety and burnout .

This is partly because creativity activates reward pathways in the brain. Using our hands and bodies to express ourselves activates dopamine pathways and helps us feel good. Dopamine is a neural messenger that is associated with feeling a sense of hope, accomplishment or reward . Our brains are wired to secrete feel-good hormones whenever we move , create something or engage in any type of expressive activity.

Tapping into the creative resources within is one of the most underrated seeds of well-being in the world.

By comparison, bottling up or denying these feelings can cause distress , anxiety and fear because we have not processed and expressed them. This is probably one of the reasons why every community around the world has its own creative and expressive practices. Even our ancestors in Indigenous communities all around the world intuitively knew that self-expression was essential to emotional health and social connection.

Being unable to share our lives, keeping secrets and feeling isolated and lonely tend to worsen our health . To our brains, social isolation feels like a chronic disease because it interprets this loneliness and inability to express as a threat to survival.

Since creative expression can engage the senses, it can also be a body workout: a sensual as well as emotional and cognitive experience. Being active in expression – be it art, music, dance, drama, writing, culinary arts or working with nature – imparts a sense of confidence and hope that challenges can be navigated and overcome .

The Role of Art Therapy

Given the integral role of art in our lives, it makes sense that making art can help people manage transitions, adversity and trauma, such as the stresses of puberty, the death of a loved one or experiencing a serious illness .

According to a global study, 1 in 2 people will experience a mental-health-related challenge in their lifetime , whether from life’s challenges, genetic predispositions or a combination of the two.

This is where art therapy can come in. Art therapy is a regulated mental health profession in which clinical psychotherapists with extensive clinical training offer psychotherapy to patients with diagnosed mental health needs.

The origins of art therapy go back to attempts to treat soldiers struggling with post-traumatic stress during the 20th century’s two world wars. Today, there is evidence that traumatic experiences tend to be stored as sounds, images, and physical sensations in the brain. When someone lacks the words to process these experiences through traditional talk therapy, art therapy can provide an indirect way to express and externalize those feelings and memories.

The process of making art can help people process feelings that they aren’t able to put into words.

One of art therapy’s unique strengths is that it provides nonverbal ways of communicating, processing and eventually managing the symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD. In fact, in a recent study, my team has found that a personal history of trauma is related to how people react to evocative images . Images of distress and pain resonate with us when we have known similar kinds of distress ourselves. This implies that our life stories make us sensitized to distress in others and even personalize it more.

Creative self-expression is especially relevant in coping with trauma because it provides an outlet through which a person can regain a sense of agency and control.

How to Bring Creativity into Daily Life

For those new to exploring art as a creative pursuit or for well-being reasons, engaging in creative activities begins with letting go of unrealistic expectations. Being creative isn’t about becoming a famous artist or even a mediocre one. It is about allowing ourselves to flex the creative muscle that we all have and enjoying all the sensory and emotional aspects of imagining.

Next, think about activities that made you feel free to explore when you were a child. Did you like singing, playing in the outdoors, dancing, making up pretend plays, or writing little tales? Allow yourself to indulge in any and all of these creative pursuits that made you feel relaxed and joyful.

A cultural tradition , tinkering with electronics, making a gift for someone or simply paying attention to everyday beauty – any of these can be a creative activity. And just like any muscle, the more you exercise it, the stronger it becomes. Over time, you will notice yourself getting more confident and adventurous in your creative practices.

Whatever it is, make time for this creative pursuit every week – which is possibly the hardest step of them all. If it seems “unimportant” compared with the demands of daily life, such as work or family, try thinking of it as another form of sustenance.

Remember that creativity is just as critical to human health as eating nutritious meals or getting exercise and good rest . So as the Latin saying goes: “Plene vivere.” Live fully.

Girija Kaimal is a Professor of Art Therapy Research at Drexel University. This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

• brain structure & function
• mental health

Already a subscriber?

Register or Log In

Keep reading for as low as $1.99!

Sign up for our weekly science updates.

Save up to 40% off the cover price when you subscribe to Discover magazine.

Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Presentations > How to work on a group presentation

How to work on a group presentation

Working in a group can be a great way to tackle complicated tasks or share unique knowledge. When it comes to illustrating your team’s results to an audience, it can be tricky to navigate how to pace your presentation and who gets to speak, among other factors. Check out these tips for how to start a presentation speech, how to conclude a group presentation, and everything in between.

How to do a group presentation

Some people thrive working in groups , while others prefer to tackle projects by themselves. Balancing all these differing personalities is one of the key skills to ensuring that your presentation goes smoothly:

Tell your story with captivating presentations

Powerpoint empowers you to develop well-designed content across all your devices

Designate roles and presenting order to team strengths

The clearest way to do set presentation roles, and the order of these roles, is to set them early in the process and based upon the strengths of your group members. Designate roles based on certain skillsets and to keep from duplicating efforts. For example, having one or two people work exclusively on designing your PowerPoint presentation can streamline the process. Depending on how long your presentation is, you can assign everyone on your team three to five slides to discuss.

The importance of practicing

In addition, it helps to rehearse your presentation multiple times to iron out any kinks and build confidence. Practice your presentation together as a group so everyone can be prepared in front of your audience. Here, communication is key, scheduling regular meetings and clearly delegating tasks ensure everyone is on the same page.

How to start a group presentation speech

Just like the rest of your presentation, it helps to have just one person speak at a time. Assign the role of introducer to someone on your team. You can also choose to designate someone as the narrator who can both start the presentation, introduce team members, and finish in the conclusion.

Ensure that they clearly state the purpose of your presentation and provide an overview of what you’ll cover. You can also start with a compelling hook or an intriguing question to grab the audience’s attention. Introduce each member of your group and their roles and expertise to establish credibility and cohesion.

How to conclude a group presentation

At the end of your presentation, it helps to summarize the key points of your presentation and reiterate your main message so that your audience can retain as much information as possible. End with a strong closing statement or call to action to leave a lasting impression on your audience. Thank them for their time and invite further discussion or questions.

Mastering the art of group presentations requires effective collaboration, enough time for preparation, and a confident delivery. Play to your group’s strengths, give everyone plenty of time to speak, and value everyone’s contributions equally. Check out more tips for how to create an effective presentation , how to make group projects go smoother , or how to connect with virtual audiences .

Get started with Microsoft 365

It’s the Office you know, plus the tools to help you work better together, so you can get more done—anytime, anywhere.

Topics in this article

More articles like this one.

How to introduce yourself in a presentation

Gain your audience’s attention at the onset of a presentation. Craft an impressionable introduction to establish tone, presentation topic, and more.

How to add citations to your presentation

Conduct research and appropriately credit work for your presentation. Understand the importance of citing sources and how to add them to your presentation.

How to create a sales presentation

Engage your audience and get them interested in your product with this guide to creating a sales presentation.

7 tips for creating and presenting a webinar

Everything you need to achieve more in less time

Get powerful productivity and security apps with Microsoft 365

SME definition

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) represent 99% of all businesses in the EU. The definition of an SME is important for access to finance and EU support programmes targeted specifically at these enterprises.

What is an SME?

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are defined in the EU recommendation 2003/361 .

The main factors determining whether an enterprise is an SME are

• staff headcount
• either turnover or balance sheet total

These ceilings apply to the figures for individual firms only. A firm that is part of a larger group may need to include staff headcount/turnover/balance sheet data from that group too.

Further details include

• The revised user guide to the SME definition (2020) (2 MB, available in all EU languages)
• Declaring your enterprise to be an SME (the form is available in all languages as an annex in the revised user guide)
• The SME self-assessment tool which you can use to determine whether your organisation qualifies as a small and medium-sized enterprise

What help can SMEs get?

There are 2 broad types of potential benefit for an enterprise if it meets the criteria

• eligibility for support under many EU business-support programmes targeted specifically at SMEs: research funding, competitiveness and innovation funding and similar national support programmes that could otherwise be banned as unfair government support ('state aid' – see block exemption regulation )
• fewer requirements or reduced fees for EU administrative compliance

Monitoring of the implementation of the SME definition

The Commission monitors the implementation of the SME definition and reviews it in irregular intervals. Pursuant to the latest evaluation, the Commission concluded that there is no need for a revision.

On 25 October 2021, we informed stakeholders by holding a webinar with presentations on the SME evaluation's results and next steps.

Supporting documents

• Study to map, measure and portray the EU mid-cap landscape (2022)
• Staff working document on the evaluation of the SME definition  (2021)
• Executive summary on the evaluation of the SME definition  (2021)
• Q&A on the evaluation of the SME definition  (2021)
• Final report on evaluation of the SME definition  (2018) (10 MB)
• Final report on evaluation of the SME definition (2012)  (1.8 MB)
• Executive summary on evaluation of the SME definition (2012)  (345 kB)
• Implementing the SME definition (2009)  (50 kB)
• Implementing the SME definition (2006)  (40 kB)

Share this page

July 2024: Notable dates and events

As July approaches, Northeastern has crafted a variety of activities designed to appeal to the varied interests of its undergraduate students. Here’s a preview of what to expect.

Notable Dates

• Monday, July 1: First day of summer 2 classes, last day of “I Am Here” for summer 2 classes
• Wednesday, July 3: Last day of online class add for summer 2 classes
• Thursday, July 4: Independence Day, no classes
• Monday, July 15: Last day to drop a summer 2 class without a W grade
• Thursday, July 18: Last day to file a Final Exam Conflict Form for summer 2 classes

Upcoming events

Shape in art: a children’s center exhibition.

Monday, May 20 – Saturday, June 8 11 a.m. EDT Gallery 360, 360 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115

We invite all students to visit our 2024 exhibition, Shape in Art, at Gallery 360. Come explore the creativity of our young artists expressed through diverse projects and a special photography showcase, Shapes in the City.

Small Talk for Networking: CommLab Drop-In Workshops

Tuesday, July 2 3 p.m. EDT Room 13, International Village, 1155 Tremont St., Boston, MA 02120 or virtual

On Tuesdays, the Small Talk for Networking workshop takes place. This workshop series offers you the ability to practice techniques and use essential tools to improve your conversational skills and connect with others at networking events.

LeetCode Mock Interviews – CommLab Drop-In Workshops

Tuesday, July 2 4 p.m. EDT Room 13, International Village, 1155 Tremont St., Boston, MA 02120 or virtual

Students can join the CommLab any Tuesday from 4 to 5 p.m. for the LeetCode mock interview workshop. The workshop is tailored toward programming jobs, and prior coding knowledge is expected. Boost your LeetCode problem-solving confidence for interviews by building your speaking skills while solving programming problems.

LinkedIn, CV, Resume: CommLab Drop-In Workshops

Wednesday, July 3 4 p.m. EDT Room 13, International Village, 1155 Tremont St., Boston, MA 02120 or virtual

Every Wednesday, we host empowering LinkedIn, CV, and resume workshops. This collaborative space offers valuable advice and peer feedback to enhance your online profile and professional presence.

Poster Design and Presentation: CommLab Drop-In Workshops

Thursday, July 4 5 p.m. EDT Virtual

We will host drop-in workshops for poster design and presentation, focusing on crafting the best visual communication of your research and telling students’ research stories. Techniques will be discussed to help implement communication strategies to successfully showcase your work. Whether you’re just starting off or refining your final poster, we are here to assist you.

Black Feminist Book Club

Thursday, July 18 noon EDT Virtual

We are hosting our annual summer Black Feminist Book Club, presented by the Africana Studies program. This year’s book is “Fledgling,” by Octavia E. Butler, and we will feature guest speaker and moderator Dr. Susana Morris. The first 20 people to register get a free book.

Crafting Compelling Presentations

Monday, July 22 2 p.m. EDT Virtual

Join GLS as we explore ways in which you can design a presentation that is engaging, persuasive and memorable. During this interactive workshop, we will discuss presentation fundamentals, visual communication, delivery, content and more. Whether you are a student, a professional or an entrepreneur, mastering the art of presentations is essential for conveying your ideas with impact and confidence.

University News

Joyce J. Scott Closes July 14

See the Baltimore icon's career retrospective, called "spectacular" and "fantastic" by BMA visitors.

• Press Release

June 25, 2024

Bma to open solo exhibition of new and recent works by acclaimed artist nicholas galanin.

The exhibition is part of Preoccupied : Indigenizing the Museum , a major initiative focused on enhancing the presence of Native voices and works throughout the BMA 

BALTIMORE, MD (June 25, 2024)—On July 14, the Baltimore Museum of Art (BMA) will open Nicholas Galanin: Exist in the Width of a Knife’s Edge , a solo exhibition of new and recent works by the artist that addresses the consequences of European colonization and occupation of Indigenous homelands—specifically theft and erasure of belongings, Land, resources, and cultural knowledge from Indigenous communities. In his multifaceted works, Galanin (Lingít and Unangax̂) offers an incisive and unflinching view of the enduring impacts of colonialism—including the willful excision of history and resulting collective amnesia—while also reclaiming Indigenous narratives and creative agency. Exist in the Width of a Knife’s Edge engages audiences with his provocative practice through eight significant works and installations, urging reflection on the damage caused by cultural erasure and eradication, as well as the persistence of Indigenous self-determination. The exhibition is part of the BMA’s ongoing initiative Preoccupied: Indigenizing the Museum and will remain on view through February 16, 2025.

“Through his forceful exploration of the past, present, and future, Galanin interrogates the long-term impact of colonialism within collecting art institutions by inviting a close look at the practices and motivations behind possessing Indigenous cultural belongings,” said co-curators Dare Turner (Yurok Tribe) and Leila Grothe. “His work embraces the transformative potential of art as a catalyst for change and understanding, speaking truth to power with a resolute voice.”

At the heart of the exhibition is the new installation Exist in the Width of a Knife’s Edge , which features 60 porcelain daggers that embody Lingít Indigenous design and technology and that are decorated with Russian ceramics patterns. Russian settlers first descended on Indigenous communities along the islands and coast of present-day Alaska in the 1700s, inflicting violence, capturing land, and displacing Indigenous people and their ways of life. Galanin notes, “With this installation, fragile and decorative representations of powerful weapons speak to the restriction of Indigenous people’s right to resist settler violence and legislation, tolerant of only fragile and decorative Indigenous people. The suspended blades hover at the height they would be wielded in battle. Frozen in mid-air, their capability to cut emerges from their ability to shatter. If these daggers break, their destruction would produce sharp projectiles and edges, rendering new forms to use as tools or weapons.”

Another major work in the exhibition is Fair Warning: A Sacred Place (2019), which comprises single channel audio and six photographs. The photographs capture empty museum displays that once featured Indigenous cultural belongings. As the viewer encounters these desolate images, they can hear the lively sound of an auction in progress, calling for new owners to claim possession of Indigenous works offered for sale. The juxtaposition of absence within the photographs and sense of removal within the audio pointedly challenges the notion that any person or institution can claim ownership over culture. Here, Galanin underscores this concern, stating that these artworks were “acquired (at best) from individuals suffering under extreme hardships enforced by colonization or by illegal means.”

Additional featured works include We Dreamt Deaf (2015), which explores the impacts of colonization on land and water and the struggle to survive in untenable conditions; Infinite Weight (2022), an installation that highlights the desire to control and dominate what is valuable and to continually marginalize what is deemed insignificant; and Visions of Liberation (2024), a hand-dyed and hand-tied rug that suggests the pixelated screen of a broken television. This work speaks to the role of mainstream media in perpetuating colonialist tendencies, false or partial narratives, and the oppression of land and peoples. Together, the artworks in the exhibition capture the depth, range, and intricacy of Galanin’s practice and highlight his ability to leverage the power of art and personal experiences to encourage new learning, understanding, and action toward a more just society.

Of his own practice, Galanin says, “My process of creation is a constant pursuit of freedom and vision for the present and future. I use my work to explore adaptation, resilience, survival, dream, memory, cultural resurgence, and connection and disconnection to the Land.”

The exhibition is part of the BMA’s Preoccupied: Indigenizing the Museum initiative that significantly increases the presence of Native voices, experiences, and works across the museum. Unfolding over the course of 10 months, Preoccupied includes nine solo and thematic exhibitions, interpretative interventions across the museum’s collection galleries, the development of a publication guided by Indigenous methodologies, and public programs. It represents an exceptionally expansive museum presentation of Native artists and thinkers, with nearly 100 individuals contributing to and represented across the initiative. The project was led by Dare Turner (Yurok Tribe), Curator of Indigenous Art at the Brooklyn Museum and former BMA Assistant Curator of Indigenous Art of the Americas; Leila Grothe, BMA Associate Curator of Contemporary Art; and Elise Boulanger (Citizen of the Osage Nation), BMA Curatorial Research Assistant, in consultation with a 10-member Community Advisory Panel that includes artists, scholars, designers, and community leaders.

This project is generously supported by the Ford Foundation, the Terra Foundation for American Art, The Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts, the Eileen Harris Norton Foundation, the Estate of Carolyn Lee Smith, The Dorman/Mazaroff Art Exhibition Fund, the Hardiman Family Endowment Fund, the Sigmund M. and Mary B. Hyman Fund for American Art, The Clair Zamoiski Segal and Thomas H. Segal Contemporary Art Endowment Fund, and the Robert Lehman Foundation.

Nicholas Galanin

Nicholas Galanin (Lingít and Unangax̂) was born in 1979 and lives and works in Sitka, AK. He has participated in the 2023 Liverpool Biennial; 2021 Desert X Biennial; 2020 Biennale of Sydney; 2019 Whitney Biennial; 2019 Honolulu Biennial; and 2017 Venice Biennale Native American Pavilion, among others major events and exhibitions. Solo exhibitions include those at the Baltimore Museum of Art (2024), SITE Santa Fe (2023), New York Public Art Fund (2023-24), Heard Museum (2018,) and others. Galanin’s work is in such collections the Museum of Modern Art, NY; Whitney Museum of Art, NY; Brooklyn Museum, NY, Seattle Art Museum, WA; Phillips Collection, Washington, DC; Philadelphia Museum of Art, PA; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, CA; Art Institute of Chicago, IL; The Museum of Fine Arts Houston, TX, National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, Ont; and Denver Art Museum, among others. He is a 2024 Guggenheim Fellow; 2023 Joan Mitchell Fellow; the 2020 recipient of the Gwendolyn Knight Lawrence Award in Art, Academy of Arts and Letters, New York; and a 2020 recipient of a Soros Arts Fellowship.

About the Baltimore Museum of Art

Founded in 1914, the Baltimore Museum of Art (BMA) inspires people of all ages and backgrounds through exhibitions, programs, and collections that tell an expansive story of art—challenging long-held narratives and embracing new voices. Our outstanding collection of more than 97,000 objects spans many eras and cultures and includes the world’s largest public holding of works by Henri Matisse; one of the nation’s finest collections of prints, drawings, and photographs; and a rapidly growing number of works by contemporary artists of diverse backgrounds. The museum is also distinguished by a neoclassical building designed by American architect John Russell Pope and two beautifully landscaped gardens featuring an array of modern and contemporary sculpture. The BMA is located three miles north of the Inner Harbor, adjacent to the main campus of Johns Hopkins University, and has a community branch at Lexington Market. General admission is free so that everyone can enjoy the power of art.

Press Contacts

Anne Brown Baltimore Museum of Art Senior Director of Communications [email protected] 410-274-9907

Sarah Pedroni Baltimore Museum of Art Communications Manager [email protected] 410-428-4668

Alina Sumajin PAVE Communications [email protected] 646-369-2050