problem solving experience to support cognitive development

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Child cognitive development is a fascinating and complex process that entails the growth of a child’s mental abilities, including their ability to think, learn, and solve problems. This development occurs through a series of stages that can vary among individuals. As children progress through these stages, their cognitive abilities and skills are continuously shaped by a myriad of factors such as genetics, environment, and experiences. Understanding the nuances of child cognitive development is essential for parents, educators, and professionals alike, as it provides valuable insight into supporting the growth of the child’s intellect and overall well-being.

Throughout the developmental process, language and communication play a vital role in fostering a child’s cognitive abilities . As children acquire language skills, they also develop their capacity for abstract thought, reasoning, and problem-solving. It is crucial for parents and caregivers to be mindful of potential developmental delays, as early intervention can greatly benefit the child’s cognitive development. By providing stimulating environments, nurturing relationships, and embracing diverse learning opportunities, adults can actively foster healthy cognitive development in children.

Key Takeaways

• Child cognitive development involves the growth of mental abilities and occurs through various stages.
• Language and communication are significant factors in cognitive development , shaping a child’s ability for abstract thought and problem-solving.
• Early intervention and supportive environments can play a crucial role in fostering healthy cognitive development in children.

Child Cognitive Development Stages

Child cognitive development is a crucial aspect of a child’s growth and involves the progression of their thinking, learning, and problem-solving abilities. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed a widely recognized theory that identifies four major stages of cognitive development in children.

Sensorimotor Stage

The Sensorimotor Stage occurs from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, infants and newborns learn to coordinate their senses (sight, sound, touch, etc.) with their motor abilities. Their understanding of the world begins to develop through their physical interactions and experiences. Some key milestones in this stage include object permanence, which is the understanding that an object still exists even when it’s not visible, and the development of intentional actions.

Preoperational Stage

The Preoperational Stage takes place between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. In this stage, children start to think symbolically, and their language capabilities rapidly expand. They also develop the ability to use mental images, words, and gestures to represent the world around them. However, their thinking is largely egocentric, which means they struggle to see things from other people’s perspectives. During this stage, children start to engage in pretend play and begin to grasp the concept of conservation, recognizing that certain properties of objects (such as quantity or volume) remain the same even if their appearance changes.

Concrete Operational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 12 years old. At this stage, children’s cognitive development progresses to more logical and organized ways of thinking. They can now consider multiple aspects of a problem and better understand the relationship between cause and effect . Furthermore, children become more adept at understanding other people’s viewpoints, and they can perform basic mathematical operations and understand the principles of classification and seriation.

Formal Operational Stage

Lastly, the Formal Operational Stage typically begins around 12 years old and extends into adulthood. In this stage, children develop the capacity for abstract thinking and can consider hypothetical situations and complex reasoning. They can also perform advanced problem-solving and engage in systematic scientific inquiry. This stage allows individuals to think about abstract concepts, their own thought processes, and understand the world in deeper, more nuanced ways.

By understanding these stages of cognitive development, you can better appreciate the complex growth process that children undergo as their cognitive abilities transform and expand throughout their childhood.

Key Factors in Cognitive Development

Genetics and brain development.

Genetics play a crucial role in determining a child’s cognitive development. A child’s brain development is heavily influenced by genetic factors, which also determine their cognitive potential , abilities, and skills. It is important to understand that a child’s genes do not solely dictate their cognitive development – various environmental and experiential factors contribute to shaping their cognitive abilities as they grow and learn.

Environmental Influences

The environment in which a child grows up has a significant impact on their cognitive development. Exposure to various experiences is essential for a child to develop essential cognitive skills such as problem-solving, communication, and critical thinking. Factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive development include exposure to toxins, extreme stress, trauma, abuse, and addiction issues, such as alcoholism in the family.

Nutrition and Health

Maintaining good nutrition and health is vital for a child’s cognitive development. Adequate nutrition is essential for the proper growth and functioning of the brain . Key micronutrients that contribute to cognitive development include iron, zinc, and vitamins A, C, D, and B-complex vitamins. Additionally, a child’s overall health, including physical fitness and immunity, ensures they have the energy and resources to engage in learning activities and achieve cognitive milestones effectively .

Emotional and Social Factors

Emotional well-being and social relationships can also greatly impact a child’s cognitive development. A supportive, nurturing, and emotionally healthy environment allows children to focus on learning and building cognitive skills. Children’s emotions and stress levels can impact their ability to learn and process new information. Additionally, positive social interactions help children develop important cognitive skills such as empathy, communication, and collaboration.

In summary, cognitive development in children is influenced by various factors, including genetics, environmental influences, nutrition, health, and emotional and social factors. Considering these factors can help parents, educators, and policymakers create suitable environments and interventions for promoting optimal child development.

Language and Communication Development

Language skills and milestones.

Children’s language development is a crucial aspect of their cognitive growth. They begin to acquire language skills by listening and imitating sounds they hear from their environment. As they grow, they start to understand words and form simple sentences.

• Infants (0-12 months): Babbling, cooing, and imitating sounds are common during this stage. They can also identify their name by the end of their first year. Facial expressions play a vital role during this period, as babies learn to respond to emotions.
• Toddlers (1-3 years): They rapidly learn new words and form simple sentences. They engage more in spoken communication, constantly exploring their language environment.
• Preschoolers (3-5 years): Children expand their vocabulary, improve grammar, and begin participating in more complex conversations.

It’s essential to monitor children’s language development and inform their pediatrician if any delays or concerns arise.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication contributes significantly to children’s cognitive development. They learn to interpret body language, facial expressions, and gestures long before they can speak. Examples of nonverbal communication in children include:

• Eye contact: Maintaining eye contact while interacting helps children understand emotions and enhances communication.
• Gestures: Pointing, waving goodbye, or using hand signs provide alternative ways for children to communicate their needs and feelings.
• Body language: Posture, body orientation, and movement give clues about a child’s emotions and intentions.

Teaching children to understand and use nonverbal communication supports their cognitive and social development.

Parent and Caregiver Interaction

Supportive interaction from parents and caregivers plays a crucial role in children’s language and communication development. These interactions can improve children’s language skills and overall cognitive abilities . Some ways parents and caregivers can foster language development are:

• Reading together: From an early age, reading books to children enhance their vocabulary and listening skills.
• Encouraging communication: Ask open-ended questions and engage them in conversations to build their speaking skills.
• Using rich vocabulary: Expose children to a variety of words and phrases, promoting language growth and understanding.

By actively engaging in children’s language and communication development, parents and caregivers can nurture cognitive, emotional, and social growth.

Cognitive Abilities and Skills

Cognitive abilities are the mental skills that children develop as they grow. These skills are essential for learning, adapting, and thriving in modern society. In this section, we will discuss various aspects of cognitive development, including reasoning and problem-solving, attention and memory, decision-making and executive function, as well as academic and cognitive milestones.

Reasoning and Problem Solving

Reasoning is the ability to think logically and make sense of the world around us. It’s essential for a child’s cognitive development, as it enables them to understand the concept of object permanence , recognize patterns, and classify objects. Problem-solving skills involve using these reasoning abilities to find solutions to challenges they encounter in daily life .

Children develop essential skills like:

• Logical reasoning : The ability to deduce conclusions from available information.
• Perception: Understanding how objects relate to one another in their environment.
• Schemes: Organizing thoughts and experiences into mental categories.

Attention and Memory

Attention refers to a child’s ability to focus on specific tasks, objects, or information, while memory involves retaining and recalling information. These cognitive abilities play a critical role in children’s learning and academic performance . Working memory is a vital component of learning, as it allows children to hold and manipulate information in their minds while solving problems and engaging with new tasks.

• Attention: Focuses on relevant tasks and information while ignoring distractions.
• Memory: Retains and retrieves information when needed.

Decision-Making and Executive Function

Decision-making is the process of making choices among various alternatives, while executive function refers to the higher-order cognitive processes that enable children to plan, organize, and adapt in complex situations. Executive function encompasses components such as:

• Inhibition: Self-control and the ability to resist impulses.
• Cognitive flexibility: Adapting to new information or changing circumstances.
• Planning: Setting goals and devising strategies to achieve them.

Academic and Cognitive Milestones

Children’s cognitive development is closely linked to their academic achievement. As they grow, they achieve milestones in various cognitive domains that form the foundation for their future learning. Some of these milestones include:

• Language skills: Developing vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure.
• Reading and mathematics: Acquiring the ability to read and comprehend text, as well as understanding basic mathematical concepts and operations.
• Scientific thinking: Developing an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships and forming hypotheses.

Healthy cognitive development is essential for a child’s success in school and life. By understanding and supporting the development of their cognitive abilities, we can help children unlock their full potential and prepare them for a lifetime of learning and growth.

Developmental Delays and Early Intervention

Identifying developmental delays.

Developmental delays in children can be identified by monitoring their progress in reaching cognitive, linguistic, physical, and social milestones. Parents and caregivers should be aware of developmental milestones that are generally expected to be achieved by children at different ages, such as 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 9 months, 18 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years. Utilizing resources such as the “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” program can help parents and caregivers recognize signs of delay early in a child’s life.

Resources and Support for Parents

There are numerous resources available for parents and caregivers to find information on developmental milestones and to learn about potential developmental delays, including:

• Learn the Signs. Act Early : A CDC initiative that provides pdf checklists of milestones and resources for identifying delays.
• Parental support groups : Local and online communities dedicated to providing resources and fostering connections between families experiencing similar challenges.

Professional Evaluations and Intervention Strategies

If parents or caregivers suspect a developmental delay, it is crucial to consult with healthcare professionals or specialists who can conduct validated assessments of the child’s cognitive and developmental abilities. Early intervention strategies, such as the ones used in broad-based early intervention programs , have shown significant positive impacts on children with developmental delays to improve cognitive development and outcomes.

Professional evaluations may include:

• Pediatricians : Primary healthcare providers who can monitor a child’s development and recommend further assessments when needed.
• Speech and language therapists : Professionals who assist children with language and communication deficits.
• Occupational therapists : Experts in helping children develop or improve on physical and motor skills, as well as social and cognitive abilities.

Depending on the severity and nature of the delays, interventions may involve:

• Individualized support : Tailored programs or therapy sessions specifically developed for the child’s needs.
• Group sessions : Opportunities for children to learn from and interact with other children experiencing similar challenges.
• Family involvement : Parents and caregivers learning support strategies to help the child in their daily life.

Fostering Healthy Cognitive Development

Play and learning opportunities.

Encouraging play is crucial for fostering healthy cognitive development in children . Provide a variety of age-appropriate games, puzzles, and creative activities that engage their senses and stimulate curiosity. For example, introduce building blocks and math games for problem-solving skills, and crossword puzzles to improve vocabulary and reasoning abilities.

Playing with others also helps children develop social skills and better understand facial expressions and emotions. Provide opportunities for cooperative play, where kids can work together to achieve a common goal, and open-ended play with no specific rules to boost creativity.

Supportive Home Environment

A nurturing and secure home environment encourages healthy cognitive growth. Be responsive to your child’s needs and interests, involving them in everyday activities and providing positive reinforcement. Pay attention to their emotional well-being and create a space where they feel safe to ask questions and explore their surroundings.

Promoting Independence and Decision-Making

Support independence by allowing children to make decisions about their playtime, activities, and daily routines. Encourage them to take age-appropriate responsibilities and make choices that contribute to self-confidence and autonomy. Model problem-solving strategies and give them opportunities to practice these skills during play, while also guiding them when necessary.

Healthy Lifestyle Habits

Promote a well-rounded lifestyle, including:

• Sleep : Ensure children get adequate and quality sleep by establishing a consistent bedtime routine.
• Hydration : Teach the importance of staying hydrated by offering water frequently, especially during play and physical activities.
• Screen time : Limit exposure to electronic devices and promote alternative activities for toddlers and older kids.
• Physical activity : Encourage children to engage in active play and exercise to support neural development and overall health .

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the key stages of child cognitive development.

Child cognitive development can be divided into several key stages based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development . These stages include the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), preoperational stage (2-7 years), concrete operational stage (7-11 years), and formal operational stage (11 years and beyond). Every stage represents a unique period of cognitive growth, marked by the development of new skills, thought processes, and understanding of the world.

What factors influence cognitive development in children?

Several factors contribute to individual differences in child cognitive development, such as genetic and environmental factors. Socioeconomic status, access to quality education, early home environment, and parental involvement all play a significant role in determining cognitive growth. In addition, children’s exposure to diverse learning experiences, adequate nutrition, and mental health also influence overall cognitive performance .

How do cognitive skills vary during early childhood?

Cognitive skills in early childhood evolve as children progress through various stages . During the sensorimotor stage, infants develop fundamental skills such as object permanence. The preoperational stage is characterized by the development of symbolic thought, language, and imaginative play. Children then enter the concrete operational stage, acquiring the ability to think logically and solve problems. Finally, in the formal operational stage, children develop abstract reasoning abilities, complex problem-solving skills and metacognitive awareness.

What are common examples of cognitive development?

Examples of cognitive development include the acquisition of language and vocabulary, the development of problem-solving skills, and the ability to engage in logical reasoning. Additionally, memory, attention, and spatial awareness are essential aspects of cognitive development. Children may demonstrate these skills through activities like puzzle-solving, reading, and mathematics.

How do cognitive development theories explain children’s learning?

Piaget’s cognitive development theory suggests that children learn through active exploration, constructing knowledge based on their experiences and interactions with the world. In contrast, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning. Both theories imply that cognitive development is a dynamic and evolving process, influenced by various environmental and psychological factors.

Why is it essential to support cognitive development in early childhood?

Supporting cognitive development in early childhood is critical because it lays a strong foundation for future academic achievement, social-emotional development, and lifelong learning. By providing children with diverse and enriching experiences, caregivers and educators can optimize cognitive growth and prepare children to face the challenges of today’s complex world. Fostering cognitive development early on helps children develop resilience, adaptability, and critical thinking skills essential for personal and professional success.

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Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive development that occur as we move from infancy to adulthood.
• Cognitive development results from the interplay between innate capabilities (nature) and environmental influences (nurture).
• Children progress through four distinct stages , each representing varying cognitive abilities and world comprehension: the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond).
• A child’s cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop or construct a mental model of the world, which is referred to as a schema .
• Piaget emphasized the role of active exploration and interaction with the environment in shaping cognitive development, highlighting the importance of assimilation and accommodation in constructing mental schemas.

Stages of Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.

Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age – although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage , during which the infant focuses on physical sensations and learning to coordinate its body.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring their environment).
• During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
• They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally
• At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear.

During the beginning of this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object permanence.

If it cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

The child begins to be able to store information that it knows about the world, recall it, and label it.

Individual Differences

• Cultural Practices : In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
• Gender Norms : Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.

Learn More: The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage . It takes place between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations, so the thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning.

A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity remains the same even if the appearance changes.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. This has been shown in the three mountains study.

As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more important.

Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
• Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages.

Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world).

• Cultural Storytelling : Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore. Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements differently based on their cultural narratives.
• Race & Representation : A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background.

Learn More: The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 – 11 Years

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage , the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

• During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

• Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks : In a society where resources are scarce, children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on preserving and reusing materials.
• Gender & Learning : Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on perceived gender norms.

Learn More: The Concrete Operational Stage of Development

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Over

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and fractions without having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

• Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate about many possible consequences.

From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

• Culture & Abstract Thinking : Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex narratives might develop prominently.
• Gender & Ethics : Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.

Learn More: The Formal Operational Stage of Development

Piaget’s Theory

• Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their own cognitive development.
• According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of information; instead, they actively explore and interact with their surroundings.
• This active engagement with the environment is crucial because it allows them to gradually build their understanding of the world.

1. How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s intelligence:

• Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.
• Children actively build up their knowledge about the world . They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
• The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number , time, quantity, causality , justice , and so on emerged.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

2. Piaget’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget’s (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process that occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Children’s ability to understand, think about, and solve problems in the world develops in a stop-start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).

• It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
• It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
• It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

Piaget claimed that knowledge cannot simply emerge from sensory experience; some initial structure is necessary to make sense of the world.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based.

Schemas are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form a mental representation of the world.

Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as: “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.”

In more simple terms, Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as “units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions, and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as “index cards” filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.

When Piaget talked about the development of a person’s mental processes, he was referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learned.

When a child’s existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

Operations are more sophisticated mental structures which allow us to combine schemas in a logical (reasonable) way.

As children grow they can carry out more complex operations and begin to imagine hypothetical (imaginary) situations.

Apart from the schemas we are born with schemas and operations are learned through interaction with other people and the environment.

Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described how they were developed or acquired.

A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.

Examples of Schemas

A person might have a schema about buying a meal in a restaurant. The schema is a stored form of the pattern of behavior which includes looking at a menu, ordering food, eating it and paying the bill.

This is an example of a schema called a “script.” Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.

The schemas Piaget described tend to be simpler than this – especially those used by infants. He described how – as a child gets older – his or her schemas become more numerous and elaborate.

Piaget believed that newborn babies have a small number of innate schemas – even before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes. These reflexes are genetically programmed into us.

For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the baby’s lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person’s finger. Piaget, therefore, assumed that the baby has a “sucking schema.”

Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a baby’s hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

4. The Process of Adaptation

Piaget also believed that a child developed as a result of two different influences: maturation, and interaction with the environment. The child develops mental structures (schemata) which enables him to solve problems in the environment.

Adaptation is the process by which the child changes its mental models of the world to match more closely how the world actually is.

Adaptation is brought about by the processes of assimilation (solving new experiences using existing schemata) and accommodation (changing existing schemata in order to solve new experiences).

The importance of this viewpoint is that the child is seen as an active participant in its own development rather than a passive recipient of either biological influences (maturation) or environmental stimulation.

When our existing schemas can explain what we perceive around us, we are in a state of equilibration . However, when we meet a new situation that we cannot explain it creates disequilibrium, this is an unpleasant sensation which we try to escape, and this gives us the motivation to learn.

According to Piaget, reorganization to higher levels of thinking is not accomplished easily. The child must “rethink” his or her view of the world. An important step in the process is the experience of cognitive conflict.

In other words, the child becomes aware that he or she holds two contradictory views about a situation and they both cannot be true. This step is referred to as disequilibrium .

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

To get back to a state of equilibration, we need to modify our existing schemas to learn and adapt to the new situation.

This is done through the processes of accommodation and assimilation . This is how our schemas evolve and become more sophisticated. The processes of assimilation and accommodation are continuous and interactive.

5. Assimilation

Piaget defined assimilation as the cognitive process of fitting new information into existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding. Overall beliefs and understanding of the world do not change as a result of the new information.

Assimilation occurs when the new experience is not very different from previous experiences of a particular object or situation we assimilate the new situation by adding information to a previous schema.

This means that when you are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by referring to information you already have (information processed and learned previously) and trying to fit the new information into the information you already have.

• Imagine a young child who has only ever seen small, domesticated dogs. When the child sees a cat for the first time, they might refer to it as a “dog” because it has four legs, fur, and a tail – features that fit their existing schema of a dog.
• A person who has always believed that all birds can fly might label penguins as birds that can fly. This is because their existing schema or understanding of birds includes the ability to fly.
• A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown” (Siegler et al., 2003).
• If a baby learns to pick up a rattle he or she will then use the same schema (grasping) to pick up other objects.

6. Accommodation

Accommodation: when the new experience is very different from what we have encountered before we need to change our schemas in a very radical way or create a whole new schema.

Psychologist Jean Piaget defined accommodation as the cognitive process of revising existing cognitive schemas, perceptions, and understanding so that new information can be incorporated.

This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.

In order to make sense of some new information, you actually adjust information you already have (schemas you already have, etc.) to make room for this new information.

• A baby tries to use the same schema for grasping to pick up a very small object. It doesn’t work. The baby then changes the schema by now using the forefinger and thumb to pick up the object.
• A child may have a schema for birds (feathers, flying, etc.) and then they see a plane, which also flies, but would not fit into their bird schema.
• In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard concept of “clown”.
• A person who grew up thinking all snakes are dangerous might move to an area where garden snakes are common and harmless. Over time, after observing and learning, they might accommodate their previous belief to understand that not all snakes are harmful.

7. Equilibration

Piaget believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek “equilibrium” in our cognitive structures.

Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).

Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Equilibration is a regulatory process that maintains a balance between assimilation and accommodation to facilitate cognitive growth. Think of it this way: We can’t merely assimilate all the time; if we did, we would never learn any new concepts or principles.

Everything new we encountered would just get put in the same few “slots” we already had. Neither can we accommodate all the time; if we did, everything we encountered would seem new; there would be no recurring regularities in our world. We’d be exhausted by the mental effort!

Applications to Education

Think of old black and white films that you’ve seen in which children sat in rows at desks, with ink wells, would learn by rote, all chanting in unison in response to questions set by an authoritarian old biddy like Matilda!

Children who were unable to keep up were seen as slacking and would be punished by variations on the theme of corporal punishment. Yes, it really did happen and in some parts of the world still does today.

Piaget is partly responsible for the change that occurred in the 1960s and for your relatively pleasurable and pain-free school days!

“Children should be able to do their own experimenting and their own research. Teachers, of course, can guide them by providing appropriate materials, but the essential thing is that in order for a child to understand something, he must construct it himself, he must re-invent it. Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by himself will remain with him visibly”. Piaget (1972, p. 27)

Plowden Report

Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget’s theory can be applied to teaching and learning.

Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden Report (1967).

In the 1960s the Plowden Committee investigated the deficiencies in education and decided to incorporate many of Piaget’s ideas into its final report published in 1967, even though Piaget’s work was not really designed for education.

The report makes three Piaget-associated recommendations:

• Children should be given individual attention and it should be realized that they need to be treated differently.
• Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning
• Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs.

“The report’s recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children’s learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children’s progress – teachers should “not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.”

Discovery learning – the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring – was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

How to teach

Within the classroom learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery learning. The role of the teacher is to facilitate learning, rather than direct tuition.

Because Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of “readiness” is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught.

According to Piaget’s theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.

According to Piaget (1958), assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered.

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:

• Educational programs should be designed to correspond to Piaget’s stages of development. Children in the concrete operational stage should be given concrete means to learn new concepts e.g. tokens for counting.
• Devising situations that present useful problems, and create disequilibrium in the child.
• Focus on the process of learning, rather than the end product of it. Instead of checking if children have the right answer, the teacher should focus on the student’s understanding and the processes they used to get to the answer.
• Child-centered approach. Learning must be active (discovery learning). Children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge.
• Accepting that children develop at different rates so arrange activities for individual children or small groups rather than assume that all the children can cope with a particular activity.
• Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing “truths.”
• Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other).
• Evaluate the level of the child’s development so suitable tasks can be set.
• Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child (i.e. differentiated teaching).
• Be aware of the child’s stage of development (testing).
• Teach only when the child is ready. i.e. has the child reached the appropriate stage.
• Providing support for the “spontaneous research” of the child.
• Using collaborative, as well as individual activities.
• Educators may use Piaget’s stages to design age-appropriate assessment tools and strategies.

Classroom Activities

Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years):.

Although most kids in this age range are not in a traditional classroom setting, they can still benefit from games that stimulate their senses and motor skills.

• Object Permanence Games : Play peek-a-boo or hide toys under a blanket to help babies understand that objects still exist even when they can’t see them.
• Sensory Play : Activities like water play, sand play, or playdough encourage exploration through touch.
• Imitation : Children at this age love to imitate adults. Use imitation as a way to teach new skills.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

• Role Playing : Set up pretend play areas where children can act out different scenarios, such as a kitchen, hospital, or market.
• Use of Symbols : Encourage drawing, building, and using props to represent other things.
• Hands-on Activities : Children should interact physically with their environment, so provide plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning.
• Egocentrism Activities : Use exercises that highlight different perspectives. For instance, having two children sit across from each other with an object in between and asking them what the other sees.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

• Classification Tasks : Provide objects or pictures to group, based on various characteristics.
• Hands-on Experiments : Introduce basic science experiments where they can observe cause and effect, like a simple volcano with baking soda and vinegar.
• Logical Games : Board games, puzzles, and logic problems help develop their thinking skills.
• Conservation Tasks : Use experiments to showcase that quantity doesn’t change with alterations in shape, such as the classic liquid conservation task using different shaped glasses.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

• Hypothesis Testing : Encourage students to make predictions and test them out.
• Abstract Thinking : Introduce topics that require abstract reasoning, such as algebra or ethical dilemmas.
• Problem Solving : Provide complex problems and have students work on solutions, integrating various subjects and concepts.
• Debate and Discussion : Encourage group discussions and debates on abstract topics, highlighting the importance of logic and evidence.
• Feedback and Questioning : Use open-ended questions to challenge students and promote higher-order thinking. For instance, rather than asking, “Is this the right answer?”, ask, “How did you arrive at this conclusion?”

While Piaget’s stages offer a foundational framework, they are not universally experienced in the same way by all children.

Social identities play a critical role in shaping cognitive development, necessitating a more nuanced and culturally responsive approach to understanding child development.

Piaget’s stages may manifest differently based on social identities like race, gender, and culture:

• Race & Teacher Interactions : A child’s race can influence teacher expectations and interactions. For example, racial biases can lead to children of color being perceived as less capable or more disruptive, influencing their cognitive challenges and supports.
• Racial and Cultural Stereotypes : These can affect a child’s self-perception and self-efficacy . For instance, stereotypes about which racial or cultural groups are “better” at certain subjects can influence a child’s self-confidence and, subsequently, their engagement in that subject.
• Gender & Peer Interactions : Children learn gender roles from their peers. Boys might be mocked for playing “girl games,” and girls might be excluded from certain activities, influencing their cognitive engagements.
• Language : Multilingual children might navigate the stages differently, especially if their home language differs from their school language. The way concepts are framed in different languages can influence cognitive processing. Cultural idioms and metaphors can shape a child’s understanding of concepts and their ability to use symbolic representation, especially in the pre-operational stage.

Curriculum Development

According to Piaget, children’s cognitive development is determined by a process of maturation which cannot be altered by tuition so education should be stage-specific.

For example, a child in the concrete operational stage should not be taught abstract concepts and should be given concrete aid such as tokens to count with.

According to Piaget children learn through the process of accommodation and assimilation so the role of the teacher should be to provide opportunities for these processes to occur such as new material and experiences that challenge the children’s existing schemas.

Furthermore, according to this theory, children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge.

Curricula need to be developed that take into account the age and stage of thinking of the child. For example there is no point in teaching abstract concepts such as algebra or atomic structure to children in primary school.

Curricula also need to be sufficiently flexible to allow for variations in the ability of different students of the same age. In Britain, the National Curriculum and Key Stages broadly reflect the stages that Piaget laid down.

For example, egocentrism dominates a child’s thinking in the sensorimotor and preoperational stages. Piaget would therefore predict that using group activities would not be appropriate since children are not capable of understanding the views of others.

However, Smith et al. (1998), point out that some children develop earlier than Piaget predicted and that by using group work children can learn to appreciate the views of others in preparation for the concrete operational stage.

The national curriculum emphasizes the need to use concrete examples in the primary classroom.

Shayer (1997), reported that abstract thought was necessary for success in secondary school (and co-developed the CASE system of teaching science). Recently the National curriculum has been updated to encourage the teaching of some abstract concepts towards the end of primary education, in preparation for secondary courses. (DfEE, 1999).

Child-centered teaching is regarded by some as a child of the ‘liberal sixties.’ In the 1980s the Thatcher government introduced the National Curriculum in an attempt to move away from this and bring more central government control into the teaching of children.

So, although the British National Curriculum in some ways supports the work of Piaget, (in that it dictates the order of teaching), it can also be seen as prescriptive to the point where it counters Piaget’s child-oriented approach.

However, it does still allow for flexibility in teaching methods, allowing teachers to tailor lessons to the needs of their students.

Social Media (Digital Learning)

Jean Piaget could not have anticipated the expansive digital age we now live in.

Today, knowledge dissemination and creation are democratized by the Internet, with platforms like blogs, wikis, and social media allowing for vast collaboration and shared knowledge. This development has prompted a reimagining of the future of education.

Classrooms, traditionally seen as primary sites of learning, are being overshadowed by the rise of mobile technologies and platforms like MOOCs (Passey, 2013).

The millennial generation, defined as the first to grow up with cable TV, the internet, and cell phones, relies heavily on technology.

They view it as an integral part of their identity, with most using it extensively in their daily lives, from keeping in touch with loved ones to consuming news and entertainment (Nielsen, 2014).

Social media platforms offer a dynamic environment conducive to Piaget’s principles. These platforms allow for interactions that nurture knowledge evolution through cognitive processes like assimilation and accommodation.

They emphasize communal interaction and shared activity, fostering both cognitive and socio-cultural constructivism. This shared activity promotes understanding and exploration beyond individual perspectives, enhancing social-emotional learning (Gehlbach, 2010).

A standout advantage of social media in an educational context is its capacity to extend beyond traditional classroom confines. As the material indicates, these platforms can foster more inclusive learning, bridging diverse learner groups.

This inclusivity can equalize learning opportunities, potentially diminishing biases based on factors like race or socio-economic status, resonating with Kegan’s (1982) concept of “recruitability.”

However, there are challenges. While the potential of social media in learning is vast, its practical application necessitates intention and guidance. Cuban, Kirkpatrick, and Peck (2001) note that certain educators and students are hesitant about integrating social media into educational contexts.

This hesitancy can stem from technological complexities or potential distractions. Yet, when harnessed effectively, social media can provide a rich environment for collaborative learning and interpersonal development, fostering a deeper understanding of content.

In essence, the rise of social media aligns seamlessly with constructivist philosophies. Social media platforms act as tools for everyday cognition, merging daily social interactions with the academic world, and providing avenues for diverse, interactive, and engaging learning experiences.

Applications to Parenting

Parents can use Piaget’s stages to have realistic developmental expectations of their children’s behavior and cognitive capabilities.

For instance, understanding that a toddler is in the pre-operational stage can help parents be patient when the child is egocentric.

Play Activities

Recognizing the importance of play in cognitive development, many parents provide toys and games suited for their child’s developmental stage.

Parents can offer activities that are slightly beyond their child’s current abilities, leveraging Vygotsky’s concept of the “Zone of Proximal Development,” which complements Piaget’s ideas.

• Peek-a-boo : Helps with object permanence.
• Texture Touch : Provide different textured materials (soft, rough, bumpy, smooth) for babies to touch and feel.
• Sound Bottles : Fill small bottles with different items like rice, beans, bells, and have children shake and listen to the different sounds.
• Memory Games : Using cards with pictures, place them face down, and ask students to find matching pairs.
• Role Playing and Pretend Play : Let children act out roles or stories that enhance symbolic thinking. Encourage symbolic play with dress-up clothes, playsets, or toy cash registers. Provide prompts or scenarios to extend their imagination.
• Story Sequencing : Give children cards with parts of a story and have them arranged in the correct order.
• Number Line Jumps : Create a number line on the floor with tape. Ask students to jump to the correct answer for math problems.
• Classification Games : Provide a mix of objects and ask students to classify them based on different criteria (e.g., color, size, shape).
• Logical Puzzle Games : Games that involve problem-solving using logic, such as simple Sudoku puzzles or logic grid puzzles.
• Debate and Discussion : Provide a topic and let students debate on pros and cons. This promotes abstract thinking and logical reasoning.
• Hypothesis Testing Games : Present a scenario and have students come up with hypotheses and ways to test them.
• Strategy Board Games : Games like chess, checkers, or Settlers of Catan can help in developing strategic and forward-thinking skills.

Critical Evaluation

• The influence of Piaget’s ideas on developmental psychology has been enormous. He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children.

He was an inspiration to many who came after and took up his ideas. Piaget’s ideas have generated a huge amount of research which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.

• Piaget (1936) was one of the first psychologists to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
• His ideas have been of practical use in understanding and communicating with children, particularly in the field of education (re: Discovery Learning). Piaget’s theory has been applied across education.
• According to Piaget’s theory, educational programs should be designed to correspond to the stages of development.
• Are the stages real? Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as a continuous process. Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed.

For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college students fail at formal operation tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that only one-third of adults ever reach the formal operational stage.

The fact that the formal operational stage is not reached in all cultures and not all individuals within cultures suggests that it might not be biologically based.

• According to Piaget, the rate of cognitive development cannot be accelerated as it is based on biological processes however, direct tuition can speed up the development which suggests that it is not entirely based on biological factors.
• Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, he failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on cognitive development.

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological process of maturation.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals which suggests that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

Dasen (1994) cites studies he conducted in remote parts of the central Australian desert with 8-14-year-old Indigenous Australians. He gave them conservation of liquid tasks and spatial awareness tasks. He found that the ability to conserve came later in the Aboriginal children, between ages of 10 and 13 (as opposed to between 5 and 7, with Piaget’s Swiss sample).

However, he found that spatial awareness abilities developed earlier amongst the Aboriginal children than the Swiss children. Such a study demonstrates cognitive development is not purely dependent on maturation but on cultural factors too – spatial awareness is crucial for nomadic groups of people.

Vygotsky , a contemporary of Piaget, argued that social interaction is crucial for cognitive development. According to Vygotsky the child’s learning always occurs in a social context in cooperation with someone more skillful (MKO). This social interaction provides language opportunities and Vygotsky considered language the foundation of thought.

• Piaget’s methods (observation and clinical interviews) are more open to biased interpretation than other methods. Piaget made careful, detailed naturalistic observations of children, and from these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development. He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

Because Piaget conducted the observations alone the data collected are based on his own subjective interpretation of events. It would have been more reliable if Piaget conducted the observations with another researcher and compared the results afterward to check if they are similar (i.e., have inter-rater reliability).

Although clinical interviews allow the researcher to explore data in more depth, the interpretation of the interviewer may be biased.

For example, children may not understand the question/s, they have short attention spans, they cannot express themselves very well, and may be trying to please the experimenter. Such methods meant that Piaget may have formed inaccurate conclusions.

• As several studies have shown Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g., Hughes , 1975).

Piaget failed to distinguish between competence (what a child is capable of doing) and performance (what a child can show when given a particular task). When tasks were altered, performance (and therefore competence) was affected. Therefore, Piaget might have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.

For example, a child might have object permanence (competence) but still not be able to search for objects (performance). When Piaget hid objects from babies he found that it wasn’t till after nine months that they looked for it.

However, Piaget relied on manual search methods – whether the child was looking for the object or not.

Later, researchers such as Baillargeon and Devos (1991) reported that infants as young as four months looked longer at a moving carrot that didn’t do what it expected, suggesting they had some sense of permanence, otherwise they wouldn’t have had any expectation of what it should or shouldn’t do.

• The concept of schema is incompatible with the theories of Bruner (1966) and Vygotsky (1978). Behaviorism would also refute Piaget’s schema theory because is cannot be directly observed as it is an internal process. Therefore, they would claim it cannot be objectively measured.
• Piaget studied his own children and the children of his colleagues in Geneva to deduce general principles about the intellectual development of all children. His sample was very small and composed solely of European children from families of high socio-economic status. Researchers have, therefore, questioned the generalisability of his data.
• For Piaget, language is considered secondary to action, i.e., thought precedes language. The Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978) argues that the development of language and thought go together and that the origin of reasoning has more to do with our ability to communicate with others than with our interaction with the material world.

Piaget’s Theory vs Vygotsky

Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own.

Whereas Vygotsky argues that children learn through social interactions, building knowledge by learning from more knowledgeable others such as peers and adults. In other words, Vygotsky believed that culture affects cognitive development.

These factors lead to differences in the education style they recommend: Piaget would argue for the teacher to provide opportunities that challenge the children’s existing schemas and for children to be encouraged to discover for themselves.

Alternatively, Vygotsky would recommend that teachers assist the child to progress through the zone of proximal development by using scaffolding.

However, both theories view children as actively constructing their own knowledge of the world; they are not seen as just passively absorbing knowledge.

They also agree that cognitive development involves qualitative changes in thinking, not only a matter of learning more things.

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development is how a person’s ability to think, learn, remember, problem-solve, and make decisions changes over time.

This includes the growth and maturation of the brain, as well as the acquisition and refinement of various mental skills and abilities.

Cognitive development is a major aspect of human development, and both genetic and environmental factors heavily influence it. Key domains of cognitive development include attention, memory, language skills, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

Various theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, provide different perspectives on how this complex process unfolds from infancy through adulthood.

What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory?

Piaget divided children’s cognitive development into four stages; each of the stages represents a new way of thinking and understanding the world.

He called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence , (2) preoperational thinking , (3) concrete operational thinking , and (4) formal operational thinking . Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.

According to Piaget, intellectual development takes place through stages that occur in a fixed order and which are universal (all children pass through these stages regardless of social or cultural background).

Development can only occur when the brain has matured to a point of “readiness”.

What are some of the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological maturation process.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals, suggesting that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

What are Piaget’s concepts of schemas?

Schemas are mental structures that contain all of the information relating to one aspect of the world around us.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give us the means to interact with the world.

These are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas. These schemas become more complex with experience.

Baillargeon, R., & DeVos, J. (1991). Object permanence in young infants: Further evidence . Child development , 1227-1246.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.

Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., & Peck, C. (2001). High access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox.  American Educational Research Journal ,  38 (4), 813-834.

Dasen, P. (1994). Culture and cognitive development from a Piagetian perspective. In W .J. Lonner & R.S. Malpass (Eds.), Psychology and culture (pp. 145–149). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Gehlbach, H. (2010). The social side of school: Why teachers need social psychology.  Educational Psychology Review ,  22 , 349-362.

Hughes, M. (1975). Egocentrism in preschool children . Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Edinburgh University.

Inhelder, B., & Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence . New York: Basic Books.

Keating, D. (1979). Adolescent thinking. In J. Adelson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 211-246). New York: Wiley.

Kegan, R. (1982).  The evolving self: Problem and process in human development . Harvard University Press.

Nielsen. 2014. “Millennials: Technology = Social Connection.” http://www.nielsen.com/content/corporate/us/en/insights/news/2014/millennials-technology-social-connecti on.html.

Passey, D. (2013).  Inclusive technology enhanced learning: Overcoming cognitive, physical, emotional, and geographic challenges . Routledge.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1945). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood . London: Heinemann.

Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children . New York, NY: International University Press.

Piaget, J. (1981).  Intelligence and affectivity: Their relationship during child development.(Trans & Ed TA Brown & CE Kaegi) . Annual Reviews.

Plowden, B. H. P. (1967). Children and their primary schools: A report (Research and Surveys). London, England: HM Stationery Office.

Siegler, R. S., DeLoache, J. S., & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop . New York: Worth.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism . New York: Longman.

Further Reading

• BBC Radio Broadcast about the Three Mountains Study
• Piagetian stages: A critical review
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

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Vygotsky vs. Piaget: A Paradigm Shift

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Piaget’s Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

You’re trying to explain something to a child, and even though it seems so obvious to you, the child just doesn’t seem to understand.

They repeat the same mistake, over and over, and you become increasingly frustrated.

Well, guess what?

• The child is not naughty.
• They’re also not stupid.
• But their lack of understanding is not your fault either.

Their cognitive development limits their ability to understand certain concepts. Specifically, they’re not capable right now of understanding what you’re trying to explain.

In this post, we’ll learn more about Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist whose ideas about cognitive development in children were extremely influential. We’ll cover quite a lot in this post, so make sure you have a cup of coffee and you’re sitting somewhere comfortable.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

Who was jean piaget in psychology, piaget’s cognitive development theory, 1. the sensorimotor stage, 2. the preoperational stage, 3. the concrete operational stage, 4. the formal operational stage, piaget’s theory vs erikson’s, 5 important concepts in piaget’s work, applications in education (+3 classroom games), positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to the understanding of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

He was born in 1896 and originally trained as a biologist and philosopher. Although he is well known for his work as a psychologist, he also published research on sparrows and mollusks (Burman, 2012; Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Early in his career, Piaget scored the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to children.

Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect answers. From these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these mistakes, he developed a theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with the same cognitive processes as adults (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Instead, children’s cognitive processes:

• develop over time,
• develop in response to their environment, and
• are updated with exposure to new information.

Piaget also influenced psychology in other ways. For example, he emphasized other methods of conducting research, such as the clinical method (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He relied upon the following research methods:

• Naturalistic observation of play and conversation between children (including his own)
• Interviewing children

Additionally, he was the first psychologist to study ‘theory of mind’ in children (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Theory of mind is the understanding or basic sense that each of us has our own consciousness and thoughts.

Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.

The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs after the one before it.

These stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
• Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
• Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
• Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)

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The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities.

The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, where children’s behavior moves from being reflex driven to more abstract. Each substage is described briefly.

1. Use of reflexes (0–2 months)

During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept.

2. Primary circular reactions (1–4 months)

Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example, they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment.

3. Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months)

Children’s behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses.

4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8–12 months)

At this point, children’s behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can combine different behaviors to achieve goals.

5. Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months)

Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired result.

6. Mental combinations (18–24 months)

Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.

At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly.

Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.

Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain the same even if they look different. For example, at some point during this stage, a caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might not be as convincing.

In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items based on similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity (e.g., concepts such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).

Although abstract thought advances quickly in the preoperational stage, other cognitive processes develop more slowly.

For example:

• Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective.
• Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear different (more about this in the next section on Conservation).
• Children struggle to take someone else’s point of view.

The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven. During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage.

• Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object.
• Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations.
• Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.

Conservation

During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a result, are better at solving conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.

An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the same amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.

Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation. For example, they struggle with tasks where the following is conserved even it appears different:

• Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently)
• The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped glasses)

Children struggle with conservation because they can only focus on one dimension at a time; this is known as centering. For example, with the volume of liquid, they can only consider the shape of the glass, but not the shape of the glass and the volume of water.

They also do not yet understand reversibility. Irreversibility refers to a child’s inability to reverse the steps of an action in their mind, returning an object to its previous state. For example, pouring the water out of the glass back into the original cup would demonstrate the volume of the water, but children in the preoperational stage cannot understand this.

In contrast, children in the concrete operational stage can solve conservation problems. This is because children now have the following cognitive abilities:

• They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states).
• They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than just one).
• They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks different).

Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation.

They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.

During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is one of several theories about how children develop. Other contrasting theories include Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, and importantly for this post, Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development.

Differences

Unlike Piaget, who focused on cognitive development, Erikson emphasized healthy ego development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Healthy egos are developed when people resolve specific personality issues at set periods in their lives.

Specifically, each developmental stage is characterized by two conflicting personality traits, one positive and one negative. Successful resolution occurs when the positive trait is more emphasized than the other, resulting in the development of a virtue, which aids healthy resolution of subsequent stages.

As an example, between 12 and 18 months, children experience two feelings: trust and mistrust. If they resolve this crisis by balancing a healthy level of trust with mistrust, then they develop the virtue of ‘hope.’

Overall, Erikson proposed eight personality crises, five of which occur before the age of 18:

• Basic trust versus mistrust ( 0–12/18 months)
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12/18 months–3 years)
• Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years)
• Industry versus inferiority (6 years–puberty)
• Identity versus identity confusion (puberty–young adulthood)

Not all of the developmental stages in Erikson’s theory correspond to the cognitive stages proposed by Piaget. For example, Piaget’s preoperational stages overlap with the second and third stages in Erikson’s theories.

Similarities

Like Piaget, Erikson also emphasized that children’s development occurs through interacting with the external environment, but Erikson’s stages focus more on societal influences. Both Piaget and Erikson emphasized that children are active participants in their world and that development occurs in stages.

Schemas and constructivism

Piaget argued that children learn about the world by interacting with it. This notion of gaining knowledge about the world is known as constructivism (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Through their interactions, children construct schemas – or cognitive patterns – about how the world works (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). These schemas come about through organization, which is how categories are formed, organizing items together based on common characteristics.

According to Piaget schemas can then be repeated and tested. For example, an infant has a schema about a rattle: shake it, and it makes a noise.

Importantly, schemas are not static, and they can be improved and updated with new information. When children learn new information, they do not disregard their previous schemas; instead, they build upon them. As a result, children’s cognitive development happens in stages as schemas are continuously updated with new information.

Adaptation describes how children update their current cognitive organizations and schemas with new information. Adaptation takes place in two ways: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Assimilation describes how children incorporate new information into existing schemas. For example, a child refers to dogs as ‘woofs.’ When they see a cat for the first time, they refer to the cat as a ‘woof’ too.

Accommodation

Accommodation describes how children adapt their cognitive structures to match new information in the world. Continuing with the previous example, the child realizes that dogs and cats are different. The child updates their cognitive schema of the world, and now refers to cats as ‘cats’ and dogs as ‘woofs’.

Equilibrium

Piaget’s background as a biologist influenced some of his work, notably the concept of ‘equilibrium,’ which resembles homeostasis (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He posited that children’s cognitive processes are aimed toward equilibrium. When children learn new information that is at odds with their current schemas, they are in an undesirable state of disequilibrium.

To achieve equilibrium, children adapt their mental instructions by:

• Assimilating new information
• Accommodating new information by updating their cognitive schemas

By achieving equilibrium, children learn new information.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One premise of constructivism is that knowledge about the world is gained and made sense of through active participation. In other words, children are not passive recipients of knowledge. They’re not empty vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge. Instead, children’s knowledge is generated when they interact with the world (Yilmaz, 2008).

Some of the education implications of this concept are that children cannot be expected to ‘just sit down and learn’ and that teaching methods that emphasize passive learning are discouraged.

An example of passive learning is reading a text without engaging with it, debating with it, or trying to connect it to real life. Instead, teaching rooted in Piaget’s theories emphasizes that children learn by interacting. Here are some examples:

• Physical interaction (e.g., seeing and touching insects when learning about them)
• Verbal interaction (e.g., talking about how new learning material connects to everyday experiences)
• Abstract interaction (e.g., thinking about new ideas, wrestling with difficult or challenging topics, imitating or acting out concepts/ideas/people)

Play theory

Piaget (1951) argued that play is vital for children’s learning. Play is an example of assimilation, and imitation is an example of accommodation.

He argued that there are three types of games that children can play based on their cognitive development:

• Practice games
• Symbolic games
• Games with rules

Practice games include the repetition of a particular set of actions for pure enjoyment. Although it might not seem like much, these practice games are very important for cognitive development.

Symbolic games involve make-believe scenarios and characters, and appear during the preoperational stage.

Rule-based games appear later during the concrete operational stage. As well as abstract elements, these games also include rules and consequences for violating them.

Classroom games

It’s important to tailor classroom games to match the overall development stage of the children.

For very young children in the sensorimotor stage, classroom games that rely on repetition and interesting results are best. In these games, the child repeatedly demonstrates a new skill or behavior that they have learned, reinforcing the behavior . Examples include splashing water, kicking leaves, shaking a rattle or toys, and playing with music instruments.

For children in the preoperational stage, classroom games that involve imitation are useful ways to teach new concepts. For example, children can learn about animals by pretending to be different animals (e.g., ‘roar like a lion,’ ‘jump like a frog’).

Children can also learn about social skills and social interactions by acting out certain social situations, like pretending to be a shopkeeper. Symbolic games are also used when children pretend one item is something else; for example, pretending that a stick is a lightsaber.

Rule-based games are more suitable for older children. These games can teach concepts like theory of mind, because they encourage decentering (DeVries & Kamii, 1975).

For example, in ‘Simon Says,’ children learn to watch the teacher and know that if they don’t follow the teacher, they are out. Typically, young children don’t understand rule-based games and are not good at counting or numbers.

This is why, for example, very young children don’t understand that there is a penalty for one child in ‘Musical Chairs’ (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). Young children will enjoy the game if the penalty is removed and the chairs stay the same.

Other ways that games can facilitate learning is by allowing children to make up the rules (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). New toys related to the concepts that they’re learning about should be available when children engage in unstructured play without the assistance of the teacher.

For more on this, we recommend reading our article How to Promote Cognitive Development: 23 Activities & Games .

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At PositivePsychology.com, you’ll find lots of exercises, tasks, and activities that you can use in the classroom. We’ve highlighted these two as examples.

The Nice Things tool is useful in teaching children compassion. Children are encouraged to recall something ‘nice.’ It could be something nice that happened to them or something nice that they did. Children are also encouraged to share these nice things with each other and the class.

Since this task requires that children have mental/abstract representations of other people and things, it is more applicable for children in the preoperational and concrete operational stages.

In the Shuffle game, children learn how to resolve conflict. In this game, the play area is marked out with a set of items. Each child starts at one item, and an extra player is in the middle. At the start of the game, children have to move to another item.

However, if two children reach the same item simultaneously, they resolve this by playing Rock–Paper–Scissors. Since this is a rule-based game, it is best suited to children in the concrete operational stage; younger children will not understand the consequences of losing Rock–Paper–Scissors.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

Knowing that children’s learning and understanding are limited by their cognitive development, what can you do the next time you explain something?

• Use simple, age-appropriate examples.
• Explain concepts simply, considering the limitations of each cognitive stage.
• Encourage discussion and creativity so that they create meaningful interactions and memories.

Most importantly, remember that children are not born as ‘mini-adults.’ They do not have adult cognitive abilities, and they do not have the lifetime of experiences for these abilities to develop.

Instead, to learn, they need to participate actively with their world and the people in it. They must be exposed to new experiences and information for learning to occur, and importantly, they must have the opportunities to make mistakes.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Burman, J. T. (2012). Jean Piaget: Images of a life and his factory. History of Psychology , 15 (3), 283–288.
• DeVries, R., & Kamii, C. (1975). Why group games? A Piagetian perspective . ERIC Clearinghouse.
• Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2011). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence  (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (vol. 25). Routledge.
• Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning. In L. E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (Eds.), Theories of early childhood education: Developmental, behaviorist, and critical (pp. 3–17). Routledge.
• Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational Horizons , 86 (3), 161–172.

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About toddler play and cognitive development

Play is vital for your toddler’s cognitive development – that is, your toddler’s ability to think, understand, communicate, make memories, imagine and work out what might happen next.

This is because play is one of the main ways that your toddler explores the world. Toddlers at play are experimenting, thinking, solving problems and learning all the time.

Spending time playing with your toddler is especially good for your toddler’s cognitive development. That’s because playing together builds your relationship and sends a simple but powerful message – you are important to me. This message is key to helping your toddler learn about who they are and where they fit in the world. It also gives your toddler confidence to keep exploring and learning about the world.

A warm and loving relationship with your toddler lays the foundation for all areas of your child’s learning and development.

What to expect: toddler cognitive development and play

Toddlers will probably:

• think you know what’s going on inside their minds
• have difficulty separating what’s real and what’s pretend – for example, they might be easily frightened by monsters in cartoons
• be curious and keen to experiment and explore unfamiliar things
• be able to use words like ‘dark’, ‘loud’, ‘hard’ or ‘heavy’ in the right way, and understand the meaning of these words by 3 years
• enjoy exploring all their senses – sight, sound, taste, touch and smell
• be able to follow simple instructions from 18 months
• use trial and error to start problem-solving – for example, if they can’t fit a puzzle piece in one spot, they might try it somewhere else
• have favourite books, stories and songs – so be prepared for a lot of requests to read or sing it ‘again’!

Toddlers are determined to try everything , even activities that might not be suitable for their age. They’re just trying to figure out how things work.

For example, at 12-16 months, your toddler will want to explore all toys and objects within reach – banging, dropping, pushing and shaking them to see what happens. A safe home environment will give your toddler the freedom to explore without getting hurt.

Your toddler might now understand that there are groups of things in the world. By about 16 months, your toddler might be able to sort objects into types – for example, by colour, shape or size. This helps with early maths thinking. Toys and household items like pegs and plastic cooking utensils are good for this kind of play.

Toddlers don’t know how all the concepts fit together. For example, your toddler can see that things flush down the toilet. But toddlers don’t realise that they themselves can’t be flushed down the toilet too. Or that if a leg rips off a favourite doll or teddy bear, the same doesn’t happen to a real person. Taking the time to explain these concepts can ease your toddler’s fears.

If you’re concerned about your toddler’s development, it’s a good idea to get help early. Talk with your GP , your child and family health nurse or your toddler’s early childhood educator .

Play ideas to support cognitive development in toddlers

It’s good to try plenty of different play activities with your toddler. This promotes cognitive development by giving your toddler many ways to learn about their world.

Here are everyday play ideas to support your toddler’s thinking and learning:

• Help your toddler put together basic puzzles.
• Give your toddler fun bath toys for measuring, scooping and pouring. You can talk about why some things sink and others float.
• Read books and recite nursery rhymes together. By 2 years, you can leave out words from your toddler’s favourite stories and ask your toddler to tell you what happens next.
• Sing simple songs that involve actions or animal sounds. For example, ‘Heads and shoulders’ or ‘Old MacDonald’ .
• Give your toddler things to sort, like coloured blocks, shapes or pegs , or plastic cups and containers of different sizes.
• Give your toddler toys with buttons to push to make something happen.
• Put together a box of materials for simple art and craft activities . This can include finger paint, crayons and paper, coloured chalk for drawing and writing on outdoor paths, scrap materials or playdough . Let your toddler decide what to make.
• Play outside in the backyard, at your local park or at the beach.

It’s a good idea to let your child take the lead with play , because toddlers learn best when they’re interested in an activity. When you follow your toddler’s lead, you can use your toddler’s interests to help them learn something new.

If your toddler is having difficulty with a play activity, you can ask what they might do next to solve the problem, or you can gently offer ideas. For example, ‘Where else could that puzzle piece fit? Have you tried turning it the other way?’ And celebrating effort will encourage your toddler to tackle new problems. For example, ‘Well done – you’ve found the right spot for it!’

Screen time, digital technology use and toddler cognitive development

Current national and international guidelines recommend that children under 2 years shouldn’t have screen time other than video-chatting with people they know. This is because very young children learn best through everyday experiences like physical play, outside play, creative play and social time with family and friends.

If you choose to let your older toddler have some digital play , it’s best to focus on making quality media choices for your toddler and sharing screen time and digital technology with them.

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 62, 2011, review article, the development of problem solving in young children: a critical cognitive skill.

• Rachel Keen 1
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904; email: [email protected] * *Photograph by Cat Thrasher
• Vol. 62:1-21 (Volume publication date January 2011) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.031809.130730
• First published as a Review in Advance on September 03, 2010
• © Annual Reviews

Problem solving is a signature attribute of adult humans, but we need to understand how this develops in children. Tool use is proposed as an ideal way to study problem solving in children less than 3 years of age because overt manual action can reveal how the child plans to achieve a goal. Motor errors are as informative as successful actions. Research is reviewed on intentional actions, beginning with block play and progressing to picking up a spoon in different orientations, and finally retrieving objects with rakes and from inside tubes. Behavioral and kinematic measures of motor action are combined to show different facets of skill acquisition and mastery. We need to design environments that encourage and enhance problem solving from a young age. One goal of this review is to excite interest and spur new research on the beginnings of problem solving and its elaboration during development.

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Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Explained

Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Important Cognitive Development Concepts

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• Next in Stages of Cognitive Development Guide The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage : Birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage : Ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage : Ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage : Ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

Test Your Knowledge

At the end of this article, take a fast and free pop quiz to see how much you know about Jean Piaget's work.

History of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test .

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget's theory differs in important ways from those of Lev Vygotsky , another influential figure in the field of child development. Vygotsky acknowledged the roles that curiosity and active involvement play in learning, but placed greater emphasis on society and culture.

Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky believed that external factors (such as culture) and people (such as parents, caregivers, and peers) play a more significant role.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults—they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the  cognitive development of children . Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

Birth to 2 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

• Know the world through movements and sensations
• Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
• Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen ( object permanence )
• Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually make new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into substages. Early representational thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing  object permanence  or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.

2 to 7 Years

• Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
• Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
• Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world around them. 

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape  looks  larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic.   The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

7 to 11 Years

• Begin to think logically about concrete events
• Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

• Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
• Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. 

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.

Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in  how  they think about the world.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new information; this process is known as accommodation. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

One of the main points of Piaget's theory is that creating knowledge and intelligence is an inherently  active  process.

"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget wrote. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their understanding of how the world works.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Cognitive Development Theory: What Are the Stages?

Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.

Cognitive development is the process by which we come to acquire, understand, organize, and learn to use information in various ways. Cognitive development helps a child obtain the skills needed to live a productive life and function as an independent adult.

The late Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a major figure in the study of cognitive development theory in children. He believed that it occurs in four stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

This article discusses Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including important concepts and principles.

FatCamera / Getty Images

History of Cognitive Development

During the 1920s, the psychologist Jean Piaget was given the task of translating English intelligence tests into French. During this process, he observed that children think differently than adults do and have a different view of the world. He began to study children from birth through the teenage years—observing children who were too young to talk, and interviewing older children while he also observed their development.

Piaget published his theory of cognitive development in 1936. This theory is based on the idea that a child’s intelligence changes throughout childhood and cognitive skills—including memory, attention, thinking, problem-solving, logical reasoning, reading, listening, and more—are learned as a child grows and interacts with their environment.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive development occurs in four stages as a child ages. These stages are always completed in order, but last longer for some children than others. Each stage builds on the skills learned in the previous stage.

The four stages of cognitive development include:

• Sensorimotor
• Preoperational
• Concrete operational
• Formal operational

The sensorimotor stage begins at birth and lasts until 18 to 24 months of age. During the sensorimotor stage, children are physically exploring their environment and absorbing information through their senses of smell, sight, touch, taste, and sound.

The most important skill gained in the sensorimotor stage is object permanence, which means that the child knows that an object still exists even when they can't see it anymore. For example, if a toy is covered up by a blanket, the child will know the toy is still there and will look for it. Without this skill, the child thinks that the toy has simply disappeared.

Language skills also begin to develop during the sensorimotor stage.

Activities to Try During the Sensorimotor Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the sensorimotor stage include:

• Playing peek-a-boo
• Reading books
• Providing toys with a variety of textures
• Singing songs
• Playing with musical instruments
• Rolling a ball back and forth

The preoperational stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs between ages 2 and 7 years. Early on in this stage, children learn the skill of symbolic representation. This means that an object or word can stand for something else. For example, a child might play "house" with a cardboard box.

At this stage, children assume that other people see the world and experience emotions the same way they do, and their main focus is on themselves. This is called egocentrism .

Centrism is another characteristic of the preoperational stage. This means that a child is only able to focus on one aspect of a problem or situation. For example, a child might become upset that a friend has more pieces of candy than they do, even if their pieces are bigger.

During this stage, children will often play next to each other—called parallel play—but not with each other. They also believe that inanimate objects, such as toys, have human lives and feelings.

Activities to Try During the Preoperational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the preoperational stage include:

• Playing "house" or "school"
• Building a fort
• Playing with Play-Doh
• Building with blocks
• Playing charades

The concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. During this stage, a child develops the ability to think logically and problem-solve but can only apply these skills to objects they can physically see—things that are "concrete."

Six main concrete operations develop in this stage. These include:

• Conservation : This skill means that a child understands that the amount of something or the number of a particular object stays the same, even when it looks different. For example, a cup of milk in a tall glass looks different than the same amount of milk in a short glass—but the amount did not change.
• Classification : This skill is the ability to sort items by specific classes, such as color, shape, or size.
• Seriation : This skill involves arranging objects in a series, or a logical order. For example, the child could arrange blocks in order from smallest to largest.
• Reversibility : This skill is the understanding that a process can be reversed. For example, a balloon can be blown up with air and then deflated back to the way it started.
• Decentering : This skill allows a child to focus on more than one aspect of a problem or situation at the same time. For example, two candy bars might look the same on the outside, but the child knows that they have different flavors on the inside.
• Transitivity : This skill provides an understanding of how things relate to each other. For example, if John is older than Susan, and Susan is older than Joey, then John is older than Joey.

Activities to Try During the Concrete Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the concrete operational stage include:

• Using measuring cups (for example, demonstrate how one cup of water fills two half-cups)
• Solving simple logic problems
• Practicing basic math
• Doing crossword puzzles
• Playing board games

The last stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs during the teenage years into adulthood. During this stage, a person learns abstract thinking and hypothetical problem-solving skills.

Deductive reasoning—or the ability to make a conclusion based on information gained from a person's environment—is also learned in this stage. This means, for example, that a person can identify the differences between dogs of various breeds, instead of putting them all in a general category of "dogs."

Activities to Try During the Formal Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the formal operational stage include:

• Learning to cook
• Solving crossword and logic puzzles
• Exploring hobbies
• Playing a musical instrument

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the belief that a child gains thinking skills in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. These stages roughly correspond to specific ages, from birth to adulthood. Children progress through these stages at different paces, but according to Piaget, they are always completed in order.

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By Aubrey Bailey, PT, DPT, CHT Dr, Bailey is a Virginia-based physical therapist and professor of anatomy and physiology with over a decade of experience.

Cognitive Development

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

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Research on infant thinking suggests that babies are more complex thinkers than was once believed. There is now evidence that, by the end of their first year, children are capable of logical reasoning, testing hypotheses about the world and spending time pondering unexpected discoveries. And, like scientists, babies appear to use process of elimination to come to conclusions.

Young children aspire to repeat the words they hear most often, but context is as important as frequency: Before they use words like the or and , babies focus on words emphasized by their caregivers, those that describe their environment, and their personal interests. Cultural influence also plays a role: In some regions, a child’s first words tend to include more verbs, and in others, terms referring to extended-family relationships come first. In the U.S., where labeling and naming objects is a common part of infant play, babies are more likely to learn words like dog, cat, duck, and kitty. Through large-scale cross-cultural studies, though, a few universal words have been revealed: mommy, daddy, hello, bye, uh-oh, and woof-woof .

Metacognition , or the awareness of your own thinking and thought processes, is recognized as an important step in cognitive development—for example, when a child reads a page of a book, thinks, “I don’t understand what I’ve just read,” and then rereads it. An inner dialog about our thoughts benefits problem solving and decision making, as well as making meaning of new information and experiences.

Early exposure to language, conversation, and different types of stories has proven benefits for young children. However, the idea that intelligence is “locked in” during a child’s first three years does not reflect what researchers have learned about plasticity in the brain. While the early years are vital, neither intelligence nor personality is cemented during that period.

An involved father appears to make a potentially significant difference. Research has shown that children are cognitively healthier when their fathers are actively involved in their lives—even if they don’t share the same home. Studies of divorced fathers, for example, have found that, when they overcome barriers to involvement, such as limited opportunities to communicate, and remain actively involved in children’s education, kids go on to achieve higher grades, avoid disciplinary measures, and are less likely to repeat grades.

Significantly. Early exposure to language is at the core of intellectual development, predicting language skills , cognitive ability, and academic achievement. Research has highlighted the importance of early conversation in the development of language structures in the brain: The more conversation a child experienced, the stronger the connections between regions of the brain responsible for speech production and comprehension. And a body of research has found that rich, complex conversational turns are also essential elements of language development.

Yes, but it’s better if the child is playing, not just listening. Research has discovered cognitive benefits from learning to play an instrument at a young age, including greater executive function and cognitive flexibility, increased focus, stronger working memory, and an ability to shift between tasks. The idea that simply exposing a child to classical music, in the womb or in childhood, will boost his or her intelligence—the so-called “Mozart Effect”—has been widely debunked.

From their environment. Children are highly attuned to the people and activities around them, and will notice that some people do not look like themselves and that others have more resources. Significantly, research shows, they also notice adults’ nonverbal reactions to each other and are able to detect (and mimic) bias even if they are not able to verbalize it. Studies find that it is not only the difference between positive and negative reactions that children notice, but also between positive and neutral reactions, leading to bias toward even those who only receive neutral reactions from others. Other research into what’s known as the contact hypothesis, however, shows that close interactions with people from other groups can effectively counteract bias at a young age.

Discriminating fact from fiction can be especially difficult for young children, since their experience of the real world is limited and so much of the media to which they are exposed is based in fantasy or magic. For example, to a child, a picture book about actual astronauts and one about fictional aliens may appear equally real. Yet research shows that, as early as age 3, many children have developed an ability to determine whether content from stories and videos applies to the real world. A parent’s testimony of how the world works is an essential element in this development, along with children’s growing experience of the real world.

There has been a good deal of debate over the years about whether stories of Santa Claus, and parental efforts to actively maintain that Santa and other holiday-based characters are real, are harmful to children and their cognitive development. Research shows, though, that virtually all children figure out the truth about Santa Claus by around age 7, even without their parents confessing the truth, and that few children react negatively to the discovery. Children, research further suggests, implicitly understand that fantasy and pretend play is a healthy and fun part of their own development and so they rarely come to resent adults sharing fantasies with them.

Significantly. Unstructured “ nature play ,” as researchers call it, appears to positively affect development in a range of ways, including cognitive development, creativity, emotional development, social skills, fitness and motor-skill development. Such playtime is especially beneficial when it is unstructured, and children are allowed to physically and intellectually explore the natural world as much as possible without the direction of their caregivers. Many advocates, however, believe that children today are given much too little opportunity to explore the natural world.

Many experts worry that children spend too much time on screens and playing video games, and while parents should aspire to a balance of activities for their kids, a growing body of research shows that time playing video games —particularly action-based games—when not excessive, can bring some cognitive benefits, such as enhanced perception, executive function, mental flexibility, attention, memory, and decision-making skills, as well as improvements in visual processing. It may even help children overcome some of the effects of dyslexia.

Not necessarily. While some studies claim to identify a link between screen time and decreased cognitive development in young children, such research has been focused on the amount of time in front of screens as opposed to its content or level of interactivity—and the purported levels of decline are statistically rather small anyway. Other research actually suggests screen time that is not excessive, and that involves compelling viewing or engaging interaction, should not hamper a child’s development.

It may appear that this is the case, but research shows that the benefit does not last. Formal early learning does produce clear short-term gains for young children, giving many a head start in kindergarten or first grade. But the effect fades quickly: By second or third grade, children who attended formal pre-kindergarten programs are no longer further advanced academically than kids who started their schooling later; in fact, some research suggests that those who started earlier eventually fare worse than others.

Experts have long debated whether preschool and kindergarten programs should emphasize academic skills or socialization , but a growing body of research supports the latter, for both social and cognitive benefits. Some studies have suggested that while students raised in poverty who attended academic early-childhood programs had initial advantages over peers in elementary school, children who went to play-based kindergartens started earning higher grades by fourth grade. No matter what type of program a family chooses, emphasizing play, socialization, and initiative at home during early childhood delivers clear benefits for children in later years.

Take an active role in their education by helping them build a “scaffold” for achievement: Emphasize the importance of education by talking with them regularly about their school day, communicate with teachers, volunteer in school, and check in on homework—without being intrusive or jumping in to correct their work. In general, giving kids as much autonomy as possible , even when they encounter occasional setbacks, will help them build confidence in their own abilities and give them a better chance of achieving success down the line.

Children can gain some clear benefits from early exposure to computers and to programs that help them learn to read and write, and encourage creativity. But a body of research also shows that students remember information better when they write it down than when they type. Many schools today no longer require students to write their notes but it would benefit parents to encourage their own kids to do so anyway.

Role-playing has similarities in clinical work with children as well as in games by revealing our perceptions of ourselves, relationships, and the world.

Fostering inclusive diet culture to help kids overcome societal body size biases.

Recognize the early warning signs of emerging narcissistic attributes in youth.

Difficult conversations about race and discrimination can help children process and validate their experiences, provide coping strategies, and build strength and resilience.

High levels of maternal affection are highly beneficial to the developing brain.

It is the absence of limits that results in both parents and kids getting very dysregulated. Clear limits are organizing for children and scaffold adaptation and cooperation.

As societal attitudes toward marriage, single parenting, masculinity, gender, and caregiving change, the roles fathers play in a child's development are changing, too.

A new study tries to fill in the gaps of how the brains of adolescents with internet addiction differ from those without.

By being thoughtful and proactive, parents can limit conflict and stress to give intergenerational family gatherings the best chance for success.

The US Surgeon General recommends that social media come with a warning about its impact on children’s mental health.

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Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

What is cognitive development.

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18.

Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called concrete because they’re done around objects and events. This includes knowing how to:

Combine (add)

Separate (subtract or divide)

Order (alphabetize and sort)

Transform objects and actions (change things, such as 5 pennies = 1 nickel)

Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and teens in this age group do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal logical operations. This includes the ability to:

Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.

Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.

Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to note that:

Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.

Each child develops their own view of the world.

Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use them for personal problems.

When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in complex ways.

The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in either positive or negative ways.

Types of cognitive growth through the years

A child in early adolescence:

Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home

Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

Begins to question authority and society's standards

Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on many topics. You may hear your child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

Often questions more extensively

Often analyzes more extensively

Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?)

Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I? )

Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want? )

Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans

Begins to think long-term

Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others

A child in late adolescence:

Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism

Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive growth in your teen, you can:

Include him or her in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.

Encourage your child to share ideas and thoughts with you.

Encourage your teen to think independently and develop his or her own ideas.

Help your child in setting goals.

Challenge him or her to think about possibilities for the future.

Compliment and praise your teen for well-thought-out decisions.

Help him or her in re-evaluating poorly made decisions.

If you have concerns about your child's cognitive development, talk with your child's healthcare provider. 

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• Brain and Behavior
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Adolescent Growth and Development

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Growth and Development in Children with Congenital Heart Disease

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Child Development

Building blocks: enhancing cognitive development and problem-solving skills.

Table of Contents

Key Takeaways

• Building blocks enhance cognitive development and problem-solving skills.
• Building blocks improve spatial awareness and visual perception.
• Building blocks contribute to fine motor skills and hand-eye coordination.
• Building blocks support language development and social skills.

The Impact of Building Blocks on Spatial Awareness and Visual Perception

Enhancing Fine Motor Skills and Hand-Eye Coordination Through Building Blocks

The Role of Building Blocks in Language Development and Social Skills

Emotional Development and Sensory Benefits of Building Blocks

Building Blocks: A Catalyst for Cognitive Development and Problem-Solving Skills

Frequently Asked Questions

What are some specific examples of building blocks that can enhance cognitive development and problem-solving skills, how can building blocks be used to promote critical thinking and effective problem-solving strategies.

Are There Any Specific Activities or Games That Can Be Played With Building Blocks to Enhance Spatial Reasoning Skills?

Can building blocks be used to improve other areas of development, such as creativity or social skills, are there any recommended age ranges for using building blocks to enhance cognitive development and problem-solving skills.

Elaine’s journey with Healthy Kid Play began with a simple yet profound observation: the unparalleled potential within every child. With her extensive experience in early childhood, Elaine saw the need for a space where learning and fun converge seamlessly.

Career Paths in Child Development: From Early Intervention to Advocacy

Unlocking the School-Age Stage: Growth, Learning, and Milestones

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The impact of family structure on child development: understanding dynamics and influences.

• Single-parent families can have negative impacts on child development, including emotional and behavioral difficulties, lower academic achievement, increased risk of substance abuse, limited financial resources, and reduced parental involvement.
• Extended family members, such as grandparents, aunts, and uncles, play an important role in providing additional support, guidance, and stability in single-parent families.
• Nuclear families provide a stable and supportive environment for child development, leading to better social skills, higher self-esteem, and stronger emotional bonds with parents.
• Nuclear family dynamics have a significant impact on child development, shaping understanding of social norms, language development, interpersonal skills, and overall behavior.

The Influence of Single-Parent Families on Child Development

The Role of Extended Family in Single-Parent Families

The Impact of Nuclear Families on Child Development

The Dynamics of Nuclear Family Dynamics on Child Development

The Effects of Different Family Structures on Child Development

Understanding the Effects of Blended Families on Child Development

The influence of extended family on child development.

Examining the Effects of External Factors on Child Development

How Does the Presence of Extended Family Members Impact Child Development in Single-Parent Families?

What are the unique challenges and benefits of growing up in a blended family.

How Does the Dynamics Within a Nuclear Family Influence a Child’s Socialization and Interpersonal Skills?

What are the long-term effects of early childhood trauma on a child’s development, how does socioeconomic status affect a child’s cognitive and social development.

With a vivid imagination and a love for words, Hella crafts stories and guides that ignite curiosity and inspire both children and parents. Her talent for storytelling is evident in every piece she writes for Healthy Kid Play. Merging her understanding of children’s needs with creativity, Hella’s writings are both informative and enchanting.

The Impact of Nature, Nurture, and Social Interactions on Child Development

• The interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences shapes a child’s development.
• Social interactions play a crucial role in a child’s cognitive, emotional, and social development.
• Early experiences have a long-term impact on a child’s physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional development.
• Parenting styles significantly influence a child’s academic achievement and emotional development.

The Influence of Genetic Factors on Child Development

The Role of Environmental Factors in Child Development

The Importance of Social Interactions in Child Development

Long-Term Effects of Early Experiences on Child Development

Parenting Styles and Their Impact on Cognitive Development

Language Development and Cultural Factors in Child Development

The Power of Play in Enhancing Child Development

• Play promotes creativity and imagination, allowing children to explore different scenarios and develop problem-solving skills.
• Play encourages social interaction and cooperation, helping children develop important social skills such as sharing, taking turns, and resolving conflicts.
• Play provides opportunities for emotional expression and regulation, allowing children to process their feelings and develop emotional intelligence.
• Play enhances cognitive development by stimulating critical thinking, memory, and language skills.

Attachment Theory and the Effects of Technology on Child Development

How Do Genetic Factors and Environmental Factors Interact to Shape a Child’s Development?

What are the potential long-term effects of positive and negative early experiences on a child’s development, how do parenting styles influence a child’s cognitive development.

What Role Do Cultural Factors Play in Language Development and Communication Abilities in Children?

How does play contribute to cognitive, social, and emotional development in children.

The Impact of Immigration on Child Development: Economic, Language, Identity, Policies, and Support

• Economic stability positively impacts children’s well-being and allows parents to provide basic necessities, education, and healthcare.
• Learning a new language can be challenging for immigrant children, but bilingual education programs and vocabulary-building activities can help overcome language barriers.
• Immigrant children develop a hybrid cultural identity as they navigate between their cultural heritage and the dominant culture, which provides a unique perspective and a sense of belonging.
• Immigration policies significantly impact the overall development and future prospects of immigrant children, with supportive policies enhancing their well-being and opportunities, while restrictive policies can create barriers to social integration and inclusion.

Economic Stability and Child Well-being

Language Acquisition Challenges for Immigrant Children

Cultural adjustment and self-identity formation.

The Influence of Immigration Policies on Children

Social Integration Challenges and Supportive Interventions

Parental Involvement and the Parent-Child Relationship

Resilience Building and Coping Skills for Immigrant Children

Attachment and Emotional Development in Immigrant Children

Economic Benefits and Language Proficiency of Immigrant Children

The Impact of Restrictive Immigration Policies on Education

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• Overcrowded classrooms with limited resources
• Insufficient language support for non-native speakers
• Social and emotional consequences:
• Feelings of exclusion and marginalization
• Decreased self-esteem and confidence

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The Benefits of Play for Cognitive Development in Children

Cognitive skills allow us to read, remember, learn, reason, pay attention, and think. Therefore, proper cognitive development prepares children for their future while building life skills such as self-confidence, independence, and socialization. Regular playtime on a playground can promote cognitive development and skills in many ways.

Read the full article or jump to a specific section:

What Is Cognitive Development?

• Why is Cognitive Development Important?

What to Expect From Cognitive Development Based on Age

• 14 Benefits of Play For Cognitive Development in Children

Cognitive development encapsulates a child’s ability to think and reason, varying across ages and stages, and highlighting the development of specific  skills and intellectual aspects . Proper cognitive development in children is essential for information processing, self-recognition, reasoning, memory, problem-solving, and even language development. A child’s environment plays a pivotal role, influencing how children learn to focus on multiple aspects simultaneously and think in both concrete and hypothetical ways.

This stage is important for children to understand the difference between making observations, gathering information, and analyzing ideas. This kind of thinking can influence decision-making in a child as they begin to demonstrate complex thinking and form their own worldviews. Ultimately, cognitive development in children is a crucial part of building skills that influence adolescence. This growth creates a foundation for future success.

Why Is Cognitive Development Important?

The pace at which cognitive development occurs in a child’s early years is remarkable. Every second, their brains form over a million new neural connections , preparing them for a future where self-confidence, independence, and socialization become essential life skills. Children develop at different rates. Some children may have learning disabilities or challenges that make their cognitive abilities develop more slowly than their peers. In some cases, these difficulties may persist throughout childhood and adulthood. Despite varied developmental rates, encouraging cognitive growth is paramount for every child.

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development provide a framework, yet each child progresses uniquely. From infancy’s sensorimotor stage to early adolescence’s concrete operational stage, children gradually understand the world, honing reasoning abilities, and developing unique personalities.

Infancy, from when a child is born to around 2 years old , is the sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory. In this stage, the focus is on learning about the world through sensory experiences and motor responses. A defining aspect is the development of object permanence, where babies learn that objects continue to exist, even when they cannot see them.

Additionally, in this stage, you’ll also see infants:

• Express an interest in things
• Recognize familiar people or objects
• Demonstrate curiosity
• Understand gestures or say certain words
• Point to their body parts
• Enjoy playing games like peekaboo

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Early Childhood

According to Piaget’s classification, early childhood is the preoperational stage. Children in this stage range from 3 to 7 years old . Here, children begin to engage in pretend play as their language skills continue to expand and improve. Early childhood is also when children develop the ability to think symbolically and understand that words and pictures can represent real-world objects and concepts.

Other developing skills may include:

• Following instructions
• Building things and playing with more complex toys
• Beginning to understand time
• Naming colors and shapes
• Reading and writing
• Counting numbers effectively

Early Adolescence

In early adolescence, or the concrete operational stage, children ages 8 to 11 begin to understand others’ feelings and perspectives. In this stage, children’s reasoning abilities also continue evolving. The cognitive milestones in this part of a child’s life will start to appear more conventional, and children will further develop their unique personalities.

Some of these new cognitive skills may include:

• Understanding others’ perspectives
• Thinking both logically and hypothetically
• Displaying concern for others
• Developing special interests and hobbies
• Interpreting concepts, ideas, and stories
• Becoming more independent
• Describing experiences and emotions
• Demonstrating an improved sense of right and wrong

Adolescence

Around 12 years of age , children will enter what Piaget considers the formal operational stage. Once in this stage, children should begin to reason and think abstractly. Additionally, they can consider concepts from various perspectives and use deductive reasoning to apply general principles to specific situations.

What Is Cognitive Play?

Cognitive play refers to types of play that help build children’s problem-solving and other cognitive skills. Examples include puzzles, memory games, and building blocks. However, anything that involves a challenge for kids to overcome will provide benefits.

Conquering the monkey bars and creating new games to play with other children at a playground can all aid in a child’s cognitive development. No matter what type of play a child engages in, if they are focusing on the task at hand, they’ll be working on at least one developmental skill.

14 Benefits of Play for Cognitive Development in Children

All children can benefit from playtime in many different ways. These experiences are necessary for children to develop cognitively and introduce them to a world of possibilities. Through play, kids get to safely explore, learn about their environment, and develop skills to interact with others.

Here are 10 ways playing promotes cognitive development and the benefits of play on the brain:

1. Enhances Critical Thinking Skills

Free play empowers children to make decisions independently, fostering critical thinking capabilities. These skills can emerge when a child is faced with certain external or internal questions such as why, when, what, or how. Encouraging a child to ask questions about their environment can help them form their own logical conclusions later.

An essential aspect of critical thinking can emerge when children are allowed to make some decisions on their own. Giving a child the proper room to be independent, think for themselves, and face challenges is a great way to  build confidence while sharpening critical thinking skills. Allowing a child to play without a strict set of limits can be beneficial for their growth and development. This way, they’re encouraged to make their own conclusions and progress through different approaches. Additionally, introducing children to decision-making, critical thinking, and independence on the playground allows children to make mistakes and learn from poor choices in a safe and secure environment.

Some examples of open-ended play might include:

• Unstructured play
• Question-based games
• Storytelling
• Group activities
• Roleplay or pretend play
• Communicating ideas and words through pictures
• Sorting games
• Guessing games or riddles

2. Magnifies the Importance of the Senses

Sensory play , especially outdoors, refines cognitive thinking by engaging vision, taste, hearing, touch, and smell. It can be a vital aspect of the educational process. By using their senses during play, children can better understand the world around them and more easily make comparisons or notice differences around them. Additionally, kids can use their senses to learn about their environment and familiarize themselves with new objects.

Providing outdoor sensory play, such as   sandbox play on a playground , is especially helpful for children to learn how to identify varying textures, colors, and smells. Allowing children to utilize their senses can help develop their sensory network as they grow and improve their nerve connections. Specifically, activity panels in sensory play  encourage the development of certain motor skills, creativity, and learning how to use descriptors.

The following types of hands-on learning can improve the senses:

• Playing with colored wooden blocks
• Games or toys that have various textures
• Fitting matching shapes together
• Playing with food
• Sorting and classifying different objects
• Sandbox play

3. Reinforces Memory and Attention

Outdoor play and physical exercise positively impact the hippocampus, improving memory, attention span, and working memory capabilities. Additionally, improving motor skills through play can help with working memory capabilities that play a role in cognitive development. Focusing on cognitive development activities that boost memory and attention, such as  a game of Simon says , can help set children up for success.

Examples of activities that can help reinforce memory and attention span include:

• Play that involves visual memory
• Having them recall shapes and colors
• Encouraging them to point out differences in outdoor objects
• Group activities such as “ Simon Says ” on the playground
• Mixing around objects or toys to increase attention
• Play that consists of switching between specific goals

4. Improves Communication and Language Skills

Learning how to  communicate and  use  language  is crucial for every child. Play is an ideal way for children to practice talking to others. As they interact with other children, they may begin to pay attention to other children’s word choices, which can improve their vocabulary and sentence structure.

Pretend play often involves verbal communication, whether it’s creating dialogue for characters or explaining the imaginary world they’ve created. This helps enhance language skills, including vocabulary, syntax, and narrative abilities.

Enhancing communication skills is also beneficial in helping children interact with others socially. An outdoor space that encourages children to work together can motivate them to communicate in a fun way without any pressure. Using their language capabilities allows them to come up with ideas with other children or devise a plan for what games to play outside while considering others’ opinions.

A few activities and games that can help with communication skills include:

• Asking them to name objects they see
• Asking them to participate in telling a story
• Name games like “I Spy”
• Scavenger hunts that encourage social interaction
• Trying to promote their use of detail when describing something

5. Allows Learning Through Exploration

As children are naturally curious, play is an excellent way to encourage them to lean into their curiosity and explore new things. Supporting children can inspire them to learn more about the world and how it works. Additionally, outdoor play and exploration activities can help kids learn how to imitate others, come up with new ideas, and draw on specific cognitive skills.

Playgrounds are ideal places for children to pursue their curiosities in a relatively controlled and safe environment. Interactive structures like playgrounds give children endless opportunities to engage with new concepts and objects that can promote cognitive development and overall learning. Meaningful engagement with materials that support curiosity can help encourage interest in learning and gathering information. Furthermore, creating a sense of wonder in their learning process can make their participation more exciting and enjoyable  — ideally encouraging children to continue seeking new learning opportunities.

Some ways to implement investigation and exploration in children include:

• Playing detective
• Treasure hunts
• Redirecting their curiosities rather than discouraging them
• Discovery games
• Providing materials that support their interests
• Participating in experiments
• Demonstrating how to make predictions

6. Creates Room for Independence

Additionally, playtime is a great way to improve a child’s sense of independence. When they don’t have a strict set of rules or limitations, their minds will flourish with all of the possibilities. This independence may be demonstrated when a child knows that they don’t have to ask for permission to play with a specific toy during playtime or access a particular area of a playground.

Encouraging independent outdoor play may help a child learn to feel content when using toys or playground equipment by themselves. This type of play can also  build a child’s confidence to endure challenges and complete tasks on their own, which can strengthen their cognitive skills . Providing open-ended materials to play with in a safe outdoor space might encourage a child’s ability to think for themselves and come up with their own solutions to problems.

It’s important to let children rely on their own imagination and resources to entertain them during playtime. This skill can be developed through group play and individual time, as children who begin to interact more with others their own age can also encourage independent thinking.

Elements of play that can boost a child’s independence may include:

• Giving them freedom during playtime
• Encouraging self-reliance
• Swinging  or  climbing  on a playground by themselves
• Going through an obstacle course
• Allowing them to have more control over decisions during playtime

7. Boosts Creativity and Imagination through Pretend Play

Engaging in pretend play allows children to use their imagination to create and explore new worlds, characters, and situations. This fosters creativity, helping them develop the ability to think outside the box and come up with innovative ideas. Pretend play frequently involves interaction with others, requiring children to negotiate roles, share responsibilities, and cooperate. These social interactions contribute to the development of interpersonal skills, empathy, and an understanding of social norms.

Pretend play often involves the ability to switch between different roles, perspectives, and scenarios. This promotes cognitive flexibility—the ability to adapt to changing situations and think about things from multiple points of view.

Observing what types of creative games children come up with on their own can give insight into their interests or feelings, which can also assist them in learning how to express their emotions. Pretend play allows children to explore and express a wide range of emotions within the safety of the imaginary world. This can contribute to the development of emotional regulation skills as children learn to manage and understand their feelings.

Designing playground materials or equipment around a specific theme  can make developing skills more exciting and engaging for children. Additional examples of play that can enhance creativity and imagination in children include:

• Artistic and musical games
• Practicing pretend play outdoors
• Encouraging excitement around creativity
• Creating art using outdoor objects
• Drawing and coloring
• Imaginative games that involve make-believe

8. Strengthens Problem Solving

Understanding logic, reason, hypothetical and imaginative ways of thinking can contribute to problem-solving. In an outdoor setting, children can practice their skills when they engage in activities that don’t have rules or restrictions. For instance, on a playground, children aren’t surrounded by information or answers that they may see in a classroom.

This freedom can be a good thing because it may promote their understanding that they can come up with their own ways of forming a solution to a problem. In noticing the changes or potential risks of their choices in their environment, they may begin to grasp connections between gathering information and putting it into action. Pretend play often involves creating scenarios and situations, requiring children to think critically and solve problems within the context of their imaginary world. This helps develop their problem-solving skills, fostering creativity and flexibility in thinking.

Some ways that play can improve problem-solving in children might include:

• Having children work in small groups to create a project
• Implementing games that help identify a problem and a solution
• Providing spontaneous or unplanned activities
• Motivating them to try new ways of thinking and doing, even if they make a mistake
• Asking open-ended questions
• Encouraging children to create an outdoor game with their own rules

9. Introduces Sharing and Patience

Teaching children to share and cooperate with others is an essential aspect of learning they’ll carry with them to adulthood. In developing the importance of sharing, children will learn that other people’s feelings matter. Plus, kids will understand that sharing with them is a way for everyone to feel included and get an opportunity to play with a particular toy or object.

On an outdoor playground, children may be exposed to sharing even more when it comes to occupying certain areas. While playing, they’ll begin to see that not everyone can go on the swings or slide at the same time, so they must wait for their turns. Modeling sharing around young children may be one of the best ways for them to learn how to implement it.

Some play types that can enhance a child’s ability to share with others are:

• Group games that involve teams
• Giving each child their turn to tell a story
• Outdoor games like tag and hide and seek
• Passing a ball
• Playground activities that involve cooperation

10. Heightens Balance and Awareness

Further, playing outside may help increase a child’s balance and awareness of their surroundings. These are both essential skills, as they can help prevent injury and alert a child of an unsafe situation, such as determining whether they may fall. When children feel they’re self-directed during free play time, it may increase their ability to become more focused on the task in front of them, which can sharpen their attention span.

Proper balance is essential for physical and cognitive development. This skill can help them with other aspects of play, such as climbing, jumping, running, digging, and catching. Improving balance is also important to help children learn boundaries and limits. Additionally, participating in physical activity on a playground can be a way for children to establish a strong sensory system. This development will assist them in more complex cognitive learning in the future.

Elements of play that can help increase balance and awareness include:

• Assisting children to swing or  hang on monkey bars
• Assisting children to  cross a balance beam
• Obstacle courses
• Throwing and catching a ball
• Playing hopscotch
• Using stepping stones or stairs
• Playing freeze tag

11. Provide Sensory and Motor Activities

Especially for younger children, sensory experiences and motor activities are primary ways of learning about the world. Each time a toddler touches a new texture or moves their body in a new way, they figure out a little bit more about themselves and their environment. Playgrounds provide a wealth of opportunities for these sensory and motor experiences. By design, some play equipment  engages the senses  in exciting ways.

12. Promote Social Skills

Playgrounds offer a safe and inviting community for children to interact with one another. Especially for children without siblings, social interaction with other kids is crucial. Through playground play, kids will learn social skills like sharing, patience, communication, empathy, and rule-following.

Children are naturally self-centered. Fortunately, they can outgrow this mindset and become more compassionate and giving. Playgrounds teach children to move past their wants and needs in several ways. From asking a friend if they’re OK after they take a tumble to altering a game to accommodate a friend with special needs, they’re identifying with someone else’s experience, and that’s a win.

13. Lead to Improved Concentration

The lessons and skills children learn on the playground will follow them into other areas of their lives, such as their education. For instance, when children  free play on the playground , they learn how to entertain themselves and widen their attention spans for sustained focus. This improved attention span can then lead to more classroom engagement and focus.

While free play may not seem like it requires concentration, a 20-minute attempt at getting across the monkey bars or a 30-minute game of pretend requires kids to devote their attention to one task, just like they would have to in math class or during a music lesson.

Overall, when children have a chance to enjoy recess, they return to class better prepared to stay on task. A wealth of research supports that outdoor play  boosts productivity and academic achievement  among children.

14. Make Learning Fun

Playgrounds allow children to learn in more engaging and exciting ways. For example, instead of passively listening to a presentation on the importance of sharing, kids get a firsthand chance to build empathy and learn how sharing helps everyone have a fun time on the playground.

This lesson isn’t only more interesting — it’s likely to be more effective. When lessons or activities naturally appeal to children, they’re more open to actively participating in learning opportunities. Showing children learning can be enjoyable can set a solid foundation for them to continue enjoying and seeking out education.

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Help the children in your life develop their cognitive abilities by visiting your local playground. Watch as children collectively face their fears, learn more about themselves and their surroundings, and become more independent.

If your community needs a playground specifically to aid in cognitive development,  contact us and learn more  about our quality playground equipment. We design all our products with input from childhood development experts so we can be sure children benefit in various ways, including cognitively, from playing on Little Tikes Commercial equipment. Browse our products or  request a quote  to start safely empowering kids to learn and grow today.

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The Ultimate List of Creative Problem Solving Activities for Toddlers

We will explore problem solving skills, milestones and creative problem solving examples for kids that you will have fun trying with your little one.

Let’s Define Problem Solving

It’s simple. Problem solving is a skill set used by your baby that incorporates his or her ability to perceive, think, and gain understanding about his or her world; including remembering and decision-making. All of these problem solving skills are also known as cognitive skills .

Purposeful Problem Solving

Problem solving is a skill that begins early in your baby’s life. But there is a difference between simple problem solving and purposeful problem solving. Let’s explain.

Purposeful problem solving involves an intended action to achieve a desired result. Your child will use a specific problem solving approach to achieve this. They may include:

• Manipulating objects
• Learning about different properties of objects
• Learning how to get things done in the easiest way

Overcoming Obstacles

Overcoming obstacles is a necessity in becoming good at problem solving . There are times when you will be convinced that your child is a genius with the clever ways he can overcome the obstacles that stand in his way!

Everyday Problems and Solutions

Make way for your little creative thinker! Overcoming obstacles in clever ways is what your little one does best. These clever ways are not always verbal (especially at a younger age), it is important to practice nonverbal problem solving activities. So, what will your baby’s creative problem solving abilities look like? Take a look at two examples of problem solving life skills activities:

Life Problem: Your child sees her bottle sticking out of the diaper bag that is slightly out of reach. Solution: Your child pulls at the strap of the diaper bag to pull it closer to her.

Life Problem: Your child sees his favorite toy on the other side of the laundry basket. Solution: He crawls around the laundry basket to get his toy.

Understanding Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is your child’s ability to communicate, think, and problem solve. As your child grows, his or her brain is growing as well. As your child’s cognitive skills become more developed, the more he or she will begin to explore their world and test things in his or her environment. Understanding your baby’s cognitive development is key to chosing the best activities to help your baby master his or her problem solving skills.

Resist Coming to the Rescue

One great tip for parents is to not be so quick to come to the aid of your child when he or she faces small everyday problems. By allowing your baby the time and space to figure things out for himself, you help him build confidence and grow his ability to problem solve.

Tips for Easy Creative Problem Solving Activities

We at ADAM & Mila wish to provide practical and easy to apply ideas for fun and educational activities. There is a variety of easy brain boosting activities to stimulate your baby’s brain, increase his or her critical thinking skills , and help your little one become a great problem solver. There are a lot of activities that you can do with your child.

Problem Solving Activities For Infants

• Sing to your baby
• Read to your baby every day

Problem Solving Activities For Toddlers

• Play peek-a-boo
• Play hide-and-seek with objects
• Play with puzzles, blocks, or drawing materials

Problem Solving Activities For Children Age 2-3

• Sort objects by color, size, and shape
• Help your child “write” his own book by writing his words while he or she draws the pictures
• Teach the words; on, under, behind, around by playing games like Simon Says
• Provide a “dress-up” box for your child for imaginative play

The Milestones of Developing Methodical Problem Solving Skills

Below we have collected all the milestones your child will go through month-by-month as he or she acquire these critical problem solving skills.

That Second Reach

Development Milestone emerges from age 5 to 7 months.

At about 5 months old, your child will begin to purposely reach for second objects while still holding on to the first one. For example, while holding one toy in his hands, he may use his other hand to reach for a second toy. He does not, however, have to necessarily pick it up.

Works for It

Development Milestone emerges from age 5 to 9 months.

Now, your baby’s movements start to demonstrate clear purpose, intention, and persistence while repeatedly reaching for objects. This is when your child will try and try again to get that ball he really wants that is out of his reach. He may reach, stretch, or even wiggle to get it.

Drops Object to Pick Up New Object

Development Milestone emerges from age 6 to 8 months.

At this age, if your little one is holding an object or toy in each of her hands, she may drop one of them to pick up a new object without even thinking about it. She isn’t yet purposefully trying to think of a way to hold all three, which is why she will drop one toy to get the new one.

Reaches for New Object While Holding Two

Development Milestone emerges from age 8 to 10 months.

Unlike the stage before, this time when your child is holding an object in each of his hands, he will attempt to pick up a third one without dropping the ones he is already holding. There is a thought process of how to hold the third item, whether it is by adjusting his grasp on the current two items, reaching with his mouth for the third item or coming up with another way.

Pulling It Closer

Now, when your child sees his favorite toy resting on a towel or sheet out of reach, he will simply purposely pull the towel or sheet with the toy on it closer to him. Observe this milestone on your child by simply placing a toy on a towel on the floor and see what your child does.

Development Milestone emerges from age 8 to 11 months.

Nothing is going to stop your little one from getting to the toy he wants! Not a box, laundry basket, or pillow. At this age, your baby will figure out a way to get that toy he wants, even if he has to push, reach above, or move around something to get it.

Getting in Motion to Grab an Object

Development Milestone emerges from age 9 to 12 months.

Now, your child is ready to crawl, creep, scoot, roll, climb, or walk to get to that toy she wants! You can test to see if your child has mastered this milestone by placing a toy that has multiple pieces like a stacking toy around the room. Place the base of the stacking toy by your child and the rings around the room and watch as your child problem solves to find the rings and bring them back to the base.

Pulling Toy Horizontally by a Handle or Strap

This stage shows your child’s understanding of how two objects are connected and how one can influence the movement of the other. So, you may see your child pull at a shoestring to get her shoe or the strap of a diaper bag to get her bottle or sippy cup.

Pulling Toy Vertically by a Handle or Strap

Development Milestone emerges from age 13 to 15 months.

Now that she has mastered pulling horizontally at a string or strap of an object to bring it closer to her, she will begin to pull at strings or straps that are hanging to pull an object up to her. For example, she may pull a string or plastic chain link of a toy dangling from her high chair.

Flips Over Container to Get to Small Objects

Development Milestone emerges from age 12 to 18 months.

When trying to get at a small object inside of a container, your baby will likely try to get at it by poking his finger in it or shaking it. However, after showing him how, your baby will flip over the container and begin to shake it until the desired object falls out.

Simple Problem Solving with Tools

Development Milestone emerges from age 17 to 24 months.

At this stage, your child will use an unrelated object to get the object she actually wants. For example, she may grab a nearby stick (or spatula) to get her favorite toy out from underneath the couch or she may invent other ways to solve her problem of getting her favorite toy out.

Turning Doorknobs

Development Milestone emerges from age 21 to 23 months.

Now, the fun begins (depending on your idea of fun) because your toddler has figured out that he or she can get to the other side of the door by simply turning the doorknob. This means you need to do another round of baby proofing. A door is no longer an obstacle.

These are some of the many milestones that your child is mastering as he or she is growing from infant to toddler. Your baby’s ability to problem solve is an important one. It can also be a lot of fun to help them along the way as that skill continues to develop. It is important to note that every baby learns at his or her own pace. So, don’t worry if your baby isn’t doing what your neighbor’s kid was doing at that age. Always speak to your pediatrician for serious concerns. Otherwise, try out some fun activities with your baby that we know will benefit both you and your child. Oh, and remember to have fun!

We hope that this article was helpful to you. We would love to know what you think! Please share our article with others who might benefit from it.

Read our complete guide to Cognitive Development Milestones

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Grand ma Iris says

April 3, 2019 at 6:27 pm

Enjoyed reading your article on early childhood growth and thinking process for problem solving. Helpful

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Lifelong learning of cognitive styles for physical problem-solving: The effect of embodied experience

Kelsey r. allen.

1 Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, MIT and Center for Brains, Minds, and Machines, Cambridge, MA USA

Kevin A. Smith

Laura-ashleigh bird.

2 Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK

Joshua B. Tenenbaum

Tamar r. makin.

3 MRC Cognition Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

4 Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK

Dorothy Cowie

Associated data.

The data have been made available on a permanent third-party archive https://github.com/k-r-allen/embodied_experience . The stimuli for the study can be found at https://sites.google.com/view/virtualtoolsgame and in the Supplemental Materials.

The code has been made available on a permanent third-party archive https://github.com/k-r-allen/embodied_experience .

‘Embodied cognition’ suggests that our bodily experiences broadly shape our cognitive capabilities. We study how embodied experience affects the abstract physical problem-solving styles people use in a virtual task where embodiment does not affect action capabilities. We compare how groups with different embodied experience – 25 children and 35 adults with congenital limb differences versus 45 children and 40 adults born with two hands – perform this task, and find that while there is no difference in overall competence, the groups use different cognitive styles to find solutions. People born with limb differences think more before acting but take fewer attempts to reach solutions. Conversely, development affects the particular actions children use, as well as their persistence with their current strategy. Our findings suggest that while development alters action choices and persistence, differences in embodied experience drive changes in the acquisition of cognitive styles for balancing acting with thinking.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.3758/s13423-023-02400-4.

Introduction

Everyday experience is both constrained and enabled by the bodies we inhabit. Taller people can reach further, while people with two fully functioning hands can manipulate multiple objects at the same time. ‘Embodied cognition’ (Wilson, 2002 ) suggests that such constraints play a fundamental role in shaping our cognitive and perceptual experiences. Many versions of embodiment theory suggest that these effects reach even further, into how we reason about those experiences. Supporting this view, researchers have shown that when individuals’ bodies or skills are altered, e.g., through temporary training or by being born with limb differences, this can change their perceptual capacities (Aglioti et al., 2008 ; Hagura et al., 2017 ), spatial cognition (Makin et al., 2010 ), body representation (Maimon-Mor et al., 2020 ), or motor skills (Maimon-Mor et al., 2021 ). Here we ask if these effects of embodiment can be broader, by testing whether differences in embodied experience (through limb differences) affect the ways that people think about acting in the world, even when their capacities for action are made equal.

Prior studies have rarely addressed how a lifetime of embodied experience affects the use of “cognitive styles”: the individual differences in how people allocate cognitive resources to thinking about and acting in the world (Messick, 1976 ; Kozhevnikov, 2007 ). Through short-term direct manipulations of people’s bodies or accessible actions, researchers have shown that people are sensitive to action costs – the amount of effort required to perform actions – for both motor planning (Izawa et al., 2008 ) and motor behaviors (Prévost et al., 2010 ). Priming people with different action costs in a perceptual decision-making task can even affect their decisions in a setting where action costs no longer apply (Hagura et al., 2017 ), suggesting that action costs can generalize beyond the immediate task. However, these studies transpire on the scale of minutes, and typically demonstrate behavioral effects where costs are manipulated within a task but do not show that long-term and generalized action costs are learned from embodied experience.

To study the effect of embodied experience over longer time-scales, researchers have investigated the perceptual and motor capabilities of individuals born with limb differences. However, the tasks used to study these capabilities often require judgments related to absent body parts, and therefore differences in behavior might be driven by differences in sensorimotor experience or available information. For example, while people with congenital limb differences are slower to judge whether a picture is of a left or right hand (Maimon-Mor et al. , 2020 ; though cf. Vannuscorps and Caramazza , 2016 ; Vannuscorps et al. , 2012 ), they lack first-person experience of that hand.

Here we test the hypothesis that growing up with a different body may affect the everyday cognitive styles individuals use to solve problems in their environments, even when the capabilities tested are divorced from particular bodily differences. For example, if people with congenital limb differences have learned that actions are in general more costly – perhaps as a result of difficulties using artifacts designed for people with two hands (see Fig.  1 ) – we might expect that they will differ in how they approach physical problems generally, even when action costs are equated. Such cognitive styles for action have been observed previously on shorter time-scales: e.g., individuals adapt their motor plans to their own levels of sensorimotor uncertainty and variability (Harris and Wolpert, 1998 ; Gallivan et al., 2018 ; Körding and Wolpert, 2004 ), including becoming more persistent (Leonard et al., 2017 ), or spending more time thinking before acting (Dasgupta et al., 2018 ). The differences in cognitive styles might be expected to emerge early in infancy, when experience begins driving motor skill acquisition (Adolph et al., 2018 ) but might also develop throughout childhood alongside more precise motor planning, control and tool use (Berard et al., 2006 ; Chicoine et al., 1992 ; Adalbjornsson et al., 2008 ).

Individuals with limb differences must engage in independent motor problem-solving for many everyday behaviors, such as opening a jar. These experiences may change their cognitive styles for motor tasks in general. For example, with two hands, opening a jar can be accomplished by using one hand to stabilize the jar while the other one twists the lid ( A ). With a single hand ( B ), opening a jar can be accomplished by using one’s arm and torso to stabilize the jar. The Virtual Tools game ( C ) equalizes action possibilities and costs for individuals with different types of limbs by creating a virtual action space. (i) The aim is to move the red ball into the green goal. A participant selects a tool from three options (shapes in colored boxes) and places it in the scene (ii). Once placed, physics is “turned on” and objects can fall under gravity or collide with each other (iii); the blue and red lines represent the observed motion trajectories for the tool and the ball, respectively

To test the influence of embodied experience on the learning of cognitive styles, we studied behavior in a virtual physical problem-solving task where all participants had equal capabilities to interact with the world. This “Virtual Tools game” (Allen et al., 2020 ) requires people to use virtual objects as tools to solve a physical problem (e.g., getting the red ball into the green goal, Fig.  1 C) using a single limb to control a cursor, thus equating action costs. Allen et al. ( 2020 ) provide a set of performance metrics for this task that measure the cognitive styles participants use.

We chose participant groups to represent a diverse range of embodied experience: children (5 to 10-year-olds) and adults born with limb differences, and age-matched children and adults born with two hands. Children have less embodied experience than adults, while individuals with limb differences have dramatically different kinds of experience. By using a virtual task with simple controls, we equate manipulation capabilities and instead study how embodied experience affects the cognitive styles that support action planning and reasoning more generally.

We tested whether cognitive styles are affected by life experience, as indexed by age (children versus adults) and by limb differences. We first predicted that those having to devise unique solutions to everyday physical problems due to growing up with a limb difference might use different, perhaps even more efficient, ways of solving the virtual puzzles. To assess this, we considered the key outcome measures of attempt type, thinking time, attempts to solution, time to solution, and solution rate introduced by Allen et al. ( 2020 ). Second, given that tool use capabilities develop throughout childhood (Beck et al., 2011 ; Keen, 2011 ), we expected solution rates to improve with age. Finally, we tested whether differences in cognitive styles between those with and without limb differences would emerge early because compensatory behavior evolves early, or whether differences might grow with development as motor and cognitive skills develop. Overall, we found that participants with limb differences do use a different set of cognitive styles than those without – spending more time thinking while interacting less with the world. While performance does improve with age, we did not find evidence that the thinking/acting difference between participants with and without limb differences changes over development.

Participants

We recruited a total of 145 participants across four groups: 40 adults without limb differences (Adult-NLD), 35 adults with limb differences (Adult-LD), 45 children with no limb differences (Child-NLD), and 25 children with limb differences (Child-LD). LD and NLD participants were well matched for age (Child-LD mean: 7.91 years old, sd: 1.84, range 5.08–10.72; Child-NLD mean: 7.94 years old, sd: 1.74, range 5.02–10.56; Adult-LD mean: 40.7 years old, sd: 15.5, range 19–76; Adult-NLD mean: 41.2 years old, sd: 15.2, range 18–70). We extensively liaised with the limb-difference community, including through existing volunteer databases and two UK charities who support children with a limb difference and their families. We included participants with congenital upper limb anomalies, as summarized in Tables S2 and S3 in the Supplemental Material. Information on limb differences was self-reported but verified for a subset of participants (88% and 55% in children and adults, respectively). We recruited children and adults without limb differences to match the education level and age of the special population over the same period. We recruited a larger sample of children without limb differences to give us a greater understanding of the range of typical performance in a two-handed population. Two-handed children were recruited through an existing university volunteer families database and affiliated Facebook page. The experiment was approved for adults under protocols approved by UCL (9937/001), and all adults provided informed consent. The experiment was approved for children under a protocol approved by the ethics committee at Durham University (PSYCH-2019-08-30T10_08_45-mnvj24), and informed consent was provided by the legal guardian.

As with Allen et al. ( 2020 ), the experiment was run online on participants’ personal computers at home. All participants were provided with an identifying code used to link their performance with individual information (e.g., specific limb differences). The experiment progressed through two stages: motor pre-test, and Virtual Tools game. We also collected several additional demographic and clinical details (see below Table ​ Table1 1 ).

Proportion of children and adults with limb differences who have an affected right or left arm, or both arms, and associated ages of groups in years

All participants were given the same experiment, with only three exceptions that differed between children and adults: (1) children received simplified instructions for all stages, (2) adults played one additional Virtual Tools level that we removed from the children’s experiment due to excessive challenge (see Section  S3 in the Supplemental Material), and (3) adults were given a more extensive questionnaire that included additional questions about the strategies they had used and video games they had played before.

Motor pre-test

The motor pre-test was used to measure participants’ ability to control the cursor. Each trial began with a star centered in a 600x600  px area on the screen. Once the star was clicked, a 10- px radius circle appeared in a random position either 150  px or 250  px from the center. Participants were instructed to click on the circle as quickly and accurately as possible. Participants completed ten motor test trials (five at each distance from the center).

On each trial we measured (a) reaction time, and (b) the distance (in px ) between the center of the circle and the cursor click location. As a measure of participants’ basic motor accuracy, we took the median of both of those measures across all ten trials; we used the median to avoid skew from outlier trials, and found in pilot testing that this was a relatively stable measurement.

Virtual Tools game

On each level of the Virtual Tools game, participants were presented with a scene and three “tools” (see Fig.  1 C-i), along with a goal condition (e.g., “get the red object into the green goal area”). Participants could accomplish this goal by clicking on a tool and then an unobstructed part of the game area to place that tool (Fig.  1 C-ii). They could choose the location of the tool but its orientation was fixed to how it was displayed on the screen. As soon as the tool was placed, physics was “turned on” and objects could fall under gravity or collide with each other depending on the specific tool placement made (Fig.  1 C-iii). If the goal was not accomplished, participants could press a button to reset the scene to its initial state. Participants could attempt to solve the level as many times as they liked but were limited to a single tool placement for each attempt. Participants could move onto the next level once they had accomplished the goal, or after  60  s had passed.

Following Allen et al. ( 2020 ), participants were initially given instructions about how the game functioned, including the difference between static (black) and moving (blue/red) objects, goal areas, and how to place tools and reset the level. For familiarization with the interface and physics, participants were given one introductory level that required them to place tools at least three times without a goal, followed by two simple levels that they were required to solve that were not analyzed. For adults, this process was identical to that of Allen et al. ( 2020 ); children received simplified instructions (see Fig.  S1 in the Supplemental Material).

In the main task, participants were asked to solve 14 different levels, each with a different set of three tools, designed to probe knowledge of diverse physical principles (e.g., support, collisions, tipping; see Fig.  2 ). The solutions to each level are determined by the physics of the game, rather than being decided by the experimenters. Solution (“truth”) maps are provided in the supplement (Fig.  S2 ). As in Allen et al. ( 2020 ), on each level, we recorded all attempts from each participant – defined as the tool chosen and where it was placed; the time elapsed between the start of the level and the time of the attempt; and whether the level was solved. Examples of participants’ play in different levels is shown in Fig.  3 .

The 14 levels of the Virtual Tools game (Allen et al., 2020 ) that participants played. These cover a wide variety of physical action concepts including “balancing,” “launching,” “catapulting,” “supporting,” and “tipping.” To play the game, please see https://sites.google.com/view/virtualtoolsgame

Examples of different participant trajectories through different levels. Each panel is an individual attempt by a participant, labeled by the attempt number. The starting positions of objects are shown as more transparent, while their final positions after physics is “turned on” are shown as opaque. Available tools for the levels depicted are shown on the right. ( A ) Participants with limb differences tend to spend more time between attempts while taking fewer overall attempts to solve levels. In this level, the goal is to knock the container over so that the ball touches the ground. An adult with a limb difference first uses the hook object to try to do this but by the third attempt realizes they can place an object underneath the container to tip it over. An adult without a limb difference persists with placing objects above the container in rapid succession until they are ultimately successful. ( B ) In this level, the goal is to get the red ball into the container. Children often do so by placing a tool very close to the ball, while adults are more likely to drop a tool from further up. Both this child and adult are ultimately successful. ( C ) Adults tend to perseverate with attempt types more than children. In this level, the goal is to get the red ball into the container, which can be achieved by placing a tool on the platform next to the block. Before finding solutions, this child switched between attempt types (from dropping a block at the bottom, to putting a wedge on the wrong side of the platform, to finally putting it on the correct side of the platform) more than the adult (who focused on the same attempt type but tried this attempt type many times before being successful)

For the main analyses, we used four different overall performance metrics defined by Allen et al. ( 2020 ) to measure different facets of performance: (1) whether the level was solved (solution rate), (2) time until the solving attempt was performed (time to solution), (3) how many attempts were taken until the level was solved (attempts to solution), (4) times to the first attempt and the average time between attempts (thinking time). We also analyzed the specific kinds of attempts taken (attempt type) using the same methodology introduced in Allen et al. ( 2020 ) to cluster and classify participants. All measures were automatically extracted from the recorded tool placements and timings.

Additional measures

After both the motor test and Virtual Tools task, participants were given a short questionnaire to ask what device they used to control the cursor, and, for participants with limb differences, how the cursor was controlled. Additionally, for the adult participants we included the questions asked in Allen et al. ( 2020 ), including prior video game experience, and free-form responses about strategies they had used on the task. In separate surveys, we gathered demographics and interface information (Section  S2.2 in the Supplemental Material), limb-differences information (Section   S2.3 and Tables  S2 and S3 ), and verbal and nonverbal IQ (for a subset of children only; Section S2.1 ). Age was used as a covariate in our analyses, while gender, device, and limb usage were studied as possible moderators (see Section   S8 in the Supplemental Material). Free-form strategy descriptions were read in order to discover non-standard ways of solving the levels but were not directly analyzed.

Finally, in exploratory analyses of attempt types, we also directly analyze the kinds of errors different groups of participants made in Section   S6 . These errors include using an unworkable tool, placing the tool above vs. below the correct object, or placing it at the wrong precise location relative to the correct object.

For the motor test, performance was analyzed using linear models to predict the dependent variable (either median reaction time or click distance) as a function of both age group and limb difference group, controlling for the effect of differences due to age in years separately for adults and children.

For all of the Virtual Tools performance metrics, variables were modeled using linear mixed effect models, using random intercepts for participants and levels. Additionally, we included age in years and median motor test response times as covariates, parameterized separately for children and adults. We had prespecified these as covariates since we believed that they would account for general performance differences; nonetheless analyses without covariates produced similar results (see Section   S7 in the Supplemental Material). For all but the solution metric, we conditioned our analyses only on successful levels, as we were interested in the mental processes that led to solutions, and not processes that might be indicative of frustration or perseverance; however, analyzing all levels produced a qualitatively similar pattern of results (see Section  S9 in the Supplemental Material).

In some analyses we attempt to differentiate the type of participants’ attempts, either to test whether the type of attempt is different across groups, or to test whether participants are switching types between attempts. Measuring attempt type directly in this game is challenging, as different combinations of tools / positions can have overall similar effects (see, e.g., Fig.  3 . Which of these should be considered the same type of attempt?). We therefore resort to an indirect measure which nonetheless provides intuitive notions of attempt type. Specifically, we use the classification methodology of (Allen et al., 2020 ) that groups attempts using nonparametric clustering. This allows the “type of attempt” to be defined by the data, grouping placements together in ways that can allow for custom definitions of “similar” across levels without requiring any explicit definitions. To compare attempt types across groups, we applied a leave-one-out classification analysis where, for each participant, we formed probability distributions over the tool identities and spatial positions by all other members of their group and those from members of the other group, then calculated the relative likelihood that the tool placement for a given level was a member of the correct group. To investigate whether attempt types change from attempt to attempt, we formed clusters over tool spatial positions using all attempts from all participants within a level. Two consecutive attempts were considered a “switch” if each attempt came from a separate cluster.

To determine clusters for each different level, we aggregated all attempts across all participants, taking the [ x ,  y ] spatial positions of each attempt as variables but ignoring the specific choice of tool. 1 We applied clusters separately for each participant group (children vs. adults, limb differences vs. no limb differences) but aggregated data across all participants from each group. Applying a Dirichlet Process mixture modeling package then gave us clusters for each level and group, as well as the probabilities that each attempt belonged to each cluster. We defined a “switch” as occurring if, for consecutive attempts, the cluster assigned as the highest likelihood was different for both of those attempts. Examples of discovered clusters for the data presented in Fig.  8 are shown in Fig. S6 .

Comparison of tool placements on the first attempt for children and adults with and without limb differences. Each point represents an individual participant’s first attempt, with the position being where they placed the tool, and the color representing membership in “attempt type” clusters determined by Dirichlet Process Mixture Modeling over tool positions. Points of the same color therefore represent participants who chose first attempts belonging to the same attempt type

We will discuss in turn (1) the equating of basic motor abilities across groups, (2) participants’ overall performance metrics, (3) differences in cognitive styles that arise during solution finding, and (4) the detailed kinds of attempts each group made. For each section we will focus on the effect of embodiment but also note the effects of age where present.

Basic motor abilities across groups

We used the motor pre-test to examine whether there were group differences in cursor control which could affect performance on the Virtual Tools game. Children could control the cursor, with an average pixel error of 7.65 px (95% CI=[6.74, 8.55]) and reaction time of 3.04 s (95% CI=[2.67, 3.41]), albeit less accurately and more slowly than adults (error: 2.92 px , 95% CI=[2.52, 3.31]; RT: 1.91 s , 95% CI=[1.73, 2.09]). Exploratory analysis showed that children’s control improved linearly with age ( t ( 65 ) = 3.09 , p = 0.003 , Fig.  4 ).

Reaction time on the motor task by participant age and group. Participants with limb differences were slightly faster on this task, suggesting that any differences in time to act or solve problems in the Virtual Tools game are not driven by differences in cursor control capabilities

Importantly, individuals with and without limb differences performed comparably on both motor error and reaction time. While there was a difference in median click-time between participants with and without limb differences, participants with limb differences were slightly faster (by 356 ms , 95% CI=[14, 698]; F (1,135) = 4.15, p = 0.044), though they clicked marginally further away from the target (by 0.79 px , 95% CI=[ - 0.14 , 1.72]; F (1,135) = 2.78, p = 0.098). There was no interaction found between age group and limb difference for either motor speed ( F (1,134) = 1.76, p = 0.19) or error ( F (1,134) = 0.001, p = 0.98). The differences found in motor control were relatively inconsequential for the Virtual Tools game – 0.79 px additional error would have little effect on 600 x 600 px game screens, and an extra 356  ms would be hard to detect with an average time between attempts of over 10  s . We therefore showed that both groups should have a level playing field for interacting with the Virtual Tools game.

Performance metrics across groups

In the Virtual Tools game, we initially tested whether limb difference and age affected overall solution rates or time (in seconds) to reach a solution. We found gross differences in solution rates between children and adults (adults: 85%, children: 77%; x 2 ( 1 ) = 11.20, p = 0.0008; Fig. ​ Fig.5) 5 ) but no effect of limb difference ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 1.21, p = 0.27), nor any interaction between age and limb group ( x 2 ( 1 ) =  0, p = 0.99). Exploratory analysis showed that age in years additionally predicted success ( x 2 ( 2 ) = 12, p = 0.0025): while children’s solution rates improved with age (log-odds increase per year: 0.290, 95% CI =[0.038, 0.543]), adults’ worsened (log-odds decrease per year: 0.290, 95% CI =[0.006, 0.053]).

Solution rate (percentage of levels solved by each participant) as a function of age for children ( left ) and adults ( right ) with limb differences (LD) and with no limb differences (NLD). Grey areas represent standard error regions on the regression lines

On time to solution, children were similarly slower than adults ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 40.0 , p = 2.6 ∗ 10 - 10 ; Fig.  6 B) but we found no effect of limb differences ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 0.41 , p = 0.52 ), nor was there an interaction between limb group and age group ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 0.22 , p = 0.64 ). Adults slowed down with age (average additional 1.16 s per year, 95% CI=[0.87, 1.46], ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 59.4 , p = 1.3 ∗ 10 - 14 ) , while children non-significantly sped up (2.64 s less per year, 95% CI=[ - 1.63 , 6.90], x 2 ( 1 ) = 1.47 , p = 0.23 ).

The efficiency of finding solutions measured by number of attempts ( A ), time to solution as measured in seconds ( B ), time to first attempt ( C ), and time between attempts ( D ). Means with standard errors are shown. Participants with and without limb differences did not reliably differ on time to solution but participants with limb differences solved the levels in fewer attempts, and took more time until the first attempt and between attempts

Thus we found that while age causes noticeable changes in overall performance on the Virtual Tools game, limb differences do not. Nonetheless, participants might achieve similar overall levels of performance in different ways. We therefore next considered whether participants with or without limb differences might demonstrate distinctions on the more detailed performance metrics specified in Allen et al. ( 2020 ).

Cognitive styles in solution finding

We investigated whether there was a difference in the number of attempts that participants with and without limb differences took to solve each level. Participants with limb differences (LD) took fewer attempts on average to come to a solution than the participants with no limb differences (NLD; 83.9 % of the attempts, 95% CI=[ 72.2 % , 97.6 % ]; x 2 ( 1 ) = 5.19, p = 0.023; Fig. ​ Fig.6A). 6 A). Conversely, they took more time for each attempt, including taking more time before the first attempt (3.79 s more, 95% CI = [1.99, 5.59]; x 2 ( 1 ) = 17.0 , p = 3.7 ∗ 10 - 5 ; Fig. ​ Fig.6C), 6 C), and between all subsequent attempts (2.80 s more on average, 95% CI = [1.51, 4.10]; x 2 ( 1 ) = 17.9 , p = 2.3 ∗ 10 - 5 ; Fig. ​ Fig.6D). 6 D). Again, we found differences by age, with children taking fewer attempts (89 % of the attempts as adults, x 2 ( 1 ) = 6.51 , p = 0.011 ); more time to the first attempt (6.1 s more, x 2 ( 1 ) = 13.4 , p = 0.00025 ); and more time between attempts ( x 2 ( 1 ) = 41.7 , p = 1.1 ∗ 10 - 10 ) but no evidence for an interaction between age and limb differences for any of these measures (number of attempts: x 2 ( 1 ) = 2.07, p = 0.15; time to first attempt: x 2 ( 1 ) = 0.10 , p = 0.76 ; time between attempts: x 2 ( 1 ) = 0.16 , p = 0.69 ). 2

Together, these results suggest that individuals born with limb differences learn a different cognitive style for physical problem-solving: they learn to spend more time considering the problem and less on gathering information from their attempts. While it is not possible to conclusively determine why individuals with limb differences spent more time on each attempt (i.e., it could relate to initiation costs (Khalighinejad et al., 2021 ) or habit formation from prior experience (Wong et al., 2017 )), this extra consideration time was connected at the group level to fewer overall actions being needed to solve the problem. We therefore tentatively interpret the difference in reaction time as “thinking” – some internal computation that supports solving problems with fewer numbers of attempts.

Attempt types

We first investigated whether there were differences in the types of first attempts taken by participants with and without limb differences, using the methodology described in the Methods: Analysis section to classify whether the types of attempts made by participants with limb differences better matched those of other participants with limb differences than those without, and vice versa. If this measure is on average reliably above chance on a level, this suggests that the two groups are beginning their solution search in different ways. However, we did not find statistically reliable effects. For qualitative differences between groups see Fig.  8 , and Section  S10 of the Supplemental Material for further details. For direct analyses of “error” types (what kinds of errors each group makes), please refer to Section  S6 of the Supplemental Material.

Using the same methodology, we found that across all levels, children’s and adults’ first attempt types can be differentiated (Fig.  7 B; note that in this cluster analysis comparing age groups, we cannot jointly model the effect of limb differences and age, so we report analyses separately for each group; NLD: t ( 84 ) = 4.91 p = 4 . 5 ∗ 10 - 6 ; LD: t ( 57 ) = 3.05, p = 0.0035). This analysis suggests that children are starting with some sort of different action than adults but it cannot tell us exactly what differs.

Comparing tool placements across children and adults born with two hands. Bar plots show means and standard errors. ( A ) Examples of first attempts for both adults and children without limb differences on two levels. Each point shows an individual participant’s attempt, with the position being where they placed the tool, and the color representing which tool they chose (tools shown in colored boxes to the right of each level). ( B ) We tested whether we could classify participants’ age group based on attempt type for each level. The dashed line represents 50 % (chance). ( C ) The likelihood that children would “switch” attempt types. Please see Methods: Analysis and Section S5 in the Supplemental Material for details on how attempt type switching was measured

To explicitly test for what differs, we measured whether we could find differences between the two groups using more structured analyses of error types (e.g., using an unworkable tool, placing the tool above vs. below the correct object) but could not find reliable differences (see Section  S6 ). However, we did find that adults on average placed their tool vertically farther from the object than children (average vertical distance in children: 74 px , adults: 91 px ; x 2 ( 1 ) = 5.20, p = 0.023), which is likely driving some of the differences. Nonetheless, we cannot make strong claims about why children and adults differ along this vertical dimension – e.g., children might just be more conservative, might be worse at understanding how gravity transfers into this environment, or might differ for a variety of other reasons. Furthermore, given the small absolute difference in vertical positions between groups, more work may be needed to understand this result.

Since children are often more exploratory than adults (Gopnik et al., 2001 ), we also tested whether they might be more likely than adults to try new attempt types over the course of a single level. Children’s and adults without limb differences’ attempts were used to form clusters describing different tool “attempt types” (see Methods: Analysis for details), and we assigned each attempt to one of these (Fig.  8 ). Within a level, children were more likely to try new attempt types than adults (children: 39 % attempt type switches, adults: 33 % ; x 2 ( 1 ) = 10.2, p = 0.0014), suggesting that their lower solution rates might be due to either increased exploration of inefficient attempt types, or giving up on promising attempt types early. Using a more structured measure of switching based on the same error types above (a “switch” being defined as changing the qualitative spatial position of the tool relative to an object in the scene, or switching which object in the scene to interact with), we similarly found a difference in switching behavior, with children switching 56 % of the time, and adults 47 % of the time ( p = 0.0009 ). While statistically significant, given the relatively small absolute difference in switching behavior, more work may be needed to investigate this result further.

We used a virtual physics problem-solving game to study how growing up in a different body affects a high-level cognitive task unrelated to body or hand representations. We found minimal differences in the specific kinds of actions used by individuals with and without limb differences, suggesting that fundamental aspects of physical problem-solving are not dependent on similar kinds of manipulation experience. However, we also found that individuals with limb differences, regardless of age, spent more time considering virtual physical problems, and took fewer attempts to find solutions. While congenital limb difference is not directly associated with cognitive differences (see Section  S2.1 in the Supplemental Material), growing up with a limb difference may cause cascading effects on many aspects of development, relating to different opportunities to interact with the environment. For example, children with limb differences may be unable to solve problems by imitating their parents or peers, or may face challenges in using tools designed for two hands. In either case, they might come to appreciate the value of thinking more about solutions to physical problems before acting, and over time this could grow into a general cognitive style for interacting with the world. What is striking is that this learned cognitive style extends to a task in which action possibilities are equated across groups – indeed, individuals without limb differences were not slower to control the cursor in our task (see also (Maimon-Mor et al., 2021 )).

We call these differences in “cognitive styles,” as they fall under the definition of “consistent individual differences in preferred ways of organizing and processing information and experience” (Messick, 1976 ). However, while much of the previous research on cognitive styles has focused on how these individual differences might arise due to personality differences (Kozhevnikov, 2007 ), here we suggest that an alternative driver of different cognitive styles might be the body that people inhabit, which in turn affects the costs of interacting with the world.

Cognitive styles are often thought to be learned through experience, similarly to studies of motor learning in adults (Huang et al., 2012 ). The difference here is that the target of learning is not the motor plan itself but when to deploy those motor plans. While people’s information sampling has been shown to be sensitive to the costs of obtaining that information (Juni et al., 2016 ; Jones et al., 2019 ) and motor cost manipulations have been shown to affect the efficiency of motor reaching actions (Summerside et al., 2018 ), it has not previously been shown that motor differences directly affect the cognitive styles that people employ.

Our findings also bridge two different approaches to understanding human tool use. Tool use is theorized to be supported by specific sensorimotor knowledge of tool manipulation under the “manipulation-based” (embodied cognition) approach (Buxbaum and Kalénine, 2010 ; Gonzalez et al., 1991 ; van Elk et al., 2014 ), or generic physical knowledge under the “reasoning-based” approach (Allen et al., 2020 ; Osiurak and Badets, 2016 ). These theories have produced suggestions that there are distinct cognitive systems supporting different kinds of tool knowledge (Orban and Caruana, 2014 ; Goldenberg and Spatt, 2009 ). However, our results suggest a connection between the two systems: by its virtual nature and novel objects, the Virtual Tools game must rely on reasoning-based systems for tool use, yet we find that manipulation capabilities affect this reasoning. Thus we suggest that the development of the reasoning-based system is grounded in the embodied way that we interact with the world.

Our results extend existing knowledge about children’s problem-solving and tool use. Children can use and select known tools by 2–3 years old (Keen, 2011 ) but do not reliably innovate new tools until 8–9 years (Beck et al., 2011 ), perhaps due to its increased cognitive demands (Rawlings & Legare, 2020 ). Children’s performance in our game is likely driven by these same planning and attentional skills, which underpin a useful balance between exploration and exploitation in a large solution space (Gopnik, 2020 ). Specifically, while children at this age can avoid perseveration (Rawlings & Legare, 2020 ; Cutting et al., 2011 ), our results suggest over-exploration may be an issue, as children switched attempt types more often than adults. The central difficulty with tool innovation and other physical problem-solving tasks at this age may be the need to search through large solution spaces, where children’s propensity for exploration (Oudeyer and Smith, 2016 ; Gopnik, 2020 ) comes at the cost of short-term gains in solution-finding.

Our findings suggest new interactions between embodiment, development, and cognitive styles and raise important questions for future work. The present study focused on a single task - the Virtual Tools game - because it is similar to manipulation tasks while still not requiring manipulation directly. Thus, we expected cognitive styles learned from lifelong differences in action costs and possibilities to carry over into this task, while still providing an equal playing field for all our participants.

One might ask how broadly these differences in cognitive styles would be expected to generalize, e.g. across domains and environments. Some previous work indirectly supports the notion of a broad effect across motor-related tasks. For example, individuals with a limb difference responded more slowly in motor planning (Philip et al., 2015 ) and hand laterality judgements (Maimon-Mor et al., 2020 ). These findings were previously interpreted as a consequence of having fewer available resources to accumulate evidence for tasks related to judgements about hands. However, in light of the present findings, and because the previous observed effects were also found for the intact hand, these results can be interpreted as a generally greater reliance on planning before acting for this population. Yet, these tasks all contain a visuospatial and motor component, so it is still unclear how broad this effect is, e.g., whether it transfers to abstract logical reasoning tasks or social interactions. It is also difficult to determine, based on our single study, whether the group differences we observed are directly or indirectly caused by different embodied experience considering the many developmental differences individuals growing up with a different body will experience. For example, life experiences for individuals born with different bodies may cause them to be generally more cautious, contemplative, or creative.

Thus, the current study provides a starting point for further investigation of how we learn to deploy our cognitive resources based on our embodied experiences. Being born with a different body does not change the fundamental ways in which people try to act on the world but it can change the styles they acquire in order to plan and act efficiently in their environments.

Open Practices Statement

This study was not preregistered. The data and analyses have been made available on a permanent third-party archive https://github.com/k-r-allen/embodied_experience . The stimuli for the study can be found at https://sites.google.com/view/virtualtoolsgame and in the Supplemental Materials.

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Acknowledgements

We thank Mathew Kollamkulam for collecting the data from the adult samples, Opcare, Limbo and Reach for assistance with participant recruitment, and all participating families and volunteers. The study was supported by a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowship (215575/Z/19/Z) and a Medical Research Council grant (MC_UU_00030/10), awarded to TRM. KRA, KAS, and JBT were supported by National Science Foundation Science Technology Center Award CCF-1231216; Office of Naval Research Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (ONR MURI) N00014-13-1-0333; and research grants from ONR, Honda, and Mitsubishi Electric. For the purpose of Open Access, the author has applied a CC BY public copyright license to any Author Accepted Manuscript (AAM) version arising from this submission.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conceptualization. KRA and KAS developed materials. LAB recruited participants under the supervision of TRM and DC. KRA and KAS analyzed the data. All authors contributed to the writing of the manuscript.

Open Access funding provided by the MIT Libraries. The study was supported by a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellowship (215575/Z/19/Z) and a Medical Research Council grant (MC_UU_00030/10), awarded to TRM. KRA, KAS, and JBT were supported by National Science Foundation Science Technology Center Award CCF-1231216; Office of Naval Research Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (ONR MURI) N00014-13-1-0333; and research grants from ONR, Honda, and Mitsubishi Electric.

Availability of data and materials

Code availability, declarations.

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to declare.

The experiment was approved for adults under protocols approved by UCL (9937/001), and all adults provided informed consent. The experiment was approved for children under a protocol approved by the ethics committee at Durham University (PSYCH-2019-08-30T10_08_45-mnvj24), and informed consent was provided by the legal guardian.

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study or, for the children, their legal guardians.

1 Tool orientation could not be controlled, so was not included as a variable

2 When testing for the effects of limb differences in children and adults separately, we found reliable differences in attempt timing in both children (first attempt: 4.13 s , 95% CI = [0.96, 7.30], x 2 ( 1 ) = 6.52, p = 0.011; between attempts: 2.57 s , 95% CI = [0.31, 4.84], x 2 ( 1 ) = 4.96, p = 0.026) and adults (first attempt: 3.29 s , 95% CI = [1.32, 5.26], x 2 ( 1 ) = 10.7, p = 0.0011; between attempts: 2.63 s , 95% CI = [1.26, 4.01], x 2 ( 1 ) = 14.2, p = 0.00017). However, while we found that adults with limb differences use fewer attempts than those without ( 75.1 % of the attempts, 95% CI = [ 59.1 % , 95.4 % ], x 2 ( 1 ) = 5.49, p = 0.019), children with limb differences took numerically fewer attempts than those without but this does not reach statistical significance ( 94.9 % of the attempts, 95% CI = [ 78.2 % , 115.0 % ], x 2 ( 1 ) = 0.29, p = 0.59). Thus, while we can claim that participants with no limb differences overall took more attempts, we did not have enough evidence to discriminate whether this is because these differences are consistent across age groups, or whether the distinction grows through development.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Kelsey R. Allen and Kevin A. Smith contributed equally to this work. Tamar R. Makin and Dorothy Cowie supervised equally for this work.

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Training Industry

Smart thinking: metacognitive strategies for lasting learning.

In the ever-escalating pursuit of efficiency and effectiveness in learning, there lies a powerful yet often overlooked tool: metacognition . Metacognition, or thinking about thinking, is not just an academic exercise relegated to the confines of school classrooms; it’s a critical element in enhancing workplace training and overall professional development.

Metacognition involves three core activities: planning, monitoring and evaluating. Imagine an employee, let’s call him Jeff, embarks on a new project. Jeff first plans by setting goals and strategizing how to use his existing knowledge. As he progresses, he monitors his understanding and pace, adjusting as necessary. Finally, he evaluates his outcomes, reflecting on what he learned and how it can be applied in the future.

Why Metacognition Matters at Work

But why should a bustling business, more interested in bottom lines than cognitive science, care about such an introspective approach? The answer is simple yet profound: metacognition leads to smarter, more adaptable employees who can learn from past experiences and apply their insights to complex problems. It’s the secret sauce for fostering a learning culture that thrives on continuous improvement and innovation.

The Science of Metacognition

Metacognition is a higher-order thinking skill that involves self-regulation of cognition through planning, monitoring and evaluation. At its core, metacognition encompasses both knowledge about cognitive processes and the regulation of these processes in learning.

Metacognitive practices enhance learning by helping individuals take a more strategic approach to their tasks. This concept, which involves thinking about how we think, has been around for a while and has been thoroughly researched. It turns out that people who use metacognitive strategies are generally better at solving problems and picking up new information.

Metacognitive practices can help learners recognize the limits of their knowledge, which is the first step in addressing misunderstandings and acquiring new skills. This is especially important in fast-paced, ever-changing work environments where continuous learning is crucial.

The effectiveness of metacognition has been seen in various settings, from classrooms to corporate training programs. Research shows that those who engage in metacognitive strategies often outperform those who don’t.

In the workplace, where learning is often self-directed, metacognition becomes even more important. Being aware of your own competencies and knowledge is essential for professional growth. While many adults may lack these skills, incorporating metacognitive strategies into training can significantly improve both the retention of skills and the ability to apply them effectively.

Benefits of Metacognitive Practices

1. improved problem-solving skills.

Metacognitive strategies empower employees to analyze and adapt their problem-solving tactics. By reflecting on their thought processes, employees can identify inefficiencies and optimize their approach. Metacognitive reflection leads to improved problem-solving abilities as individuals learn to evaluate and adjust their strategies based on feedback and outcomes.

2. Enhanced Ability to Adapt to New Roles and Challenges:

Employees equipped with metacognitive skills can better navigate the steep learning curves associated with new roles or evolving job requirements. Metacognitive skills can facilitate quicker adaptation and competence in new and complex tasks, as learners are more adept at identifying their learning gaps and seeking out necessary resources and strategies.

3. Increased Efficiency in Learning:

Metacognitive practices lead to more efficient learning processes because employees plan their learning, monitor their progress, and evaluate the effectiveness of their learning strategies. Metacognitive strategies can significantly reduce the time needed to achieve proficiency in new skills, as learners are better at avoiding ineffective learning paths and focusing on strategies that yield results.

Metacognitive Approaches for Training and Development

To weave these practices into the fabric of workplace training, consider the following strategies:

Visible Thinking Routines

Inspired by educational research, these routines can be adapted for adult learners in the workplace. They encourage employees to articulate their thought processes, question their assumptions and reflect on their learning journey .

Digital Tools and Resources

Leverage technology to enhance metacognitive practices. Use digital platforms that allow employees to plan, monitor and evaluate their learning processes. Apps that enable notetaking, scheduling and feedback can be particularly effective.

Structured Reflection Sessions

Incorporate regular intervals of reflection in training sessions where employees can discuss what strategies worked, what didn’t, and why. This can be guided by questions designed to provoke metacognitive thinking, such as “What would you do differently next time?”

Training for Trainers

Equip trainers with the skills to foster metacognition among learners. This includes training them to encourage self-questioning, facilitate reflective discussions, and help learners set specific, measurable, and achievable goals.

Problem-Solving

During training sessions, simulate real-world problems that employees might face. This not only enhances their problem-solving skills but also allows them to practice applying metacognitive strategies in a controlled, supportive environment.

Self-Evaluation and Self-Correction

Incorporate activities that require learners to assess their own work and identify areas for improvement. This could be through reflective journals, peer reviews or self-scoring quizzes. These activities foster a habit of self-reflection and continuous improvement.

The Metacognitive Organization

Envision a workplace where employees are engaged not only in completing tasks but also in critically analyzing how they approach and solve problems. This is the practical benefit of applying metacognitive strategies in a business setting. By fostering an environment that emphasizes thinking about thinking, companies can enhance how they train and develop their workforce.

Implementing metacognitive practices within workplace training doesn’t just tap into untapped potential; it provides a structured approach to continuous improvement and problem-solving. This shift transforms everyday work challenges into opportunities for personal and professional growth , encouraging a proactive rather than reactive approach to tasks.

Ultimately, the integration of metacognition into business practices is about leveraging the human capacity for self-reflection and adaptation. It’s not just about creating a more dynamic workplace but about building a workforce that is better equipped to handle the complexities of modern business landscapes. By prioritizing metacognitive skills, organizations can cultivate a more resilient and innovative team, proving that the most significant assets in business are not just physical or financial resources but the cultivated intellect and reflective abilities of its people.

• #cognitive skills in training
• #employee problem-solving skills
• #improving training with metacognition

Joseph Atkinson

Joseph Atkinson , an experienced learning and development manager, specializes in developing practical strategies for impactful self-paced and facilitated learning. His passion lies in innovating ways to make learning practical and applicable, blending insights from his high school and corporate training background.

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Supporting Cognitive Development: Environments and Materials

Well-arranged environments are critical for promoting school-age children’s cognitive development. Within such environments, children can engage in discovery, exploration, and problem-solving that leads to everyday learning. This lesson will focus on identifying environments and materials that promote school-age children’s cognitive development.

• Describe features of school-age environments that support children’s cognitive development.
• Discuss how children and youth explore their world and the opportunities for problem solving that are presented through new discoveries.
• Prepare a list of materials to spark cognitive development for school-age children in your program.

The Third Teacher

The programs in Reggio Emily, Italy are known for both their philosophical approach to education and the aesthetic appeal and power of the environments in which children learn. The Reggio Emilia approach is based on the principles of respect, responsibility, and community. These principles are developed through exploration and discovery in a supportive and enriching environment created based on the interests of the children. In Reggio Emilia programs, the environment is known as the third teacher because of its importance to development and learning. The environment communicates messages about who is valued in a space, how to interact with materials, and how to engage with others in a collaborative way. The environment should be responsive to the need for adults and children to construct knowledge together. According to the philosophy, the child’s first teacher is a parent taking on the role of active participant in guiding the education of the child. The second teacher is you, and the third teacher is the environment. It is the combination of a child’s relationship with parent, teacher, and environment that best promotes learning. 

Just like adults, school-age children are affected by their environments. It is our job to ensure classrooms and other learning spaces for children make them feel welcome, secure, supported, and ready to learn. Your program environment should be organized yet flexible to school-agers’ changing needs. This will help maximize children’s engagement and learning.

As you learned in Lesson One, cognitive development is all about learning. When children discover something new, they usually look for an explanation to make sense of the new idea. Your job is not to provide children with all the answers to life’s questions. Rather, you should guide children to develop their own ideas and opinions about the world around them (Satterlee et al. 2013). 

Environments and Materials that Promote School-Age Children's Cognitive Development

When you understand what interests and motivates the children in your program, you can purposefully create environments and choose materials that facilitate learning. Remember that children learn about the world around them in a variety of ways. Exploration and discovery are vital to school-age children’s cognitive development. Your program should provide children and youth with plenty of opportunities to engage in activities that promote exploration and learning in multiple areas including: math, science, social studies, language and literacy, art, and technology.

How you facilitate and nurture this active learning is extremely important. In other words, the way you structure and organize your environments and materials for children and youth can make a huge difference in their development. Your school-age environment should be organized in a way that it enables children to engage in meaningful learning. Think about the interest areas in your program space. When a child in your program enters a purposefully designed area, do they know what materials they can find there, the type of activity (loud, quiet, social, or solitary) that might happen there, the expectations for how to behave, and ways in which they can explore, learn, and have fun in the space?

Learning is both individual and social and it takes place within social and cultural contexts. Therefore, you need to make sure your learning environment provides opportunities for children and youth to engage in individual work as well as meaningful interactions and collaborations with peers and adults in your program throughout the day. Consider the layout of your program space. How are your interest areas set up? Are there interesting and developmentally appropriate materials for children and youth to manipulate, explore, and learn from? When thinking about interactions between peers, how are you setting up the environment for these interactions to take place? For example, do you offer group projects to encourage children to work with their peers, share, and learn from each other? When disagreements arise among children, do you encourage them to talk to each other and try to solve a situation on their own while making yourself available in case they need support? The solution to undesirable behaviors if often discovered by changing one or more aspects of the environment. The materials and arrangement of the program space can play a major role in the relationships, interactions, and behaviors that occur between children in the program.

Promoting Exploration and Discovery in your School-Age Program

Exploration and discovery happen all the time when children pursue interesting ideas. As a school-age staff member, you can help children become explorers by asking meaningful questions to build upon their learning. The best questions to spark scientific discovery are open-ended questions such as, “Why do you think that happened?” and “What do you think will happen next?” These will start conversations that lead children and youth to think more deeply about their ideas. Additionally, you can promote exploration and problem-solving by providing school-age children with a balance of child-guided and adult-guided experiences. First, and perhaps most important, as a school-age staff member, you can model the creativity, thoughtfulness, and curiosity necessary for exploration. By showing their own interests in materials and experiences, adults can teach children about the value of exploration.

Exploration and Problem-Solving through Scientific Inquiry and Experiments

Curiosity is where thinking and understanding emerge. School-age children are captivated by natural phenomena. A simple walk outside reveals endless possibilities for explorations: an airplane flying through the sky, the color of plants, the buzz of cicadas, or the changing of the seasons all raise questions in school-age children. Your school-age program can guide children and youth to become critical thinkers by allowing them to follow their curiosities and develop scientific inquiries. Scientific inquiry is the process of developing a question and leading an investigation to gain information. Through scientific inquiries, children think deeply about a subject matter and experiment with ideas to develop a conclusion. Children should take ownership of their own inquiries. Your role as a school-age staff member is to guide children by providing suggestions and asking open-ended questions. Reaching a conclusion is not necessarily an important part of scientific inquiry. The process of investigating an idea and developing a plan is the primary goal. The process of forming and testing hypotheses, or guesses, enables children to practice valuable critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Dyasi, 2000).

The Steps of Scientific Inquiry

Environments and Materials that Address the Needs of All Learners

There are many things you can do to help all school-age children meet important learning goals. The first and most important step is to gather information about each child. You will need to know what the school-age child is able to do well and what seems to be challenging. You will also need to know what the school-age child likes and what is motivating for them. Gathering information will help you know the skills and strategies that are likely to help a particular child in your care.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL; CAST, 2011) is one strategy you can use. UDL helps all people learn and be successful in their environments. There are examples of universal design all around us: audio books, curb cutouts for strollers and wheelchairs, keyless entry on cars, and electric can openers. Many of these tools were developed for people with disabilities, but they make life easier for all of us. School-age staff members can use the principles of UDL to help design accessible and supportive school-age programs. Some examples of what you can do in your program space to support school-age children with special learning needs are: providing agendas (with or without pictures) of the activities that students will participate in, providing multiple ways for students to learn information (e.g., reading a book, watching a video, using the internet to research a topic), using materials in a different language, or sharing vocabulary words with school-age children before reading them a story. You can find additional examples demonstrating the use of UDL in the next lesson in this course.

The figure below shows three strategies for using UDL and offers examples of each.

Representation

How adults display information and provide directions

• Use objects, pictures, text
• Vary font size, volume, colors
• Offer tactile, musical, or physical variation

How children respond and show what they know

• Choice of text, speech, drawing, music, sculpture, dance
• Help with goal setting
• Provide checklists and planning tools
• Use social media

How children become interested and motivated to learn

• Use child preferences
• Offer choices
• Vary levels of novelty, risk, and sensory stimulation
• Encourage peer learning
• Provide individual feedback

Including All School-Age Children in Learning Activities

One of the best things that you can do is actively include all school-age children in activities. Children with special learning needs or those learning English may have a hard time joining classroom activities because they may be unsure about what to do. Consider some of these ideas to help include all children:

• Observe school-age children working in small groups and make sure that children are not involuntarily excluded from activities.
• Before you begin an activity, think about what might be hard for a school-age child, such as using scissors, and be prepared to help that child complete the activity or provide a variety of options to complete the task (different types of scissors, a paper cutter, etc.). 
• Use curricula expectations to teach school-age children about including everyone.
• Model how to can include others during collaborative learning activities.
• Provide behavior-specific praise to school-age children when they try to include others.
• Select books school-age children with diverse learning needs can read independently.
• Provide school-age children with different options for completing a task or activity. For example, children could paint pictures, put on a play, create a computer presentation, or write a report.

It is important to understand the idea of equity over equality in the program setting. The issue of fairness often becomes a worry for teachers and staff. Equality means providing equal support, materials, and expectations to all children. Equity means offering individualized support to children to address possible barriers. Equality means providing the same for everyone and equity means providing everyone with what they need to be successful. As a teacher or staff member, you should know the strengths and needs of all children and know how to provide individualized support to each child.

Another way to support school-age children and youth with special learning needs is differentiation. Differentiation allows school-age children with special needs to participate in different activities based on their skills and abilities. Differentiation works well with UDL. When differentiating activities, you can differentiate the content, product, or process. See the table below for suggestions of differentiating in your program.

Reflecting on Your Own Practices

It is important to recognize the messages you send in your school-age program. Sometimes biases sneak into our environments, materials, or interactions. Awareness of your own bias is an important step in supporting development. Think about which of the following biases might be in your own program:

• Biased language . Language can send stereotypical gender messages. Adults might call children "baby girl," "big boy," or "cutie" rather than their given names. Staff might encourage girls to "be careful" while saying "boys will be boys." To fight this bias, you could encourage peaceful solutions for all children (avoid directions like not hitting girls or not hitting kids with glasses). Be sure to comment equally on youths' appearances and accomplishments. Consult the Creating Gender Safe Spaces course in the Virtual Lab School to learn how to support all children’s healthy gender identity and development.
• Stereotypical activities . Youth are often encouraged to play and engage in activities that are stereotypically related to a specific gender (e.g., girls engage in knitting and boys learn to code). Make sure youth get equal access and encouragement for all activities, such as woodworking, music, science, theater, dance, etc. Comment on the child’s actions during an activity or experience rather than your personal evaluation or cultural expectations.
• Biased materials . Sometimes posters and materials for the program present stereotypical images (e.g., Native Americans in "war paint," an all-male construction crew). Make sure the images in your program show men and women equally in a variety of professions. Make sure drawings or photos of people with disabilities are respectful images. Include books that show different ethnic backgrounds, social classes, and family structures.

There are many ways you can enhance the curriculum to improve children's understanding and acceptance of culture. The following are some examples (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010):

• Classroom props or materials : Include props from a variety of cultures. Books, dramatic play clothes or other props, furniture, and musical instruments can all reflect experiences from around the world. Art materials should include a range of materials for representing skin tones and various artistic styles, fabrics of various patterns, and books about art around the world.
• Bulletin boards and displays : This space can be used to reflect and respect family traditions. Ask families to bring in pictures or other items for the board. Children and youth can spend time researching their own or another culture and documenting what they have learned.
• Class books or biographies : Books about children in the class document the real experiences of children and families. Encourage children and youth to create pictures, drawings, and text about their lives, ideas, and families.
• Family stories : Provide families with materials and instructions for creating a Family Book. Families and children can work together to talk about and record their family history and daily life. This can be a great way to introduce children and families to one another.
• Storytelling : Encourage grandparents or community elders related to children in your program to share stories of their childhoods with your program. These can be recorded or transcribed to create keepsake books for the program.
• Messages from home : Using a tape recorder, encourage family members to record a brief message in their home language. This can be played for a child when he or she is upset or homesick.
• Music : Include music tapes or CDs and songs from different cultures during music time.
• Field trips : Visit community cultural landmarks. Go see a dance troupe, play, or musical performance that will broaden children's cultural perspectives.
• Collaborative work : Encourage children to work together in groups. This may minimize the pressure on a child who is learning English. It also exposes children to a variety of ideas and encourages creativity.
• Snacks and meals : Invite families to share a traditional meal or snack with the children.

Promoting Exploration and Discovery

There are many ways that you can support cognitive development through your environment and the materials you offer. You can:

• Provide thought-provoking materials and challenging games for school-age children to complete if or when they have some downtime.
• Provide snacks or other healthy food to ensure that children are ready to learn.
• Provide a clean and safe space where children feel productive.
• Provide a variety of developmentally appropriate and culturally diverse books for school-age children to read.
• Model the values of caring, respect, honesty, and responsibility.
• Make sure that the space is culturally sensitive and that there are no negative portrayals of different genders, races, or ethnicities.
• Develop rules and expectations collaboratively with the school-age children in your classroom.
• Ensure that the space reflects the needs and interests of the school-age children.
• Provide spaces where school-age children can relax or de-stress.
• Allow the school-age children to design or personalize part of the space.
• Implement activities where children and youth can use their strengths and abilities.

People of all races, cultures, ethnicities, ages, genders, and abilities should be represented equally and appropriately in your program materials and space. Take some time to look through the books, toys, and materials that are in your program space or classroom to ensure that children and families from diverse backgrounds are represented. Complete the Culture and School-Age Children’s Literature  activity. Use this activity to review children’s books for common stereotypes and broad generalizations. Share your results with your trainer, coach, or administrator.

Culture and School-Age Children's Literature

There are many resources to help you address the needs of all learners in your school-age program. Use the Resources for Your School-Age Program handout to find ideas offered by websites, organizations, and journal articles to help you be more culturally competent and responsive in your program.

Using the idea of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), Sandall and Schwartz (2008) identify eight types of curriculum supports for children with special needs and children learning English. Review the Curriculum Supports for All Children activity to learn about addressing the needs of diverse learners.

Resources for Your School-Age Program

Curriculum supports for all children, demonstrate.

CAST (2011). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 2.0 . Wakefield, MA: Author.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Eileen Allen, K., Edwards Cowdery, G. (2011).  The Exceptional Child: Inclusion in early childhood education (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Gestwicki, C. (2016). Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Curriculum and development in early education (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, Inc.

Diem, K. G. (2004). The learn-by-doing approach to life skill development . New Brunswick, NJ:   Rutgers Cooperative Research & Extension. 

Heacox, D. (2012). Differentiating Instruction in the Regular Classroom: How to reach and teach all learners. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing. 

National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning (2015). Designing Environments . https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/video/designing-environments

Dyasi, H. (2000). What children gain by learning through inquiry . Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf99148/ch_2.htm

Satterlee, D., Cormons, G., & Cormons, M. (2013). Explore the Great Outdoors with Your Child .   Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. https://www.naeyc.org/our-work/families/explore-great-outdoors

Scholastic (2020). Teacher and Principal School Report. https://www.scholastic.com/teacherprincipalreport/index.html

Simmons, H. & Lyon, L. (2010). Authentic Social Studies: Experiential & cooperative learning.

Tomlinson, C. A., (1995). Differentiating instruction for advanced learners in the mixed-ability middle school classroom. ERIC Digest ED443572.

University of Wisconsin - Madison. (2020). https://4h.extension.wisc.edu/files/2020/09/Experiential_Learning_Model-FINAL.pdf