essay on moral values in islam

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Morality and Ethics in Islam

Description: the place of morality in islam and its relation to worship..

• By Khalid Latif (edited by IslamReligion)
• Published on 22 Dec 2008
• Last modified on 22 Dec 2008
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Islam is a comprehensive way of life, and morality is one of the cornerstones Islam.  Morality is one of the fundamental sources of a nation’s strength, just as immorality is one of the main causes of a nation’s decline.  Islam has established some universal fundamental rights for humanity as a whole, which are to be observed in all circumstances.  To uphold these rights, Islam has provided not only legal safeguards, but also a very effective moral system.  Thus, whatever leads to the welfare of the individual or the society and does not oppose any maxims of the religion is morally good in Islam, and whatever is harmful is morally bad.

Given its importance in a healthy society, Islam supports morality and matters that lead to it, and stands in the way of corruption and matters that lead to it.  The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is “Virtuous Deeds”.  This term covers all deeds, not only acts of worship.  The Guardian and Judge of all deeds is God Himself.

The most fundamental characteristics of a Muslim are piety and humility.  A Muslim must be humble with God and with other people:

“And turn not your face away from people (with pride), nor walk in insolence through the earth.  Verily, God likes not each arrogant boaster.  And be moderate (or show no insolence) in your walking, and lower your voice.  Verily, the harshest of all voices is the voice (braying) of the ass.”  (Quran 31:18-19)

Muslims must be in controls of their passions and desires.

A Muslim should not be vain or attached to the ephemeral pleasures of this world. While most people allow the material world to fill their hearts, Muslims should keep God in their hearts and the material world in their hand.  Instead of being attached to the car and the job and the diploma and the bank account, all these things become tools to make us better people.

“The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to God a sound heart.” (Quran: 26:88-89)

Principles of Morality in Islam

God sums up righteousness in verse 177 of Surat Al Baqarah:

“It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness (the quality of ) the one who believes in God and the Last Day and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; who spends of his wealth, in spite of love for it, to the kinsfolk, to the orphans, to the needy, to the wayfarer, to those who ask and for the freeing of slaves; and who is steadfast in prayers, and gives Zakah (Alms); and those who fulfill their covenants which they made; and who are patient and perseverant in poverty and ailment and throughout all periods of fighting.  Such are the people of truth, the pious.”

This verse teaches us that righteousness and piety is based before all else on a true and sincere faith.  The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere.  He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions.  Therefore, a Muslim must be moral in all circumstances; God is aware of each one when no one else is.  If we deceive everyone, we cannot deceive Him.  We can flee from anyone, but not from Him.  The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication:

“Indeed, the most honorable among you in the sight of God is the most pious.” (Quran 49:13)

Then come deeds of charity to others, especially giving things we love. This, like acts of worship, prayers and Zakah (mandatory alms), is an integral part of worship.  A righteous person must be reliable and trustworthy.

Finally, their faith must be firm and should not wane when faced with adversity.  Morality must be strong to vanquish corruption:

“And God loves those who are firm and steadfast.”  

Patience is often hardest and most beautiful when it’s against one’s own desires or anger:

“And march forth toward forgiveness from your Lord, and for Paradise as wide as are the heavens and the earth, prepared for the pious.  Those who spend (in the way of God) in prosperity and in adversity, who repress anger, and who pardon people; verily, God loves the doers of the good deeds.”  (Quran 3:133)

These three acts are among the hardest things for most people, but they are also the key to forgiveness and to paradise.  Are they not the best, those who are able to exercise charity when they are in need themselves, control when they are angry and forgiveness when they are wronged?

This is the standard by which actions are judged as good or bad.  By making pleasing God the objective of every Muslim, Islam has set the highest possible standard of morality.

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim’s life, from greetings to international relations.  It is universal in its scope and in its applicability.  Morality reigns in selfish desires, vanity and bad habits.  Muslims must not only be virtuous, but they must also enjoin virtue.  They must not only refrain from evil and vice, but they must also forbid them.  In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but they must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.

“You are the best of the nations raised up for (the benefit of) men; you enjoin what is right and forbid the wrong and believe in God; and if the followers of the Book had believed it would have been better for them; of them (some) are believers and most of them are transgressors.” (Quran: 3:110)

The Prophet, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said:

“My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him  who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.”

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The Ethical Worldview of the Qur'an

Published: April 25, 2019 • Updated: October 18, 2020

Author : Dr. Yasien Mohamed

بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ

In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

Introduction

Piety is not to turn your faces towards the East and the West; piety is he who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book and the Prophets; who gives of his money, in spite of loving it, to the near of kin, the orphans, the needy, the wayfarers and the beggars, and for the freeing of slaves. [And truly pious] are those who keep their word whenever they promise, and are patient in misfortune and hardship and in times of peril; it is they that have proved themselves true, and it is they who are conscious of God. 4  

Man was created for three purposes. Man’s first purpose is in the cultivation of the earth, as is implied in the verse: He brought you out from the earth and made you inhabit it (Q. 11:61). So man must earn his livelihood, for his own sake and for the benefit of others. Man’s second purpose is to worship God. As He says: I have not created jinn and mankind except to worship Me (Q. 51.56). This means that man should obey God’s commandments and prohibitions. Man’s third purpose is his vicegerency, referred to in: He will make you successors in the land and then observe what you will do (Q. 7:129), and in other verses. Vicegerency is the imitation of God in accordance with one’s ability to rule by applying the noble virtues of the Law: wisdom, justice, forbearance, beneficence, and graciousness. These virtues draw Man to Paradise and close to God Most High . 6  

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Morality in the qur’ān.

When the unbelievers instilled in their hearts fierceness, the fierceness of paganism ( ḥamiyyat al-jāhiliyyah ), Allah then sent down His serenity upon His apostle and upon the believers, and imposed on them the word of piety, they being more deserving and worthier. Allah has knowledge of everything. 11

O my son, perform the prayer, command the honorable and forbid the dishonorable and bear patiently what has befallen you. …Do not turn your face away from people and do not walk in the land haughtily. Allah does not love any arrogant or boastful person. Be modest in your stride and lower your voice; for the most hideous voice is that of asses. 15  

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Responsibility                .

The truth is from your Lord. Whoever wishes, let him believe; and whoever wishes, let him disbelieve. 21   O Children of Adam, when apostles from your own people come to you reciting to you My revelations, then those who fear God and mend their ways have nothing to fear and they will not grieve. But those who deny Our revelations and reject them arrogantly—those are the people of the Fire; therein they shall abide forever. 22  

It means that ‘Allah Ta’alla does not change the state of peace and security enjoyed by people into a state of distress and instability until such time that those people themselves change their deeds into evil and disorder. 30  

When we act, we have no intentions of acting as instruments of God’s Holy will, since we know nothing of this divine will in advance. Leaving all other considerations aside, we accept it pure and simply as our own and thereby sign our agreement. So man becomes responsible in doing so, as if he becomes a debtor as soon as he surrenders his surety. We can now see why the Qur’ān insists on proclaiming our responsibility before God. The human will seems entirely [subject] to divine will, [as the Qur’an states: ‘And you shall surely be questioned about that which you used to do.’  (Qur’an 16:93) 31

Sin and repentance

And give his other hand to the seeking of forgiveness so that it may be short for evil deeds and will not reach the Zakkum tree of Hell, which is one fruit of that accursed tree. That is, just as supplication and reliance on God greatly strengthen the inclination to good, so too repentance and the seeking of forgiveness cut the inclination to evil and break its transgressions. 47  

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Intention and sincerity.

Actions are but by intention and every man shall have but that which he intended. He who migrates for God and His messenger does so for God and His Messenger. But he who migrates for a worldly gain or a woman to wed migrates to whatever he migrates to. 52  

Volition is the orientation of the ideal towards the real; and it is along this trajectory, from the inside to the outside, from conscience to experience, that the moral deed is found. It is not a static state, a solitary act of worship enclosed within the sanctuary of the heart; it is a living force, a movement of expansion which has its point of departure at the center, and its point of arrival at the outside. Thus, not only does intention call for action and wait to be followed by it, but it contains it in the form of a seed, if not in a nascent state. 53

So give their due to the near relative, the needy, and the wayfarer—that is best for those whose goal is God’s Face: these are the ones who will prosper. Whatever you lend out in usury to gain value through people’s wealth will not increase in God’s eyes, but whatever you give in charity, in your desire for God’s Face, will earn multiple rewards. 64   [God’s servants] give food to the poor, the orphan, and the captive, though they love it themselves, [saying] ‘We feed you for the sake of God’s Face alone. We seek neither recompense nor thanks from you.’ 65  

All this enables one to draw close to God, since any means that preserve the body and free the heart of the body’s requirements are an aid to religion. He who intends by eating to protect his acts of worship and by physical union to fortify his religion to gratify his family’s hearts, and to beget a righteous child who worships God after him, and through him increases the community of Muhammad, is obedient in both food and  marriage. 66  

He may perform ablution to cool himself off; wash to give himself an agreeable scent; …live secluded in a mosque to avoid renting a dwelling, fast to spare himself from frequent cooking of food, …give alms to a beggar to end his wearisome begging; visit an ailing person, that he, in turn, be visited should he fall ill; attend a funeral that the funerals of his own family be attended. He may do any of these just to be known by his good works, remembered and regarded for his probity and dignity. 68  

Although it is of an inferior degree in relation to the former [higher level of intention], it is acceptable all the same. Those people resemble bad merchants but their level is that of those who have simple understanding. 70  

Justice and benevolence

He is God, other than Whom there is no god. He knows the unseen and the seen. He is the Merciful, The Compassionate. …To Him belong the most beautiful names. Whatever is in the heavens and on Earth glorifies Him and He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise. 77  

1  Hodges, H. A. (1952)  The Philosophy of Wilhelm Dilthey , Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, p. 92. Also see Dilthey, W. (1960)   Gesammelte Schriften, Band VIII  (Weltaushauunslehre), Stuttgart: Abhandlung zur Philosophie der Philosophie.

2  Fakhry, M. (1991)  Ethical Theories in Islam , Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 6-7.                                                 

3  Qur’an 2:231.

4  Qur’an 2:177.

5  Qur’an 33:73.

6  Iṣfahānī, R. (1987)  al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah , Cairo: Dār al-Wafā’, pp. 91-92.

7  Mohamed, Y. (2006)  The Path to Virtue , Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, p. 214.

8  Iṣfahānī, R. (1987)  al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah ,  p. 59.

9  Mohamed,  The Path to Virtue , p. 215.

10  Goldziher, I. (1967)  Muslim Studie s , vol. 1, London: George Allen and Unwin, p. 202f.

11  Qur’an 48:26.

12  Izutsu, T. (1959)  The structure of the ethical terms in the Koran , 23f.

13  Qur’an 13:89, 31:32.

14  Qur’an 18:105.

15  Qur’an 31:17-19.

16  Qur’an 2:211.

17  Qur’an 2:104.

18  Draz, M. A. (2011)  Introduction to the Qur’an , London: I. B. Taurus, p. 63.

19  Qur’an 2:30.

20  Qur’an 2:31.

21  Qur’an 18:29.

22  Qur’an 7:35.

23  Qur’an 16:104.

24  Qur’an 2:24.

25  Qur’an 40:37.

26  Qur’an 53:39.

27  Qur’an 13:11.

28  Asad, M. (1980)  The Message of the Qur’ān , Gibraltar: Darul Andalus, p. 360.

29  Idris, G. S. (1983)  The Process of Islamization , USA: Muslim Students Association of America and Canada,  pp. 3-5.

30  Shafi, M.  Ma’arif al-Qur’an , trans Muhammad Shamim, Maktaba e Darul-Uloom, vol. 5, p. 200.

31  Draz, M. A. (2008)  The Moral World of the Qur’an , trans. D. Robinson and R. Masterton, London: I. B. Tauris, p. 108.

32  Qur’an 45:22.

33  Qur’an 11:7.

34  Qur’an 17:14.

35  Qur’an 81:14.

36  Qur’an 31:32.

37  Qur’an 16:106.

38  Qur’an 24:33.

39  Draz,   The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 100.

40  Qur’an 16:93; 35:8.

41  Qur’an 2:36-37.

42  Qur’an 20:84.

43  Qur’an 95: 4-7.

44  Qur’an 17:62.

45  Qur’an 30:41.

46  Haleem, M. A. (2011)  Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Styles , London: I. B. Tauris, pp. 139-140.

47  Nursi, S. (1997)  The Words , vol. 2, Izmir: Kaynak, p. 483.

48  Qur’an 75:1-4.

49  Qur’an 5:33-34.

50  Draz,  The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 112.

51  Ibid., p. 176.

52   Sahih Bukhari   (1). Also see, Ibrahim, E. and D. J. Davies, trans. (1979)  Al-Nawawi’s Forty Hadith , Lahore: S. H. Ashraf, p. 26.

53  Draz,  The Moral World of the Qur’an ,  p. 187.

54  Shaker, Anthony F (2016)  Al-Ghazālī: On Intention, Sincerity, and Truthfulness , Book XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences , Translated with an introduction and notes by A. F. Shaker, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society,   pp. 14-16.

55  Draz,  The Moral World of the Qur’an ,  p. 20.

56  Ibid., p. 21.

57  Rahman, F. (1983) “Some key ethical concepts of the Qur’ān,”  Journal of Religious Ethics ,  11 (2): 170-185.

58  Qur’an 22:31.

59   Draz,  The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 200.

60  Qur’an 92:17-20.

61  Qur’an 6:52.

62  Nasr, S. H. (1981)  Islamic Life and Thought , London: Allen and Unwin, p. 358 .

63  Haleem, M. A. (2011)  Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Style s , pp. 115-116.

64  Qur’an 30:38-39.

65  Qur’an 76:8-9.

66  Draz,  The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 33.

67  Ibid., p. 60.

68  Ibid., p. 59.

69  Qur’an 2:272.

70  Draz,   The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 224.

71  Wild, Stefan (2006)  ‘Hell’ in The Qur’an: an Encyclopedia , ed. Oliver Leaman, London and New York: Routledge, p. 262.

72  Qur’an 5:8.

73  Qur’an 5:42.

74  Qur’an 4:58.

75  Qur’an 2:237.

76  Qur’an 10:26; Isfahani, 1987, p. 356.

77  Qur’an 59:23-24.

78  Qur’an 14:48.

79  Iṣfahānī, R. (1987)  al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah ,  p. 355.

80  Knysh, A. (2007) “Multiple areas of influence,” in  The Cambridge Companion to the Qur’an , ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 211-212.

Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these papers and articles are strictly those of the authors. Furthermore, Yaqeen does not endorse any of the personal views of the authors on any platform. Our team is diverse on all fronts, allowing for constant, enriching dialogue that helps us produce high-quality research.

Additional resources

Islamic Ethics

Saving Truth and Beauty: The Destruction of Nature and the Islamic Solution

Prophetic Ethics: A Model for those Seeking God and Eternal Life

Cultivating Faithful Enthusiasm: How the Qur'an Creates Transformative Willpower

Being a "Good Person" is Not Enough: Why Ethics Need Islam

The American Response to COVID-19 and the Moral Dilemma

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The moral values in Islam

by adminalq | Feb 19, 2021 | ISLAM | 0 comments

“ Religion without morality is a superstition and a curse, and morality without religion is impossible.” (Hopkins)

           Have you ever asked yourself these questions; How can we differentiate what is right from what is wrong? What are the sound principles that we should follow in life? I am sure you did. The right answer to these questions can be summarized in just one term which is “the moral values”. Moral values are the principles that guide our life in the righteous path, help us to handle any situation and do not allow us to do any harm to others.

          In addition, these values help us to stand as unique creatures in this world. So, from where do we get these values that we learn since childhood? Every religion has its own basic values and in Islam, the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) serve as the primary source of these values. There are several morals values we should follow and in this essay we will concentrate on three of them which are Honesty, kindness and forgiveness.

                Honesty implies the meaning of sincerity in everything man does. It is related to all aspects of his life such as his actions, transactions and other dealings in which one should be fair and avoid deception and falsehood.

        In addition, Honesty serves as an umbrella term that has some basic components such as fulfilling commitments, telling truth, keeping the promise, doing one’s work as sincerely as possible, carrying out the duties as fully and completely as possible whether the person is under supervision or not and giving everyone their full deserved rights without their asking for them.

          The importance of honesty lies in the fact that it has a great place in the Holy Qur’an as it is the core of the message of Islam and the main characteristic of Muslims. It also has a great role in strengthening the relationship between individuals and society members. The Holy Qur’an and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) orders people to be honest in their dealings with each other and always tell the truth even if it is against their own will or benefit.

 Thus, Honesty is one of the greatest traits one must have as Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was known as “the trustworthy Muhammad” and Allah the Almighty said in the Holy Qur’an:

        “O you who believe!  Fear God, and be with those who are true (in word and deeds).” (Quran 9:119)

2/kindness (Ihsan)

            Kindness is one of the greatest moral values that man should have. The term kindness, in Islam, implies the meaning of giving charity and when the word kindness is mentioned, the first thing that comes into mind is giving or helping those in need from the provisions and sustenance bestowed by Allah to the rich. Allah the Almighty encourages the believers to practice kindness by declaring competition with each other in performing good deeds. This means that we are responsible for the money that Allah the Almighty bestowed upon us and on the Day of Judgment, we will be asked about how we earned and spent it.

          Furthermore, the importance of kindness lies in the fact that when we give charity, we are rewarded in return. The forms of this reward are that charity atones for our sins, increases our good deeds, purifies our hearts from greed, increases our sensation of the poor, protects us from Hell and the Angels pray on behalf of us when we give charity.

       In Islam, The greatest character who gave charity is our prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Some features of kindness in the Prophet’s life are that He fed the poor, gave water to the needy, took care of the widows, helped the orphans and said: “None of you have faith until you love for your neighbor what you love for yourself.’’ (Muslim)

Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) said, “Every act of kindness is a Sadaqa (charity)” (Bukhari, Muslim). This text from the tradition of the Prophet (PBUH) shows the importance of kindness in Muslims’ life.

3/Forgiveness (Afw)

                  We live in a world in which there are people with whom we have to interact. As a result of this interaction, there will be some fights or abuses due to any reason that will cause anger and violence. There may be some injuries or others harms and it will be difficult to forgive the offenders; However, Allah the Almighty orders us to forgive those who abused us and He will bless us with a lot of mercy after forgiving them due to complying with Allah’s command.

       Forgiveness in Islam can be taken into two forms; Allah’s forgiveness of our sins and people’s forgiveness of those who harm them and the earlier can be a result of the latter. Allah the Almighty said in the Holy Qur’an “whoever pardons [his foe] and makes peace, his reward rests with God – for, verily, He does not love evildoers” (Qur’an 42:40)

           The importance of forgiveness is that it is a form of high morals that the human soul needs to get rid of all impurities and grudges that may be attached to the heart from the impact of harm. It is also a way to enjoy goodness and love between people. There is no doubt that preferring forgiveness and tolerance to punishment will prevent the individuals from the acute conflicts that may arise among them. Furthermore, forgiveness has a great effect in man’s life as it helps to strengthen the social ties that are weakened and broken by abusing one another and it is reason for obtaining the pardon of Allah, his forgiveness and consent.

                   This shows us that forgiveness helps us to deserve Allah’s mercy upon us as Prophet Muhammad PBUH said:  

“Have mercy on those on the earth, and the One in heaven will have mercy on you” [Tirmidhi]

             The role model of forgiveness in Islam is our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) who was always forgiving those who wronged him and meets wrong with good deeds even the disbelievers.  Prophet Muhammad was described as a “Mercy for all the Worlds”. His mercy wasn’t limited to his Muslim nation, but was extended to the non-Muslim nation. Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) said that the Prophet never took revenge on his own behalf on anyone.

         In the earlier portion of his mission, the Prophet traveled to the city of Taif, a city located in the mountains nearby to Mecca, in order to invite them to accept Islam. The leaders of Taif were tough and mistreated the Prophet Muhammad PBUH and the children followed him, threw stones and hurt him. The prophet endured all these injuries and more obstacles than he had to endure in Mecca. Out of his great tolerance and mercy, prophet Muhammad refused to punish them as one day, they may be guided to the right path. This shows us the importance of forgiveness in the earthy life and the hereafter.

In short, the importance of the three above-mentioned moral values, the sayings of the Prophet, the Qur’anic verses and the reward of these values urge all people to follow them.

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The moral system in Islam

• Section: Islam in Brief

Islam has laid down universal fundamental rights for humanity that are to be observed and respected under all circumstances. In order to realise these rights in one's everyday social life, Islam provides both legal safeguards and a very effective moral system. In brief, whatever improves the well-being of an individual or a society is morally good, and whatever harms this well-being is morally bad.

Islam attaches great importance to the love of God and fellow human beings, and discourages excessive formalism. We read in the Quran (what means): “It is not righteousness that you turn your faces towards East or West, but [true] righteousness is [in] one who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the Angels, the Book, and the prophets and gives wealth, in spite of love for it, to relatives, orphans, the needy, the traveller, those who ask [for help], and for freeing slaves; [and who] establishes prayer and gives Zakah; [those who] fulfil their promise when they promise; and [those who] are patient in poverty and hardship and during battle. Those are the ones who have been true, and it is those who are the righteous.” [Quran: 2:177]

These verses give a beautiful description of the righteous and religiously committed individual. He should obey salutary regulations but fix his gaze on the love of God and the love of humanity. An individual's faith should be true and sincere and he must be prepared to show it in deeds of charity to other people and by living as a good citizen and supporter of social organisations. Finally, individual faith must remain firm and unshaken in all circumstances.

This is the standard by which a particular mode of conduct can be classified as either good or bad. It also provides the nucleus around which an individual's and society’s moral code should revolve. Before laying down any moral injunctions, Islam seeks to implant firmly in man's heart the conviction that his dealings are with God, Who sees him at all times and in all places. While he may hide himself from others or deceive them, he cannot do so with God.

Islam teaches that the objective of one's life is to live a life that is pleasing to God. To make such a goal possible, Islam has provided humankind with the highest possible standard of morality. This moral code, which is both straightforward and practical, provides the individual with innumerable ways to embark upon and then continue the path of moral evolution. By making Divine Revelation the primary source of knowledge, moral standards are made permanent and stable. However, this does not make them inflexible, for there is room for reasonable adjustment and adaptation when needed. The danger of moral relativism, now so widespread in many societies, is thereby avoided.

Another benefit is the gradual internalisation of these moral standards, for one seeks to obey them voluntarily to please God, not because some government or people tell him to do so. An individual's belief in God, when added to his belief in the Day of Judgement, is a powerful motivating factor to live a highly moral life.

Islam does not seek to minimise the importance of traditional and commonly accepted moral norms or give exaggerated importance to some and neglect others.

The Islamic moral code incorporates all the commonly accepted moral virtues and then endows them with a sense of balance and proportion, by assigning each one a suitable place and function in the scheme of life. It widens the scope of man's individual and collective life by dealing with his domestic associations, civic conduct, and his activities in the political, economic, legal, educational and social realms. It covers his life from the home to the society, from the dining table to the battlefield and peace conferences. In short, from the cradle to the grave - for no sphere of life is exempt from the universal and comprehensive application of the moral principles of Islam. It makes morality reign supreme and ensures that the affairs of life are regulated by moral norms, and not dominated by selfish desires and petty interests.

A major goal of Islam is to provide humankind with a practical and realistic system of life by which he can conduct his life. It calls upon humankind not only to practice virtue, but also to establish it and to eradicate all that is harmful. It seeks the supremacy of the conscience in all matters so that what is harmful cannot gain the upper hand either in an individual's life or in society. Those who respond to this call are known as Muslims, which literally means those who have submitted to God. The sole object of the resulting community of Muslims or Ummah is undertaking an organised effort to establish what is good and to fight and eradicate what is evil and harmful.

Some of Islam's basic moral teachings are given below. They cover the broad spectrum of a Muslim's personal moral conduct as well as his social responsibilities.

God-Consciousness

The Quran mentions God-consciousness as the highest quality of a Muslim, saying (what means): “…The most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you…” [Quran: 49:13]

Humility, modesty, control of passions and desires, truthfulness, integrity, patience, steadfastness and fulfilling one's promises - all these moral values are mentioned many times in the Quran, such as (what means): “And God loves those who are firm and steadfast.” [Quran: 3:146]

The Quran also tells Muslims (what means): “And hasten to forgiveness from your Lord and a garden [i.e., Paradise ] as wide as the heavens and the earth, prepared for the righteous. Who spend [in the cause of Allah] during ease and hardship and who restrain anger and who pardon the people – and Allah loves the doers of good.” [Quran: 3:133-134] And: “…Establish prayer, enjoin what is right, forbid what is wrong, and be patient over what befalls you. Indeed, [all] that is of the matters [requiring] determination. And do not turn your cheek [in contempt] toward people [Rather, respect them by directing your face and attention to them.] And do not walk through the earth exultantly. Indeed, Allah does not like everyone self-deluded and boastful. And be moderate in your pace and lower your voice; indeed, the most disagreeable of sounds is the voice of donkeys.” [Quran: 31:17-19]

Social Responsibilities

The teachings of Islam regarding social responsibilities are based on kindness and consideration for others. Islam stresses specific acts of kindness and defines the responsibilities and rights that belong to various relationships. Our first obligation is to our immediate family - parents, spouse and children, then to other relatives, neighbours, friends and acquaintances, orphans and widows, the needy of the community, our fellow Muslims, our fellow human beings and animals.

Respect and care for parents is a very important part of a Muslim's expression of faith. The Quran says (what means): “And your Lord has decreed that you not worship except Him, and to parents, good treatment. Whether one or both of them reach old age [while] with you, say not to them [so much as], 'uff' and do not repel them but speak to them a noble word. And lower to them the wing of humility out of mercy and say: 'My Lord! Have mercy upon them as they brought me up [when I was] small.'” [Quran: 17:23-24]

Other Relatives

The Quran says (what means): “And give the relative his right, and [also] the poor and the traveller, and do not spend wastefully.” [Quran: 17:26]

Thus, on the basic moral plane, Islam provides humankind with a higher system of morality that can be used by an individual to realise his greatest potential. Islam purifies the soul of self-seeking egotism, tyranny, wantonness, and lack of discipline. It creates God-fearing men who are devoted to their ideals, motivated by piety, abstinence and discipline, who do not make any compromise with falsehood. It creates moral responsibility and fosters the capacity for self-control. Islam generates kindness, generosity, mercy, sympathy, peace, selfless goodwill, scrupulous fairness, and truthfulness towards all creatures in all situations. It nourishes noble qualities from which only good may be expected.

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Morality & ethics in islam 5 min read.

Self Development

The word “morality” comes from the Latin word moralitas meaning “manner, character, and proper behavior”. Morality generally refers to a code of conduct, that an individual, group or society hold as authoritative, in distinguishing right from wrong. Such an ideal code of conduct is often espoused in preference to other alternatives.

Islam as a comprehensive way of life encompasses a complete moral system that is an important aspect of its world-view. We live in an age where good and evil are often looked at as relative concepts. Islam however, holds that moral positions are not relative, and instead, defines a universal standard by which actions may be deemed moral or immoral.

Islam’s moral system is striking in that it not only defines morality, but also guides the human race in how to achieve it, at both an individual as well as a collective level.

Basic Principles in Islamic Morality

The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and Sustainer of the Universe. Islam considers the human race to be a part of God’s creation, and as His subjects.

From an Islamic perspective, the purpose of human life is to worship God, by leading this worldly life in harmony with the Divine Will, and thereby achieve peace in this world, and everlasting success in the life of the hereafter. Muslims look to the Glorious Qur’an and the Traditions of the Prophet as their moral guides.

The Key to Virtue and Good Conduct in Islam

The glorious qur’an says:.

“It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfil the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-fearing.” [Al-Qur’an 2:177]

This verse underscores the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based, before all else on a true and sincere faith. The key to virtue and good conduct is a strong relation with God, who sees all, at all times and everywhere. He knows the secrets of the hearts and the intentions behind all actions. Therefore, Islam enjoins moral behavior in all circumstances; God is aware of each one when no one else is. It may be possible to deceive the world, but it’s not possible to deceive the Creator.

The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication.

Islam’s Moral Principles: Based on Truth and Reason

The glorious qur’an also says:.

Say: the things that my Lord hath indeed forbidden are: shameful deeds, whether open or secret; sins and trespasses against truth or reason; assigning of partners to Allah, for which He hath given no authority; and saying things about Allah of which ye have no knowledge. [Al-Qur’an 7:33]

It is interesting that the Qur’an refers to “sins and trespasses against truth or reason”. It is an indication of God’s blessing to every human being, of an innate moral sense. Such a moral sense, when uncorrupted by family or society, is what leads people to commendable acts of virtue. Islam aims to enhance and amplify the moral sense in every human being and adorn the individual’s character with the noblest of virtues.

The Islamic moral principles therefore, appeal naturally to the human intellect, while elevating the pursuit of morality to the level of worship. This is because Islam holds every action that is done with the goal of attaining of God’s pleasure to be worship.

Morality and the Individual

The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is what the Qur’an refers to as Al `Amal Assalih or virtuous deeds. This term covers all deeds, not just the outward acts of worship.

Some of the most primary character traits expected of a Muslim are piety, humility and a profound sense of accountability to God. A Muslim is expected to be humble before God and with other people. Islam also enjoins upon every Muslim to exercise control of their passions and desires.

How Islam Teaches Moderation and Charity

Islam warns against vanity and excessive attachment to the ephemeral pleasures of this world. While it is easy to allow the material world to fill our hearts, Islam calls upon human beings to keep God in their hearts and to use the material world in moderation and in accordance with God’s guidance. The Glorious Qur’an says:

“The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to Allah a sound heart” [Al-Quran: 26:88-89]

Charity is one of the most commendable acts in Islam. In fact, Zakah, the annual charity that is obligatory on every Muslim who has accrued wealth above a certain level, is one of the pillars of Islam.

Gratitude in prosperity, patience in adversity, and the courage to uphold the truth, even when inconvenient to oneself, are just some of the qualities that every Muslim is encouraged to cultivate.

Morality and Society

For an individual as well as a society, morality is one of the fundamental sources of strength, just as immorality is one of the main causes of decline. While respecting the rights of the individual within a broad Islamic framework, Islam is also concerned with the moral health of the society.

Thus, everything that leads to the welfare of the individual and the society is morally good in Islam, and whatever is harmful is morally bad.

Given its importance to a healthy and just society, Islam supports morality and matters that lead to the enhancement of morality, and stands in the way of corruption and matters that lead to the spreading of corruption. The injunctions and prohibitions in Islam are to be seen in this light

Islam’s Moral Code: A Universal Guide to Life

Morality in Islam addresses every aspect of a Muslim’s life, from greetings to international relations. It is universal in its scope and in its applicability.

A Muslim is expected to not only be virtuous, but to also enjoin virtue. He/She must not only refrain from evil and vice, but must also actively engage in asking people to eschew them. In other words, they must not only be morally healthy, but must also contribute to the moral health of society as a whole.

The Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) summarized the conduct of a Muslim when he said: “My Sustainer has given me nine commands: to remain conscious of God, whether in private or in public; to speak justly, whether angry or pleased; to show moderation both when poor and when rich, to reunite friendship with those who have broken off with me; to give to him who refuses me; that my silence should be occupied with thought; that my looking should be an admonition; and that I should command what is right.”

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Importance Of Moral Values In Islam

In Islam, morality in the sense of “practical guidelines”[1] or “specific norms or codes of behavior” for good doing (as opposed to ethical theory),[2][3] are primarily based on the Quran and the Hadith – the central religious texts of Islam[4] – and also mostly “commonly known moral virtues”[5] whose major points “most religions largely agree on”. The “basic aim” of Islamic morality and ethics is “to achieve” Raza-e Ilahi (the Pleasure of God)”[9] or to make God’s pleasure “the objective of man’s life”;[5] and the importance of moral behavior in this is reflected in the five Quranic verses calling on Muslims to enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong, and hadith that quote Muhammad as saying ‘I was sent to perfect the ethical conduct’.

Akhlaq (Arabic: أخلاق ) is the practice of virtue, morality and manners in Islamic theology and falsafah (philosophy). Iḥsān (Arabic: إحسان ), is an Arabic term meaning “beautification”, “perfection” or “excellence”, but in Islam it is also defined (by Malcolm Clark) as ethics/morality “literally virtue, including right living,” and (according to Ruqaiyyah Waris Maqsood) is a matter of taking one’s inner faith and showing it in both deed and action. Similarly, Malcolm Clark says, “… some Western ethicists make a distinction between ethics (theory) and morals (practical guidelines) …” [1][Note 1] According to Nikhat Sattar, “Islamic ethics differ from the Western concept” in being based on divine revelation[18]

), the spending of “your substance, … for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the freeing of captives; … practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which you made; and to be firm and patient in pain and adversity and throughout all periods of panic” (Q.2:177);[5] to be “active in deeds of charity; who abstain from sex except with their wives, or whom their right hands possess. Nigosian alleges this “represents the fullest statement of the code of behavior every Muslim must follow”,[20] although Islamic scholars have not set apart these verses from any other moral stipulations in the Qur’an, nor are they regarded as a substitute, replacement, or abrogation of some other set of commandments as found in the previous revelations.

Many Muslim theologians see the “Golden Rule” implicit in some verses of the Qur’an and in the Hadith. There included respect for parents and elders, maintaining strong family ties, being good to neighbors, caring for children, avoiding abuse of servants and slaves … being well-mannered, offering hospitality to guests, visiting sick, showing mercy to animals, being patient and sincere, greeting people correctly, asking permission before entering a house, dressing modestly, and avoiding lying and rude speech.

(The last being defined variously as perfection or virtue, ethics, “including right living”. Arabic virtues that predate Islam, (such as “honor, courage, loyalty, hospitality, self-control”, etc.

the moral examples set by important Islamic personalities (such as the four rightly guided caliphs for Sunni Muslims); [4] While the “Hadith of jibril” (see above), includes virtue (called Ihsan) along with faith (Iman) and religious practice (called Islam) — the three are sometimes called the “three dimensions”[28] or “three levels”[29] of Islam — there is not a concise set of points for virtue/morality (no Ten commandments),[30] as there is for religious practice (the Five Pillars of ritual declaration of faith, prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage), or faith (the Six Articles of the oneness of God, angels, prophets, the Torah, Bible and Quran, predestination, and Judgement Day). [31] In addition, sections analyzing morality/ethics in works of Islamic philosophy are usually quite “slim” according to Oliver Leaman.

However, Quran is clear about the importance of Muslims taking action to “enjoin what is good and forbid what is wrong”.

(Mutazilite and Shia Imamis quote different traditions than this Sunni Hadith, but all agree on the Quran and on “the existence of the duty” to command and forbid. Muhammad is reported as saying “It is not possible that you indulge in rebuking and reviling and remain righteous at the same time”. Moral actions are defined as those that result in justice (Malcolm Clark), [42] following God’s law (Nikhat Sattar); [18] following God’s law (Nikhat Sattar); Both faith and good works are needed to go to heaven (jannah) (Malcolm Clark), [42] Faith is incomplete without a sense of morality (Al-Ghazali), [43] Salat prayers offered that do not prevent wrongdoings are worthless; [44] Faith is incomplete without a sense of morality (Al-Ghazali), Salat prayers offered that do not prevent wrongdoings are worthless; Insincere good deeds are not enough. (Nikhat Sattar); Good character, strong moral values (wisdom, modesty, concern for justice, absence of greed, lust, etc.) The pursuit of (most) moral qualities is not a religious obligation (fard) in Islam, but supererogatory or voluntary (its category of Ahkam is known as mustaḥabb/mandūb); and seen as the key to attaining the nearness of God. Character—the assemblage of qualities that distinguish one individual from another—may be good or bad, innate or acquired.

The Quran describes Muhammad as ‘an excellent example’ (Q33:21,[46] this verse is one of the bases of the religious importance of hadith and sunnah), and also as having ‘exalted quality of character’ (Q68:4). There are may other sayings of Muhammad that highlight the importance of character that possesses good moral qualities, including:

The one with good morals and character already owns the best of this world and the Hereafter (reported by Anas ibn Malik, from Tabarani and Abu Dawud). Early Islamic moralists concluded that with conscious practice character could be changed to a certain degree.

[45] Medieval Islamic scholar Al-Isfahani (d. 1108/1109) believed that purification of soul meant the control, not the elimination, of desires. Muhammad Birgivi, a 16th-century Muslim scholar and moralist, wrote that ‘To cure yourself of a bad feature of character is an obligation’;[49] and believed that continuous practice of moral virtues and a conscious effort to internalize those qualities can lead to the formation of a morally good character. Many virtues/good character traits/moral qualities such as kindness (to people and animals), charity,[6] forgiveness, honesty, patience, justice, respecting parents and elders, keeping promises, and controlling one’s anger,[7] are commanded or encouraged in verses in the Quran and hadith. (The heading of “Morality” in The Qur’an: an encyclopedia by Oliver Leaman, includes subheadings of numerous virtues/moral qualities — “Goodness (khayr) and Righteousness (birr)”, “Justice and responsibility”, etc.

[51] According to Miskawayh (932–1030 CE, chancery official of the Buyid era, and Islamic philosopher and historian), “the four cardinal virtues” were “wisdom, courage, temperance and justice”. It is the greatest of all the duties entrusted to the prophets…and it is the strongest justification for man’s stewardship of earth.|Shams al-Din Sarkhasi[52] Numerous verses of the Quran and the sayings of Muhammad tell the Muslims to be generous to the needy, to one’s kinsmen and neighbors,[57] and that this will earn God’s mercy and reward in the afterlife. Verses in the Quran declare that the righteous are those people who fulfill their promises, and feed the needy, the orphans and the captive for the love of God (76:5-8); and that “those who (in charity) spend their goods by night and by day, in secret and in public have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve” (2:274).

In a Sahih Muslim hadith, Jarir narrates how at the appearance of some starving people, Muhammad assembled Muslims and proclaimed, “Everyone should give in charity dinar, dirham, cloth, dates, wheat”, and “give, even if it is a stone of a date. [62] Thus, an act of forgiveness means rising above one’s self-interest or narrow-mindedness, and achieving nobler quality of heart.

Islamic teaching and law calls for tolerance to be cultivated at personal, familial, social, and religious levels.

[66] After its introduction in 610 CE, Islam sought to moderate the qualities of vengeance and violence prevalent among the people of pre-Islamic Arabia, with the practice of tolerance and other virtues.

Muhammad understood his nature, showed tolerance to him, and satisfied him with more gifts, thus paving the way for the Bedouin to take lesson from this. [71][41][70] When Umar objected about this, Muhammad said: “If I knew that Allah will pardon Ubayy if I pray for his forgiveness more than seventy times, I would even do that.

On social and state levels, the importance of tolerance comes from the fact that it is related to such greater issues as peace and justice which are said to be the desired goal of Islam. [74] Given that diversity is a natural phenomenon in this world, the Quran puts much emphasis on the observance of tolerance in order to maintain peace and security. By mentioning the common origin of mankind, the Quran reminds them of their relating to each other, and urges them to ‘rise above’ the racial and national divisions. [74] In a nutshell, it is the teaching of Islam that the diversity or difference in social, cultural, political,financial or religious spheres are to be accepted by members of communities to secure a peaceful co-existence.

Among the 99 Names of God in Islam, the most common and famous are “the Compassionate” (al-raḥmān) and “the Merciful” (al-raḥīm). Numerous sayings of Muhammad tell the Muslims to be kind and merciful to the creatures of God.

Muhammad asked him again if he could feed sixty poor men upon which the man replied that he was even unable to do that. Hearing this, Muhammad smiled and told the man to distribute the dates among his own family members.

[77][79][disputed – discuss] Kind and humane treatment earn virtue, and can even be a means of salvation. [80] Islamic tradition narrates the story of a man who got salvation for showing mercy to a thirsty dog.

[80] The early rulers in Islamic world used to instruct people in behaving properly to the animals. Islam has prohibited the old custom of setting live animals or birds as targets for shooting practices.

[83] Sharia (Islamic law) commands Muslims to preserve chastity and modesty is a principal means of doing so. Ibn Al-Qayyim writes, “Adultery combines all evils: it weakens faith, uproots religious prudence, corrupts nobility and wipes out jealousy”.

[84] Sharia orders Muslims to lower their gaze, women to wear hijab to avoid exposing their beauty, get married at an early age, and sets “a severe punishment for adultery”. According to Islamic Law, known as sharia, Muslims are required to cover their body parts with proper dressing. Following is the most frequently cited verse of the Quran regarding modesty: “Tell the believing men to lower their gaze and be modest. (Q.39:60)[45] The prophetic narrations and Muhammad’s own examples of simplicity and humbleness inspire the Muslims to practice humility in their life.

[92] Islamic tradition holds that God has made this world a testing ground for mankind, especially for the believers, and that the sincerity and strength of their faith will be judged through various trials,[93] and only those who can prove their faith and can remain grateful to God despite those adversaries will earn His blessings. [94][95][96] Patience is one of the moral qualities which Islamic sharia considers necessary for a Muslim in order to keep away from evildoings, and in a broader sense, to protect his faith. [41] Forbearance (al-hilm), or management of “the soul and temper when it is aroused to anger”, is done (according to Al-Raghib al-Isfahani d.1108/1109) by restraining one’s hands from violence, the tongue from indecency, the ears from eavesdropping and the eyes from excessive gazes. Allah loves the beneficent” (Q.3.134)[99] A hadith in Tirmizi says, “Adam’s sons have been created of different types.

[101] Muhammad is reported as suggesting several methods to assuage anger for a man when he gets angry: to sit down if he is standing, and/or to lie down if he is sitting; to perform ablution (Islamic way of washing hands and face); to seek refuge from God against the influence of Satan. [105] Elders are generally honored by the young members as part of both Islamic culture and religious duty. [106] Prophetic tradition narrates that ‘he who does not love the younger and does not respect the elders is not one of us'[106] (Sunan al-Tirmidhi). Islamic traditions generally do not separate the older into old homes, rather accommodate them into their own houses.

Among the elderly members of a family, the parents occupy a special position in case of receiving veneration by their children.

With regard to the rights of parents, the Quranic injunction is to behave well with them, to take care of them especially in their old age, not to be rude to them, and to show highest respect to them.

Islam has instructed its followers to maintain decency in speech, and misuse of tongue has been admonished. “Successful indeed are the believers who are humble in their prayers, and who shun vain conversation, and who are active in deeds of charity.”

Selection and promotion of personnel in an organization based on merit and not on favoritism is also a part of honesty. Honesty has particularly been emphasized in business transactions, not only in selling and buying but in issues like pricing and advertising policies. Again, Muhammad has instructed that the sellers should put the commodities of poorer quality in clear display so that the customers are not deceived. Unlike most virtues, honesty is also a religious obligation, and dishonesty is Fasiq (a departure from religion),[115] one of the major sins in Islam. Exaggerated praising of any powerful of rich person in order to get illegal advantage falls into this category. [115] Abu Hurairah narrates that “the Prophet has commanded us that we should throw dust in the face of those who indulge in exaggeration in their praises” (Tirmizi).

Abu Hurairah narrates that “the Prophet has commanded us that we should throw dust in the face of those who indulge in exaggeration in their praises” (Tirmizi). Giving false evidence against someone is seen as the worst type of falsehood, and is considered a major sin in Islam.

Bringing false charge of adultery against any woman is a punishable act in Islamic law which orders to flog the accuser eighty lashes. Tradition holds that before creating humans in this world, Allah assembled their souls and asked them if He was not their Lord, upon which all replied in the affirmative. Both the Quran and the hadith have attached importance to respect a contract once it has been made, and whether the other party is a Muslim or non-Muslim. Non-payment, partial payment, or manipulation of mahr (jointure) is seen as the disruption of marriage contract.

[124] Islam has made every person responsible for returning the trust to their due recipients; and this command applies to both the common people and the ruling men. It means that a person will have the intention to properly carry out the duties entrusted to him, and will do it in the best possible manner without indulging in corruption. The rulers of the state or the government officials who do not care for the welfare of their citizens and thus cause sufferings to them are seen as the worst deceiver and have been warned with the direst consequences in afterlife.

After Muhammad started his preaching in 610 CE, his relationship with his own tribesmen, the Quraysh people, deteriorated gradually. [66] Despite this, the Quraysh people of Mecca used to deposit their valuable things at Muhammad because of his honesty and trustworthiness. a) if a person sincerely intends to do any good deed and then becomes unable to materialize it into action due to any reason, he is still said to get reward for it; b) an act of worshiping done to gain worldly fame and not to seek God’s pleasure is regarded as lesser shirk; c) the reward for a righteous act increases from ten to thousand times depending on the sincerity of the doer’s intention.

In addition to virtues praised and encouraged by Quran and hadith, there are positions on controversial, contemporary, practical “moral issues” subscribe to by “Islamic ethicists” (with the caveat that not all Muslims will agree) involving sex, marriage, and family. Modern birth control is “generally accepted”; while pornography, using sex in advertising, crossdressing are all considered wrong.

[130] Malcolm Clark writes that “the patriarchal family is considered “the divine norm;” but “mutuality is encouraged” between the spouses. A “crucial religious requirement” of marriage is a “contract negotiated by the man and the male representative of the woman and signed in the presence of two”.

Work outside the home by wives is allowed if her duties of childrearing and household management are fulfilled. [131] “Children are a joy”, and should be “treated with equal justice”, and shown love and affection by their father.

This is to prevent a Muslim from leaving Islam, the idea being a woman is more likely to adopt the religion of her husband than vice versa. Opinions differ as to whether this means only dressing modestly to at the other extreme covering the entire body from head to foot. Public opinion surveys conducted by the Pew Research Center between 2008 and 2012 in 39 countries and territories in Africa, Asia and Europe found “most Muslims agree on certain moral principles.” On the subject of whether it “is necessary to believe in God to be a moral person”, nine out of ten Muslims answered yes in Southeast Asia; in South Asia and the Middle East-North Africa region at least eight-in-ten said yes in all but one country surveyed (the one exception was Lebanon where 64% agreed).

“There also is widespread agreement that some behaviors – including drinking alcohol, sex outside marriage, homosexuality and committing suicide – are immoral. ^ ethics as “rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in workplaces or principles in religions” and

website “Morality & Ethics in Islam” page states, “the purpose of human life is to worship God”. website “Morality & Ethics in Islam” page states, “the purpose of human life is to worship God”.

The moral values in Islam

Moral values are the principles that guide our life in the righteous path, help us to handle any situation and do not allow us to do any harm to others. It is related to all aspects of his life such as his actions, transactions and other dealings in which one should be fair and avoid deception and falsehood. In addition, Honesty serves as an umbrella term that has some basic components such as fulfilling commitments, telling truth, keeping the promise, doing one’s work as sincerely as possible, carrying out the duties as fully and completely as possible whether the person is under supervision or not and giving everyone their full deserved rights without their asking for them.

The importance of honesty lies in the fact that it has a great place in the Holy Qur’an as it is the core of the message of Islam and the main characteristic of Muslims. The Holy Qur’an and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) orders people to be honest in their dealings with each other and always tell the truth even if it is against their own will or benefit. Allah the Almighty encourages the believers to practice kindness by declaring competition with each other in performing good deeds.

This means that we are responsible for the money that Allah the Almighty bestowed upon us and on the Day of Judgment, we will be asked about how we earned and spent it. The importance of forgiveness is that it is a form of high morals that the human soul needs to get rid of all impurities and grudges that may be attached to the heart from the impact of harm. The leaders of Taif were tough and mistreated the Prophet Muhammad PBUH and the children followed him, threw stones and hurt him. Out of his great tolerance and mercy, prophet Muhammad refused to punish them as one day, they may be guided to the right path.

13 Importance of Moral Values in Islam As Identity

Islam is a righteous religion that saved humanity since long ago. That is why the importance of moral values in Islam is high, seeing that Muhammad (peace be upon him) was sent to a messy community who doesn’t worship Allah, only to guide them and bring them back to the right path.

Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as the Messenger of Allah was sent to fixed the Makkah people who lived without any good morality. Someone once asked the Prophet (peace be upon him) what deed would lead a man to paradise, and he answered: “Piety and good conduct.” “The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to Allah a sound heart” (26:88-89) Allah SWT clearly commanded all Muslims through the Holy Quran and His Messenger (peace be upon him) to possess a good character and hold on to the best moral values in their lives. Allah SWT loves those who possess a good behavior, especially Muslims who follow the path and sunnah of the Prophet (peace be upon him). “The heaviest thing to be placed in the balance of a believing slave on the Day of Judgement will be good behavior.

“The most perfect man in his faith, among the believers, is the one whose behavior is the most excellent; and the best of you are those who are the best to their wives.” (Ahmad) It manifested by a Muslim’s character and builds the image of Islam to the world. Moral values in Islam has defined by Allah SWT in several forms of action. It is included five times prayer a day, paying zakat, as well as other kind of worship.

The importance of moral values in Islam is to build a good character in a Muslim, one of those being patience. By having patience, we will be able to endure the hardship of life without losing our belief to Allah SWT. It is clear that the importance of moral values in Islam is to define the real character of a Muslim. As a good Muslim, we must stick to those values so that we will be able to build a strong behavior as shown by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him).

The Social System and Morality of Islam

It is reported that the Prophet once entered a mosque and saw at prayer a venerable old man with a long white beard. He was told that the man was in the mosque all day long, worshipping and dispensing the words of Allah to others. If he cannot, then by his tongue (speak up, verbally oppose); if he cannot, then by his gaze (silent expression of disapproval); and if he cannot, then in his heart. The preservation of a social order depends on each and every member of that society freely adhering to the same moral principles and practices.

Islam, founded on individual and collective morality and responsibility, introduced a social revolution in the context in which it was first revealed. Collective morality is expressed in the Qur’an in such terms as equality, justice, fairness, brotherhood, mercy, compassion, solidarity, and freedom of choice.

The man said that it was, and Umar extinguished the candle so as not burn public funds for a private purpose. There is a relation in Islam between individual responsibility and the rights and privileges derived from membership in the community.

The notions of brotherhood and solidarity not only impose upon the community the duty to care for’ its members, but also require each person to use his initiative to carry out individual and social responsibilities according to his ability. “Whosoever of you sees an evil action, let him change it with his hand; and if he is not able to do so, then with his tongue; and if he is not able to do so, then with his heart—and that is the weakest of faith.” However, the fact that there is not absolute parity in all rights and privileges does not mean that women do not share an overall equality with men. It must also be noted that certain social practices in some Muslim countries are not required by Islam, but have simply evolved in the course of time as a result of indigenous cultural factors.

These glimmering, whitewashed structures dominate the landscape, their colors shift with the changing light, and their flights of architectural fantasy seem to come in an infinite variety. Social and individual justice are evolving concepts which depend largely upon a variety of external considerations.

As in Western legal codes, individual responsibility is predicated on the intent and motive of the actor in light of his ability to do good and to avoid evil or harm to others.

Because of the Muslim’s belief in accountability in the hereafter, his oath is valid evidence in any judicial or extra-judicial process.

Serve God, and join not any partners with Him; and do good—To parents, orphans, those in need, neighbours who are near, neighbours who are strangers; the companion by your side, the way-farer (ye meet), and what your right hands possess: For God loveth not the arrogant, the vainglorious;— Conversely, a person who has done evil all his life may repent even at the last moment and with one good deed earn paradise.

Forbearance and forgiveness depend on the believer’s recognition and acceptance of what he has done and his genuine repentance with an intent not to repeat the misdeed. Everything is forgivable by Allah except Shirk (the negation of the existence of the Singularity, Uniqueness and Oneness of the Creator.)

He had been found in the desert throwing his spear to the sky and screaming that he wanted to kill God for the injustice that he had suffered. As in most of the nomadic tribes of the ancient world, women were deemed unimportant in pre-Islamic Arabia.

As a result of this new status and the revolution it worked on Arab society—women became pillars of early Muslim society and were counted among its strongest supporters. Several women—notably Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad and wife of Ali, the fourth caliph—even played important roles in the propagation of the faith.

As men hurriedly left their flocks and businesses to fight for Islam, women readily assumed the burdens and responsibilities of the home. Khadijah was, in fact, Muhammad’s first convert to Islam and his strongest supporter in the struggle to establish the new faith. Noted for her education and intelligence, in particular her ability to read and write, she was often consulted about the teachings of the Prophet after his death. She played an important role in the life of the early community, most famously by opposing the succession of Ali after the death of Uthman, the third khalifa.

On protecting the dignity and self-respect of women, for example, the Qur’an is emphatic and unequivocal: One of the seven hudud crimes is maligning a woman’s reputation. O Mankind: Be careful of your duty to your Lord who created its mate and from them twain hath spread abroad a multitude of men and women. A man, for example, stands to inherit twice as much as a woman, but then he must provide for his own wife and family and relatives should the need arise. Women are enjoined to cover their bodies (except for the face and hands) and lower their gaze in the presence of men not related to them.

In societies which by tradition provide few protections outside the family, they insure a woman’s integrity and dignity.

For that reason, too, men are enjoined to lower their eyes before women and to be appropriately covered from above the chest to the knees. In cases of divorce—in a prominent departure from traditional practice—women have exclusive guardianship rights over children up to early puberty. In contemporary Muslim society, in fact, women have attained the same levels of education as men and in many countries occupy positions of power and influence.

Allah enjoineth (orders) justice (or injustice) and kindness (or unkindness) and to give to (one’s) kinsfolk… The difference in the length of the lunar year accounts for some of the difficulty in converting dates from the Islamic (Hijri or “Hijrah”) system to the Gregorian and vice versa.

The Islamic calendar was devised in the seventh century in response to the exigencies of governing the far-flung Abbasid empire. Mawlid an-Nabi, the Prophet’s Birthday, is celebrated on the 12th day of the month of Rabi’ al-Awwal.

Moral Values — LEARN ISLAM

So, it is clear that when the child is brought up, from his/her tender years, upon belief in Allah, he/she will develop an innate faculty for acceptance and pursuit of moral standards and values and noble behavior. Similarly, if the child is brought up in an atmosphere that is not practising the religion, the parents will sooner or later realise that their upbringing has not reaped the fruit that they had hoped for. Many teachings of the Prophet ﷺ indicate the great responsibility on the part of parents regarding bringing up children on the noble, moral values of Islam. Also included here is training children to be respectable in word and deed, veering away from abuse and insults and similar faults.

As opposed to this, they train children respect for elders, generosity, living in amity with neighbors, benevolence towards the poor and orphans, and affection for the indigent. This has to be encouraged to lay a foundation for taking up more responsibilities of their own personal hygiene, maintaining cleanliness in their own spaces, caring for their possessions and so on.

By teaching our children how to greet, express gratitude, how to speak to adults and even to leave alone matters that do not concern them, we would have given them a key to the door of inter-personal relations. It is important to encourage children to always say the truth by showing that you care and that their honesty and not ‘cover-ups’ leads to solutions that they can be at ease with.

In an environment where we teach our children not to ‘speak to strangers’; it is difficult to strike a balance between caution against those who can take advantage of our young ones and being friendly. Abu Dharr Radhi-Allahu anhu reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: “Your smile to your brother is a sadaqah (charitable act) for you. There were Sahaba who were taking part in battles at the age of 15 like Usama bin Zayd, in fact he was appointed as a commander of an army for an expedition when he was 18 or 20yrs old. Do not just buy or give them everything they demand because you can, this spoils them and makes them feel entitled which has a negative effect on their actions.

As long as noble education in Islam depends on strict observation and steady supervision, then it is the duty of fathers, mothers, and teachers to be alert to such abuses: Parents have to observe children’s behavior in this respect, and try their best to show the young the harms of the habit of lying.

That is why we see our first educator, the Prophet, advised parents not to lie to children, even if they meant to just attract their attention or for fun. Here we have Abu Dawud relating on the authority of ‘Abdullah Ibn Amir that he said, “One day my mother called me when the Messenger of Allah was with us in our home.

Again Ahmad relates from Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah said, “Anyone who says to a child: ‘Come on and have this and does not actually give it to him; then this is a definite lie.” Theft is no less dangerous than telling lies; and it is usually rampant in communities deprived of righteous upbringing based on the values of Islam.

So it is imperative for parents to instill in the young the sense of observance or religious behavior and fear of Allah, together with the evil results of theft in this world and in the Hereafter. The first time I committed that crime was when ] picked up an egg from one of our neighbor’s house; but my mother did not rebuke me; nor did she order me to return it where it belonged.

Thus, it is the founded duty of parents to present exemplary behavior to these young ones in the form of polite speech, and in constant attempts to keep them away from offensive and insulting companions. Indulgence and Dissolution: such behavior has become rampant among our younger generation nowadays, boys and girls alike, due to their exposure to social media, thus, getting more and more inclined to corruption and immorality.

Of course, we find that the Messenger ﷺ has set for all parents and educators the practical principles and righteous ideas for training children on upright behavior and true Muslim morals. Today, parent proudly show off their child delivering dialogues from their favourite movies or enacting scenes and dances.

In the two authentic hooks, it is related that ‘Umar Ibn Al-Khattab wrote to the Muslims in Persia, saying, “Beware of excessive enjoyment and the garbs of polytheists.” Needless to say that anyone with good judgment would realize that listening to such prohibitions leads the young to the dark hole of sex, luxury, depravity and immorality! In the words related by Muslim, Mu’awiyah was reported to have said, “You have done mischief by adopting such evil clothing, and the Prophet forbade such forgery.” Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things), and protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts). Another category is a band of women partly-dressed, partly-bare, swaying right and left trying to attract men’s attention, their hair drooping like camels’ humps. Again, in the two authentic books (As-Sahihayn), the Messenger of Allah ﷺ is quoted as saying, “Beware of entering places where women reside!

Finally, we have the Hadith related by Imam Muslim, that the Prophet ﷺ said when he was asked about an unintended sudden look, “Turn your look away.” So it should now be understood that when human communities and nations adopt such Divine principles, and adopt such modes of behavior and avoid all attributes alien to righteousness and virtues such as: unveiling, intermingling of the sexes, and all sorts of prohibitions, then such communities will undoubtedly lead a life of purity and virtue, enjoy peace and security, and could aspire to achieve happiness and glory.

Finally, we have to remind ourselves of the role of close observation and the heavy responsibility on our part to ensure the righteous behavior of our children. If we search for the causes for dissolute morality of children and their deviant behavior, we shall find it resulting from our disregard of the trust on the part of parents, and neglecting their education and guidance. This can be achieved by training the child to know that Allah sees him and knows his secrets and what he harbours, and He knows the treacherous look of the eyes and whatever the breast conceal. A father that may show laxity in observing that his children should not mix with evil associates, from which they acquire many of their patterns of devious and immoral behavior.

A father who allows his children to attend shows that offer scenes of dissolute behavior, or that present films of violence. Such observance will definitely help towards seeing your children flourishing before your eyes, as brilliant youths in society, as if they were angels treading on the earth, secure and serene.

Morality & Ethics in Islam

Morality generally refers to a code of conduct, that an individual, group or society hold as authoritative, in distinguishing right from wrong. The Islamic moral system stems from its primary creed of belief in One God as the Creator and Sustainer of the Universe. “It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces Towards east or West; but it is righteousness- to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfil the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. This verse underscores the Islamic belief that righteousness and piety is based, before all else on a true and sincere faith.

The love and continuous awareness of God and the Day of Judgment enables man to be moral in conduct and sincere in intentions, with devotion and dedication. Islam aims to enhance and amplify the moral sense in every human being and adorn the individual’s character with the noblest of virtues.

The guiding principle for the behavior of a Muslim is what the Qur’an refers to as Al `Amal Assalih or virtuous deeds. Some of the most primary character traits expected of a Muslim are piety, humility and a profound sense of accountability to God. “The Day whereon neither wealth nor sons will avail, but only he (will prosper) that brings to Allah a sound heart” [Al-Quran: 26:88-89] In fact, Zakah, the annual charity that is obligatory on every Muslim who has accrued wealth above a certain level, is one of the pillars of Islam. Gratitude in prosperity, patience in adversity, and the courage to uphold the truth, even when inconvenient to oneself, are just some of the qualities that every Muslim is encouraged to cultivate.

The Moral System Of Islam

In contrast to this, we find that at no time in the history of man have qualities such as dishonesty and breach of trust ever been upheld or regarded as worthy of praise. Fidelity, magnanimity and integrity have always been valued, whilst selfishness, cruelty, miserliness and bigot, have never received the approbation of society at large.

Dignity, restraint, politeness and amiability have always been regarded as virtues as opposed to snobbery, arrogance and discourteousness, which have never been recognized as good moral qualities. A society in which injustice, disorganization, disunity and social imbalance manifest themselves is considered to be on the verge of collapse, having allowed itself to decay over time through the implementation of policies destructive to the very core upon which it is based.

Contrary to this, we of the aged, loyalty to friends, helping one’s kith and kin in times of need, concern for neighbours, assisting the week and oppressed and nursing the sick are all activities that have been highly valued since the dawn of civilization. People who are polite, sincere, upright, dependable, who are prompt in discharging their obligations to others, who live in peace and allow others to do likewise have always formed the core of any healthy society.

Good and evil are not myths awaiting resurrection, they are a real part of our everyday lives and hence, Allah has blessed mankind with an inherent sense of right and wrong. (Surah as-Shams: 8) The questions that now arise are: If the basic values of good and evil are universally recognized, why then, do varying patterns of moral behavior exist in the world?

Man is given a choice as to whether or not he wishes to follow the message of the prophets and adhere to their teachings, yet whichever path he chooses he will be held accountable for it and any consequent actions based upon it.

Moreover, in establishing the pleasure of Allah’ as the objective of man’s existence, windows of unlimited possibilities are opened for his moral evolution since, at no time will it be overshadowed by selfishness, bigotry, arrogance or pride. Our knowledge of vice and virtue should not be based upon mere intellect, desire, intuition or experience, since these factors are subject to constant change, modifying themselves and evolving in accordance with the dictates of external influences. The Islamic moral code covers the smallest details of domestic life and extends to accommodate the broader aspects of national and international modes of behaviour.

Islam relies upon the inherent urge for good that resides in everyone’s heart which in turn is based upon the love and fear of Allah, the awareness of accountability on the Day of Judgement and the promise of eternal bliss. Thus, before enforcing any moral injunctions Islam seeks to implant firmly in man’s heart the conviction that all his dealings in this We relate directly to Allah. If popular opinion and the coercive powers of the state enforce these injunctions so much the better, otherwise the true believer must rely solely upon his faith in Allah.

Islam has furnished mankind with the highest possible standards of morality making Divine Pleasure one of man’s main objectives in life.

This task is the collective responsibility of the Muslims and it would be a day of mourning indeed if the efforts of a particular community were directed towards establishing evil and suppressing good.

The Importance of Good Ethics in Islam

الحمد لله رب العالمين، والصلاة والسلام على سيد الأنبياء والمرسلين، وعلى آله وصحبه أجمعين. In fact morality include too many things that cannot be talked about in one article or one sermon, it is too vast to cover in few minutes. All those ethical values were exemplified by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and his companions in their true sense.

We find a lot of Muslims who did not learn Islam and its moral system differentiate between worship and ethical acts and good behavior.

And this is true, but the matter is same when you see a person who behaves people with truth and kindness according to the ethical standard of Allah and His Messenger. When a person decorates himself with the manners and morals of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and follows the footsteps of the esteemed companions is also a true worshipper of Allah the Almighty and a perfect devotee of Him.

Therefore, you are required to worship Allah the Almighty with both types of worship, with the prayer, almsgiving, fasting and pilgrimage, alongside the moral actions, good behavior, honesty in speech, avoidance of backbiting and gossip, keeping away from the theft, deception and lying. Islam spread to the most parts of the world since the first moment of its advent through the good morals and fine behaviors of its preachers and lovers, because the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) taught his companions fine ethics, good morals, honesty and sincerity in every case.

Every one of you is an ambassador of Islamic message in your surrounding and area, or any country a Muslim travels to. Then he commanded a man who was there to bring a bucket of water and throw it over the (urine), and he did so.” (Reported by Al-Bukhari)

This blessed verse says that the prayer is intended to keep you away from vice and evil acts. In fact, the fasting intends to improve your moral consciousness and ethical awareness.

It is clear from the verse that a pilgrim should avoid harsh language, quarreling with the people and disobedience of Allah the Almighty and other immoral acts. This verse indicates that charity and almsgiving purify you of avarice, greed and cruelty to the poor and the helpless and many other vices and psychological diseases and defects. Thus, charity raises the moral and ethical awareness in a practical way and the giver enjoys blessings and happiness in this world and the Hereafter. It has become clear that the manifestations of the basic acts of worship in Islam have educational part and ethical dimension.

Moral Values In Islam – 990 Words

Following is a discussion about some of such foremost moral values.“The steadfast, and the truthful, and the reverent, and who spend in Allah ‘s cause, and who seek pardoning the last part of the night (before dawn)”. Being patient, one can bear the difficulties of life without losing faith.Next moral value is of sincere and obedient worship of Allah.

Written by Albara

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Significance of moral values of Islam in the contemporary world

The total degeneration of our moral values is the real cause of our present predicament. Therefore, this study shows the influence and relationship of Islamic moral values to human beings’ behaviour in the rapid change in social life. The moral and spiritual teachings of the noble prophet are a living reality and still dominate different spheres of daily life in the Muslim world.

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This study is descriptive in nature and main focus of this paper is to consult Qur’ān and Ahdiths for understanding the concept of morality. Verses from the Holy Qur’ān and sayings of Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) are consulted to portray a paramount role of parents and teachers that is played as family and public institutions respectively. Moral values like, good manners, respect, loyalty, truth, altruism, reliability, fairness, cooperation, collaboration, honesty, companionship, decency, acceptance, compliance, love, patience and forgiveness are also studied in the light of Qur’ān and Ahdiths. As an end product, inculcation of moral values in youth by their parents and teachers is also delineated.

Jurnal Al-Tamaddun

Prof. Benaouda Bensaid

The argument inherent in this study is that the Islamic framework on social coexistence and harmony stipulates moral capital as a bridge for community's inter-connectivity, interaction, and development, and that, for Muslims, morals act as an effective catalyst for constructing social coexistence and harmony. This study discusses the concept of Islamic social ethics and moral development in the context of society, followed by an inquiry into the ways and means according to which Muslim ethics may contribute and sustain social rapprochement, mutual support and social justice. The study aims to identify the prevalent framework for Muslim social morality, which can be of benefit to effective social policy, increasing civic engagement, developing an inclusive universal moral education, or furthering multicultural tolerance. Using textual approach, this study shows how Islam capitalizes on individual and collective morality towards the effective engineering of sustainable communities' relations and development. Further empirical studies on the contribution of Muslim morals in lieu of fortifying community development and social harmony would contribute to the way of elucidating the Muslim projection of theoretical moral ideals in real life conditions as well as tracing the convergences and divergences between Muslim theory and practices with regards to the application of morals to personal and communal settings, and more importantly in our context the shaping of communities' rapprochement, coexistence and harmony.

AL-WIJDÃN Journal of Islamic Education Studies

Siti Nur Hadis Rahman

Islam is a comprehensive religion, it contains strong principles and resources such as ‘aqidah, worship, shari‘a and morals that aim to regulate the life and journey of human beings in this world and in the afterlife in the aspects of individual management, household, education, economy, politics, social law, culture, etc. The Al-Quran and al-Sunnah, as well as the great heritage of Islamic scholars, contain all human life guides. The purpose of life and the human role in the world is to 'ubudiyyah (worship) Allah swt. Therefore, every act and movement of people in this world should be focused on the goal of carrying out their duties as khalifatullah, that is, the caliph of God on this earth. This concept paper aims to explore the practise of social life in the time of the Prophet Muhammad, explaining the basic concessions of social life and society based on Islamic education. This article uses library method and document analysis. This paper will help to provide some sources of...

Psikis : Jurnal Psikologi Islami

Ditta Febrieta

Meher Afroj Lutfa

Nowadays human beings are extremely cruel selfish and inhuman in their behavior to other human beings. As a result peace becomes rare in society. But human nature is pure. Indifference to religious teachings and lack of morality work as prime reasons behind this situation. Religion provides lessons on pacifism, nonviolence, tolerance, moderation and holism to its followers. The heart of all religions is ‘love one another’. Religion encourages virtues such as self-restraint, patience, forgiveness and compassion. Similarly Religion discourages bad conducts and evil deeds. By practicing the moral teachings of religion, people can make the ideal social behavior that ensures a peaceful environment. As a religion, Islam urges its followers to practice appropriate and tasteful social behavior at all times to maintain a peaceful society and a peaceful world.

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications (IJSRP)

Ahmad Bello Gidadawa

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Importance of Ethics and Values in Islamic Civilization

Ethics and values are the moral or spiritual aspect of the Islamic civilization. They are also the essence and basis for any civilization. In the meantime, they ensure the secret of their survival and resilience throughout the history and generations. If this aspect disappears one day, man will lose his moral warmth, which is the spirit of life and existence; mercy will quit his heart; his conscience will not be able to play its role; he will no longer know the truth of his existence and himself; and he will be bound with material restrictions, from which he cannot escape.

Dr. Ragheb El-Sergany

• Followers of Followers
• Islamic Groups and Sects
• Islamic History
• Da'wah to Non-Muslims
• Islamic Morals
• Tags: # islam # ethics # Civilization

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The ethics of friday, muhammad al-fatih: about whom the prophet gave glad tidings, origins of shia, palestine - the test of islamic revival, philanthropy in islamic civilization, may the peace and blessings of allah be upon him.

Islam, Social Work and Common Good in the Muslim Minority Context of Europe: Rethinking Shariʿa as Relational Ethics

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• First Online: 21 May 2022

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• Abdullah Sahin 5  

Part of the book series: Muslims in Global Societies Series ((MGSS,volume 9))

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This chapter explores the interface between Islam, social work and the common good within the Muslim minority context of Europe. The ethics-law nexus in Muslim tradition is examined to argue for a transformative Islamic engagement with the secular public space. Literature on Islam and social work is limited to providing basic information about Islam to frontline practitioners. The current inquiry intends to develop an Islamic perspective on social work and wellbeing. Increasing association of Muslims with extremism form negative public perceptions of Islam in Europe. Within this discourse of suspicion, Islam is coded as a cause of public harm and ‘Shariʿa law’ is often associated with human rights violations. This study argues that a critical dialogue among the faith-embedded and secular traditions of social ethics in Europe remains vital to fostering a shared sense of common good. Contemporary discussions on social ethics in Islam are dominated by maqāṣid ash-sharī ʿa (objectives of Islamic law) and fiqh al-ʿaqalliyyāt (Muslim minority law). Whilst the former is purported to be a metaethical discourse and the latter implying a contextualising intent, both operate within strict juristic hermeneutics. Alternatively, this inquiry rethinks Shariʿa as relational ethics and practical wisdom ( ḥikma ), closer to the concept of phronesis in ancient Greek philosophy, guiding human relations as imagined in Qurʾanic anthropology and its vision of a just society. Shariʿa is framed within Islam’s transformative view of human flourishing, tarbiyya . The notion of relational ethics is further grounded in dialogue with phenomenology-informed discussions on ethics, particularly in the work of Levinas, and Habermas’s ‘theory of communicative action’.

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Social Justice and Social Work

Social Work in Extremis: Human Rights, Necropolitics, and Post-human Onto-ethics

• European Islam
• Relational ethics
• Social work
• Common good
• Transformative education
• Phenomenology

Introduction: Context, Questions and Methodology of the Inquiry

This chapter explores the interface between Islam, social work and the common good within the Muslim minority context of Europe. The ethics-law nexus in Muslim tradition is reconsidered with the view of generating a transformative Islamic engagement with the secular public space in modern multicultural European societies. The discussion is grounded in the Islamic values of relational ethics embodied in the concept of Shariʿa, applied wisdom ethics where Islam’s moral teachings are brought to bear on a range of real-world practical concerns. The idea of the public sphere in democratic societies assumes citizens actively involved in a decision-making process that facilitates the ethical pursuit of the common good. Social work, education, community cohesion and wellbeing are central to generating the public good.

There are challenges related to the post-World War II Muslim presence in Europe and the difficulties in defining common good in modern European societies where religion is often considered a private affair. Furthermore, there are diverse settlement models of the separation of Church and the state in Europe which inform how ‘public Islam’ is regulated. Questions concerning the compatibility of Islam with secularity and facilitating a settlement model between Islam and European states are explored in a separate study (Sahin, 2011 ). The main argument of the present inquiry builds on the previous studies, examining the role of religion and education in contributing to the common good and social cohesion in contemporary Europe (Sahin, 2010 , 2018 ).

This study’s problematic is framed around wider questions about ‘public Islam’ in European societies: (a) how do secular democratic states manage the public visibility of Islam and accommodate the faith-based needs of their Muslim citizens?; (b) to what extent do Muslims, most of whom exhibit transnational identities and share a sense of belonging to the worldwide Muslim community, ʾ umma, remain open to relating positively to the wider cultural/religious plurality of European societies? (c) does Islamic activism exploit public spaces (i. e., education, social work, chaplaincy and charity work) as sites for its missionary activities ( daʿwa ) or contribute to the common good and welfare for all?

In the aftermath of 9/11 and the 7/7 London bombings, the faith dimension within the ethnically and culturally diverse Muslim communities in Europe has gained more recognition. The challenge of public Islam in European societies is exemplified by discussions on Islamic extremism, Shariʿa law, state-funded Islamic schooling and Islamic sociopolitical activism (Martensson, 2014 ). This has led to the need for secular professionals such as social workers, who frequently engage with communities, to learn about the beliefs and practices of Muslims. There is a small body of literature which provides social work practitioners with information on Islam. This helps towards understanding the family values, youth problems and subcultures, mental health, wellbeing and social needs in the European Muslim diaspora (Barise, 2005 ; Ashencaen Crabtree et al., 2008 ; Robinson et al., 2017 ; Hodge, 2005 ; Ragab, 2016 ; Joshanloo, 2017 ). This literature is informative yet has worrying limitations. It does not contextualise Islamic social work and the concept of wellbeing within Muslim tradition or in the reality of European Muslim communities. The current study aims to fill this lacuna within the existing literature.

The inquiry employs a cross-disciplinary methodology that draws on theology and wider philosophical, social scientific study of ethics represented in the works of Husserl ( 2017 ), Levinas ( 1990 , 1998 , 1999 ) and Habermas ( 1984 , 1990 ). Hull ( 2006 ) argued that in modern plural societies peaceful coexistence can emerge if worldviews, including religions, are willing to show a degree of ‘self-relativisation’, which helps to avoid being trapped in absolutism, leading to fanaticism and even violence. This is a form of self-contextualisation close to Husserl’s phenomenological method of “bracketing” one’s perception of the world in order to “transcend” its limitations and be emphatically open to the other (Husserl, 2017 ). In such a contextual dialogue, worldviews could still retain their distinctiveness while maintaining relevance in the modern world. Communities experience social inequalities across intersecting identity categories, such as gender, race, class and faith, all of which are also subject to internal debate, conflict and negotiations. Addressing such inequalities requires critical reflection on one’s identity and the recognition of its limitations. This can further cultivate the virtue of ‘epistemic humility’, which can be traced back to the humility theory of wisdom attributed to Socrates (Whitcomb, 2011 ). Hull’s concept of self-relativisation and transcendence leads to the condition of being ‘critically open to the other’ and is argued to be compatible with the Islamic educational principle of taʿāruf (learning from one another) (Sahin, 2014 ).

The concepts of social and public theology are closely related to the notion of political theology in terms of engaging with issues around social justice. However, the latter implies a more direct engagement with governmental policies, whereas the former’s concern is with the affairs of civil society and how to nurture values of trust, respect and solidarity within communities to promote the common good. Islamic social work, like Islamic education, is a field of practical theology that has a strong empirical dimension, where conducting interdisciplinary social science research will enrich the theological thinking. Theological reflection can be grounded in this specific area of practice where it mediates Islamic values in daily life and, in turn, theology becomes shaped by practical encounters, a process which can facilitate indigenous articulations of Islam in Europe. A contextual model of practical Islamic theology is suggested by Sahin ( 2014 , 2018 ,  2019 ), originally developed through responding to the educational and identity needs of British Muslim youth. Too often, Muslim faith leaders use text-centred normative legal hermeneutics ( fiqh ) or speculative and defensive theology ( kalām ), where the contextual reality is considered as secondary. This inquiry argues that invoking the notion of relational ethics might facilitate a gradual shift from the dominance of text-centredness towards a better recognition of how texts are interpreted within the lived reality of communities and how they relate to wider society. Such experiential hermeneutics might inspire new models of practical Islamic theologies, capable of guiding practitioners in the applied fields of education and social work.

Religion, like the rest of human experience, is not free from ambiguity. As a powerful source of identity, religion can give rise to conflict, particularly when it enjoys political power and when religious identity disintegrates. Today, much of the violence committed in the name of Islam can partially be attributed to the reality of insecure Islamic identities seeking to retrieve long-lost imperial power and dignity in the face of daily experienced helplessness. The claim propagated chiefly by Orientalists like B. Lewis ( 1990 ) that Islam presents an exceptionally violence-prone religious culture has not been supported by empirical studies (Mabry, 2015 ; Fish, 2011 ). Contemporary Muslim societies have failed to nurture a democratic culture but there appears to be no fundamental difference between autocrats in Muslim states and those in non-Muslim states.

Religion can also be a powerful humanising force. Recent empirical studies demonstrate that religious affiliation has consistently predicted higher scores on measures of prosociality, altruism and public service (Neusner & Chilton, 2005 ). The latest psychological and sociological literature continues to demonstrate the social relevance of religion in contemporary western societies (Francis & Ziebertz, 2011 ; Trigg, 2008 ). The once taken-for-granted theory that equated modernisation with inevitable secularisation has long lost its empirical appeal (Berking et al., 2018 ). As Berger ( 2014 ) argues, increasing social pluralisation expressed as a diversity of religious and non-religious worldviews has been unfolding. The presence of religious communities in large European cities is being recognised as pointing towards a new urban, post-secular social condition (Nynäs et al., 2012 ), an observation first made by J. Habermas ( 2008 ). However, there are also renewed debates over whether ‘public religion’ can limit itself to social volunteerism contributing to the common good or harm in resisting plurality and liberal values of modern Europe where religion, especially Islam, has already been associated with violence and extremism.

The Common Good in Culturally and Religiously Plural European Societies

The European Enlightenment, part of overcoming centuries old European intra-religious warfare which ended with the famous Peace of Westphalia in 1684, promoted the value of tolerance, in an effort to contain sectarian conflict and ensure the freedom to practise religion, as well as freedom from religion, within its broader narrative of secular modernity. The value of tolerance was powerful enough to lay the foundations for new European constitutions (Classen, 2018 ). However, as Hollenbach ( 2002 ) argues, the notion of common good implies dimensions of mutual respect, trust and, above all else, interrelatedness, that are not present in the notion of tolerance. Serving the common good requires communities to develop enough mutual trust to share a vision of a good society. Habermas’ theory of ‘communicative action’ argues that the public sphere in democratic societies is where individuals and groups, representing diverse worldviews, can come together to freely discuss common problems. Faith communities, like other interest clusters, might put aside their theological differences and join forces to act as unified, civic pressure groups. Through such inclusive discussions, related to the practical realities of everyday life, and living together they can produce political action for the common good.

Habermas’ theory is rooted in the progressive values of the European Enlightenment and adopts Marxian features. As such, it is often argued (Bowen, 2016 ) that while the theory accommodates religion(s) in the secular public space, it also expects them to translate their traditional self-understandings into a universalist liberal language of intelligibility. This can be seen as an implicit secularisation demand, if not an unconscious Eurocentric bias. However, Habermas argues that mutual trust and understanding(s) emerge out of communities’ everyday practical interactions, requiring them to go beyond their particular identity politics in favour of preserving the common good. Habermas’s theory is based on the belief that the human capacity for rationality can facilitate intersubjective communication; an occasion for “ideal speech”, debate and dialogue in arriving at consensus(es) for taking collective actions to promote social justice. Habermas locates rationality as a capacity inherent within language, especially in the form of public debates expressing views on issues that concern the wider public. His conception of rationality goes beyond the confines of an instrumentalist scientific rationalism. It is framed as an expression of the human communicative power of language, which reflects what ancient philosophers called rhetoric, the art of persuasion, facilitating relational good and practical refinement or wisdom ( phronesis ), recognised in classical Muslim education as balāgha and ḥikma , competence for eloquent, intelligent speech and conduct.

The exclusion of minority voices in the public sphere and the inequalities they experience are recognised as a challenge in Habermas’ theory. A life with dignity requires recognition for one’s contribution to socially shared goals and one’s equal status within the society. As far as Europe’s minority faith communities are concerned, the forces of mistrust can be traced back to the aftermath of War World II. The early twentieth century mass population movements have occurred as a natural outcome of the workforce needs of a rapidly expanding global capitalist market. European powers mostly turned to their ex-colonies to fill the labour shortage. However, migration has gradually gained a ‘racial, cultural and religious turn’, going well beyond its initial economic focus. This has led to sociopolitical discontent in the so-called host societies, often expressed as racial and religious exclusion. Minorities have begun to experience life in what can be described as a perceptual state of liminality (Turner, 1974 ) i. e., anxiety, ambiguity and disorientation. A synchronic analysis reveals the dynamics of a specific historical period, such as the post-war migration and settlement of Muslim communities in Western Europe or the painful memories of European colonialism, behind the emergence of such an experience of liminality (Pugh, 2019 ). A more diachronic analysis, revealing how inequalities experienced across minority communities have, over time, gained a systemic character, is needed to fully understand the impact of the persisting racial and religious marginalisation in contemporary Europe. More recently, the mismanagement of migration from newly admitted EU member states and the economic recession of 2008 have triggered a wave of new nationalist populism formed around the ‘othering’ of migrants, particularly Muslims, who are increasingly stereotyped as ‘Islamists’ holding an intransigent political ideology (Islam) that needs policing (Abbas, 2018 ). For Example, the UK Prevent legislation has been expanded to traditionally non-security areas such as child-protection, family law and education (Ahdash, 2020 ). European security policies continue to focus more on Islamic radicalism and less on far-right extremism.

Relational Ethics and a Convergent View of the Common Good

Human autonomy, literally self-rule, remains a critical issue in contemporary philosophical discussions on moral agency. The perception of autonomy as the rational capacity of self-mastery, symbolised by the philosophies of Descartes and Kant, is often criticised as a male-coded concept shaped by the atomistic, rights-bearing privileged “white” European individuals (Oshana, 2006 ). The notion of relational autonomy has been proposed (Mackenzie, 2019 ) as an alternative, stressing that persons are socially-embedded beings with intersecting identity markers of gender, ethnicity, class and religion. In phenomenological tradition, human autonomy is perceived as an embodied agency articulated out of a world of relatedness to a body and a contextual, intersubjective processes of unfolding. Phenomenologically considered, ethical agency emerges out of this relational and dialogical character of human existence and a moral demand intrinsic to other persons (Ricoeur, 1992 ; Smith, 2012 ; Mensch, 2003 ).

The lived reality of communities in a racially, culturally and religiously plural Europe points towards a moral dissonance in meeting liberal ideals. This is not to invoke Humean moral scepticism, but contemporary plural societies present an ethical dilemma which calls into question how diverse communities find recognition, experience respect and develop a sense of belonging in secular multicultural societies. A rigid interpretation of the secular, secularism, could imply an exclusivist perspective that struggles to deal with diversity and to facilitate a fair common ground in public space. Such a position may even deem religions to be irrelevant in public life. There is also a tension between promoting individual flourishing and protecting the social common good in secular polities, where a sharp distinction between the private and public realms of life is often observed. Rawls ( 2001 ) argued that the pluralism of contemporary Western secular societies makes it impossible to envision a social good on which all can agree. Rawls does not seem to consider that the everyday practical reality of a shared social life can naturally generate knowledge of the common good.

MacIntyre ( 1994 , 2007 ) draws attention to the fact that post-enlightenment Western moral philosophy has roots in the discussions on ‘good life’ which originated in ancient Greek philosophy, at the expense of ignoring Europe’s faith-based ethical traditions. MacIntyre, by adopting neo-Aristotelian virtue ethics, suggests returning to a narrative-shaped tradition theory of morality, illustrated by Christian virtue ethics. Aristotle argued in Nicomachean Ethics ( 1976 ) that a good life is one devoted to the pursuit of good purposes. A good life is also oriented toward goods shared with others. Virtue ( arete , excellence or fulfilment) was perceived as a habitual disposition to do good. The practice of virtue and wisdom ( phronesis ) has a relational goal ( telos) . In Plato’s dialogues (Cooper, 1997 ), Socrates is depicted arguing for the need to turn guardians into the future rulers of the city, through a complex system of education to form their character so that they serve the common good as if it were their very own. For him, the real goal was to establish an ordered, just regime within oneself first. Socratic education is not just meant to educate civic rulers, but also to educate humans to be excellent rulers of themselves within a just society where the common good is served. This practical virtue ethics of “moderation, courage, wisdom and justice” shaped medieval moral thought, including Muslim thinkers’ perspectives on ethics.

For example, the ancient Greek idea of eudaimonia (happiness, human flourishing, prosperity) was formed around an individual sense of goodness (Lafollette, 2014 ). Naturally, the religious eudaimonia focused on active participation in a life of community. Muslim philosophical schools, and to some extent theological traditions, as part of their critical reception of ancient Greek thought, developed an Islamic view of eudaimonia . Al-Farabi (d. 850) in his Attainment of Happiness ( taḥṣīl al-sa ʿ āda ), modelled on the Republic of Plato, promotes political moderation in a time of sociopolitical and sectarian conflicts and argues for the need to form a virtuous society where the common good is served (Parens, 2006 ). Al-Farabi’s work ( 1995 ) seeks to educate young and politically ambitious Muslims to temper their desire to spread the truths of Islam through a jihad of military expansionism, by pursuing a jihad of truth spreading and living by the truth. For him, seeking happiness ( saʿāda ) is linked with the pursuit of the common good and achieving a virtuous society ( al-madīna al-fāḍila ). Similarly, friendship was a favourite theme within the humanistic ( insāniyya ) discourse of the Muslim philosophers and theologians such as Ibn Miskawayh (d. 1030) and Abu Hayyan al-Tahwdi (d. 1023). The latter wrote a distinctive work on friendship ( ukhuwwa ), rearticulating the Aristotelian concept of philia (friendship) within a wider Islamic perception of the human self and the other. Ancient Greek and Persian moral thought had a profound impact on Muslim ethical traditions. It is important to note that classical Islamic works on ethics, like their inherited Greek and Persian counterparts, often exclude women and assume the moral subject to be an elite male.

The Islamic tradition preserved the Greek idea of eudaimonia but often gave it a distinctive Islamic idiom by using Qurʾanic ethical vocabulary such as faḍl, divine grace, and iḥsān , excellence, kindness, generosity and ʿadl , justice. However, women appear to be excluded from this Qurʾanic egalitarian ethics. Al-Isfahani (d. 1108), whose work ( 1985 , 116–118) will shortly be discussed, suggested limitations in female moral agency as “the social status of women require exhibiting an inferior version of the virtues which reach their peak in man ( muruwwa /manliness)”. He immediately recognises this contradicts the Qurʾan’s gender inclusive notion of humanity and its egalitarian moral ethos (Q 49:13) Footnote 1 and tries, rather unconvincingly, to justify his apparently self-contradictory position on the issue. The pursual of a good life in Islam is also tied to fulfilling one’s obligation ( taklīf ) which is rooted in a novel juridical concept i. e., the rights that humans and God possess ( ḥuqūq Allah / ʿibād ). This legalistic rights approach, prioritising the value of justice was given a moral sense by promoting virtue as self-care ( tazkiyya / riʿāya ). Overall, a more personalist and relational perception of human moral agency seems well-founded in Muslim core sources (Al-Halbabi, 1969 ). The prophetic traditions emphasise the significance of personal intentions ( niyya ) in human conduct and cultivating a sense of personal moral autonomy and responsibility. When asked to define “goodness and sin” the prophet was reported to have simply said “search your hearts rather than seek a legal opinion ( fatwā )”, highlighting the significance of personal moral consciousness in human life.

It is often assumed that there is no exact cognate for ethics in the Islamic intellectual tradition (Bucar, 2018 ). The legal concept of fiqh is suggested as exhibiting moral connotations, as it regulates human behaviours. Some do mention that moral issues are dealt with in the domains of akhlāq (morals), taṣawwuf (spirituality), falsafa (philosophy), kalām (speculative theology) and adab (etiquette). Nearly all ignore approaching Shariʿa as source of Muslim ethics. The interpretation of Shariʿa as law, the Divine commandments backed by the threat of punishment, has led to an assumption that it promotes a simple transactional ethics of reward and punishment.

Even the depiction of God in the Qurʾan could be perceived as a fearful judge. An original study (Rahbar, 1960 ) exploring the principal motive of good conduct in the Qurʾan, argues that the Qurʾanic God can best be described as God of Justice. The Qurʾan upholds the human capacity for freedom as evident in its formulae of connecting faithfulness with doing good (ʾ āmanū wa ʿamilū aṣ-ṣāliḥāt ) (Hourani, 1985 ). An early human freedom-centred Islamic ethics is exemplified by the muʿtazila , a rationalist school of Islamic theology that flourished during the eighth to tenth centuries. Muʿtazila theologians showed tendencies of ethical objectivism and a natural law perspective that are justified by appealing to God’s creation of a good, beneficial world. They argued that the natural value of justice needed to be observed by God and humans equally. However, in Rahbar’s ( 1960 ) exceptionally rigorous study, God emerges as a stern, legally-minded deity who does not act arbitrarily but is incapable of love and intimacy with humanity. The study overlooks the moral qualities embedded in God’s names ( al- ʾ asmā ʾ al-ḥusnā ) and the ethics of mutual recognition and care informing the Divine-human relations revealed by the central description of God in the Qurʾan as al-Rabb ; the Educator, Nourisher and Guide par excellence . A key ethical concept of the Qurʾan, taqwā , is erroneously associated in this work with a fear of God rather than with the moral awareness of self, others and the Divine (Rahman, 1983 ).

Asad ( 1986 ) invoked the notion of ‘tradition’ à la MacIntyre to deconstruct perceptions of Islam within secular modernity. Asad advises western anthropologists to take the idea of tradition, or more accurately, “discursive tradition”, seriously when studying Islam. He tries to overcome the “essentialist” and “nominalist” dichotomy in defining Islam and argues that a practice becomes Islamic because it is authorised by the discursive traditions of Islam and backed up by shared communal practices. He does not elaborate but, as will be discussed shortly, early Islamic epistemology, before the encounter with Hellenistic thought, was shaped by dynamic, contextual hermeneutics, where textual authority was mediated through sound reason ( ijtihād ), consensus building ( ijmaʿ ), customs ( ʿurf ), and taking into account the needs of a changing society ( istiṣlaḥ ). Such an open-ended interpretative epistemology leaves ample room for new contextual expressions of being Muslim to emerge from a dynamic living tradition.

Asad and MacIntyre seem to show a conservative reactionary attitude to secular modernity. Appealing to the notion of tradition can increase self-confidence among faith communities, but it does not necessarily empower them to engage and to be part of a common good formed within the diversity of modern world. Today, the increasing presence of religion in the public sphere requires religious communities to reflect upon their normative religious structures and not simply to insist on their mere preservation, if an open dialogue with the wider society is to be possible (Casanova, 1994 ). Public religions, including Islam in secular polity, are better served if they bring their moral teachings to bear on issues of civic space and contribute to the emergence of an inclusive common good.

What Is Relational Ethics?

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that explores what constitutes right or wrong, virtue or vice. It is closely related to discussions of axiology and aesthetics, as well as to moral psychology and theoretical discussions on values. The terms ethics and moral philosophy can be understood differently. Ethics, particularly in Aristotelian sense, refer to a teleological concern i. e., character formation and good life, while morality may mean obligations and norms governing actions. The study of ethics is usually carried out in three distinctive aspects: metaethics, where truth in moral propositions is examined; normative ethics, related to the principles of ethical decision making; and applied ethics, which is concerned with the application of moral values in life. The most common ethical theories are consequentialist, deontological and virtue-based theories. A consequentialist theory suggests that an action is morally permissible if it maximises overall goodness. Consequentialist theories are specified according to what they take to be intrinsically good. For example, classical utilitarianism considered intrinsic goodness to be happiness and pleasure (Lafollette, 2014 ). In the deontological perspective, associated with Kant, the emphasis is placed on individual duty. Kant argued that dignity is a kind of intrinsic worth inherent in rational individuals who set their goals according to certain universal maxims. Thus, acting rightly requires being motivated by universal principles that treat everyone with respect. The divine command theory is considered deontological, in that an action is right if God has decreed it.

The concept of relational ethics, proposed in this inquiry, is grounded in the relational and dialogical nature of human existence discussed above. The moral obligation resides in the call to respond to the relationality defining the human condition. An influential form of a relational ethics where moral normativity is grounded in the ethical demand of the other is offered by E. Levinas. Levinas’ ( 1979 , 1990 ) ethical theory originates in a critical dialogue with phenomenology and his faith heritage, Judaism. Levinas’s thinking is couched in phenomenological method and integrates rabbinic exegetical-interpretative features. Levinas, after breaking away from Heidegger and his phenomenology of Being, which Levinas once admired, identified ethics to be the foremost concern of philosophy rather than epistemology or metaphysics. The phenomenological reflection in the early works of Husserl on ethics was dominated by axiological discussions and acts of feeling, where objects are assigned values as likes and dislikes. Husserl later moved towards examining the intersubjective and social aspects of moral life (life-world) (Drummond & Embree, 2002 ). However, Levinas is the chief figure in advancing a phenomenological analysis that grounds ethics in the obligating presence of the “other”. The other symbolises the phenomenological feeling of an ethical relationship. He developed a philosophy of subjectivity, paradoxically defined within the framework of responsibility for the other. His work challenges philosophies that seek to “totalise” (reduce) otherness into sameness, by apportioning difference into pre-established characteristics, properties, and categories. Levinas shows how the ‘infinite’ can be interpreted as involved in “finity” but without becoming “finity” (objectified). He draws on the metaphors of the human-divine encounter depicted in the Hebrew Bible, which overwhelms the human thinking faculty and reveals fundamental human fragility and limitations. The encounter with a human “other”, is likened to the spiritual encounter with the “Divine Other”. He argues that when the self is true to itself, it is nothing but a response to the other.

Levinas engaged with Jewish sources through a series of Talmudic readings, combining the insights of western philosophy with rabbinic interpretive methods. His hermeneutic strategy takes the textual legacy of his faith tradition and contemporary intellectual discourses seriously. The aim of exegesis is to extract the universal from the apparent particularism of the tradition. In Levinas’ relational ethics, the concept of “alterity” (otherness) plays a significant role. Alterity does not refer to mere difference or otherness, but to an irreducible sense of singularity and subjectivity that needs to be recognised and responded to. Levinas’ perception of singularity lies in his understanding of transcendence, which reflects his critical engagement with Husserlian phenomenology. The transcendence of the other does include an embodied, worldly, immanent presence. This opening of transcendence within the immanence of being makes possible a relationship with the other which is not reducible to an objectification. Paradoxically, it becomes a “relationship without relation”, in which the other is greeted or received without becoming assimilated into known categories. This points towards an ethics of hospitality in which intra-human relations such as education and social work become humane and empowering. Welcoming the other as oneself facilitates a natural pedagogic desire to learn from the other (Todd, 2008 ), which in Muslim education is expressed by the concept taʿāruf , “openness to learning from one another” (Sahin, 2017 ).

In Totality and Infinity , Levinas ( 1999 ) argues that the concept of responsibility is not based on a demand for ethical justification issued once and for all, but a continually renewed covenant in living encounters with every stranger. Levinas uses the symbol of the “face of the other” to illustrate the other’s resistance to comprehension and assimilation. In the Hebrew Bible, ‘face’ represents the presence of God (Isaiah 63:9), a depiction also found frequently in the Qurʾan (Q 18:28). The face cannot be described or represented (objectified), since it is not a phenomenon with particular qualities, but rather depicted as a horizon , where relations become meaningful. Face is not a mere abstraction or mystical apparition but symbolises a deeper ethical recognition of living in the presence of an irreducible other. The face is discursive more than visual; it commands the individual to respond to the call from the other.

However, Levinas’ philosophy may come across as inherently apolitical and quasi-mystical (Wolin, 2008 ). The question of the political is seen as consistently troubling Levinas’s thought (Caygill, 2002 ; Critchley, 1999 ). There is always a tension between ethics and politics in a world where violence against the other, or by the other, remains a reality. The other can cause injustice and commit the violence of ‘othering’ by marginalising people unlike her or him. The real task is how to establish an ethical awareness that is capable of upholding dignity and holiness in the humanity of one’s vulnerable neighbour. Relational ethics requires replacing tribal self-understandings shaped by mutually exclusive in- and out-group selfish interests with a willingness to be ‘critically faithful’ (Sahin, 2017 ) to one’s identity, so that injustice caused by one’s own self or community to other(s) can be acknowledged and addressed. Levinas insists that responsibility pre-supposes response. The real ethical danger is not where responsibility is rejected in scepticism but where it is ignored in an apathy of moral blindness (Perpich, 2008 ). In his Talmudic reflections, Levinas ( 1990 ) considers the experience of the Exodus, led by Moses to the Promised Land, which turned into a nightmare of 40 years of desperate wandering in the desert. It appears that Moses’ followers decided to enter the land with violence and without respect for the native population living there, naively assuming the unconditional approval of God for their invasion of the other’s homeland. They even started to deviate from the Divine commandment to worship God alone (the Golden Calf episode) and to observe justice. As a consequence of their transgression, the Israelites, God’s ‘treasured people’, were no longer ‘permitted’ to enter the ‘promised’ land until they reflected on their wrong doings and changed themselves.

Islam and Judaism are often considered as religions of law. However, scholars suggest that Judaism in its biblical stage did not seem to have been a law-based tradition. J. Kugel ( 2007 ) points out that the great figures of Judaism, Abraham and Moses, are not depicted in the Bible as observing any law or ritual. Furthermore, it appears that the origins of the Mosaic covenant reflect the structure of the suzerainty treaties of the ancient world agreed between a powerful state and its smaller vassal states. The concept of humans being created in the image of God ( imago dei ) in the Bible, which does not occur in the Qurʾan, appears as such to be a borrowed metaphor from the widely circulated ancient political culture in Mesopotamia, where kings were often depicted in the images of their deities. It is possible that the Qurʾanic depiction of human distinctiveness with the word khalīfa / khalā ʾ if , God’s representatives and stewardship on earth (Q 2:34), has roots in the imperial imagination of the Near East. In the Hebrew Bible, God demands that Israel be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exodus 19:6). Kugel argues that a significant implication of being a holy nation was that all people needed to observe the rituals and commandments of God. In Christianity, law was superseded by Divine love. Paul saw law as having the function of pedagogues (not to be confused with today’s use of the word as teachers), who in antiquity were usually slaves and looked after children (Young, 1987 ). With the arrival of Christ, Paul argued there was no longer a need for a primitive protective measure such as law. In Muslim tradition, Shariʿa integrates law, ethics and spirituality. Bearing the knowledge of Shariʿa is not intended to be merely having legal expertise but embodying moral, spiritual authority and guidance.

Shariʿa as Relational Ethics

The word Shariʿa in Arabic refers to a path that leads to a spring vital for human survival. Its frequent use in the Qurʾan would have immediately attracted the attention of seventh century Arabs familiar with desert life. Such a pedagogic use of language is a significant aspect of the Qurʾan’s rhetorical discourse, deliberately employed to provoke human imagination. Similarly, the evidence-based thinking in the Qurʾan is expressed with the word istinbāṭ – literally searching for water i. e. evidence (Q 4:83). As a technical religious concept in the Qurʾan, Shariʿa symbolises a pattern of meaning humans need to form around certain core values for life (i. e. ethics) (Q 42:13). Shariʿa secondarily refers to rules and regulations (Q 5:48) recognised as fiqh / aḥkām that classifies acts and duties of Muslims into categories of farḍ / wājib (obligatory), makrūh (disliked), mustaḥabb (recommended), and ḥarām (forbidden). Shariʿa has two interrelated dimensions: the divine-human relationship, consisting of a vertical axis of serving God and a horizontal axis of intersubjective, intra-human conduct, serving God’s people. The former ( ʿibādāt ) is recognised as the domain of God’s rights and the latter ( muʿāmalāt ) as the domain of individual and public human rights.

Shariʿa is related to the central Qurʾanic concepts of religion ( dīn ), human nature ( fiṭra ) and a deep sense of moral obligation ( taklīf ). The word religion, dīn and religiosity ( tadayyun ) in Arabic, are interwoven with meanings of leading a “reflective, accountable life of gratitude, justice and care”. Dīn/tadayyun is the natural expression of meaning-making and lifestyle forming feature of human nature ( fiṭra ), and Shariʿa is a distinctive path ordained by God (Q 5:48, 45:18) with boundaries ( ḥudūd ) (Q 2:229, 58:4) to facilitate achieving wellbeing and prosperity ( falāḥ ) in this world and the world to come. Adopting the divinely sanctioned straight path, dīn qayyim (Q 6:161), a balanced religiosity must be based on individual consent as “religion” is considered to be nothing but sincere counsel ( naṣīha ). Interestingly, the concept of obedience, ṭāʿa , in the Qurʾan literally means engaging in a reciprocal relationship and taking a decision freely , hence, willingly entering into a dialogue with God through responding to the Divine call ( taklīf ) (Q 3:83). The Qurʾanic word for volunteering, taṭawwuʿ , comes from the same verbal root: “whoever does an act of goodness voluntarily, God will show His gratitude by rewarding the person.” (Q 2:168, 9:53) Furthermore, the words for creation ( khalq ) and moral character ( akhlāq / khuluq ) share the same etymology and are semantically linked to the concept of religion ( dīn ), all have the meanings of measure, esteem and discernible, balanced conduct. Humans are created with an innate capacity of forming a moral character and a way of life or custom (religion/ dīn ) (Q 26:137). Muhammad in the Qurʾan is depicted as having a sublime moral character ( khuluq ʿ aẓīm 68:4) (being on a distinctive path or custom/life style i. e. dīn ) (Al-Isfahani, 2009 ).

The Qurʾan is aware that there are diverse human lifestyles where God may not be recognised but more significantly that there could be extreme and corrupt interpretations of the Divine path leading to the formation of unhealthy religiosities ( tadayyun ) (Q 4:171, 5:77). Similarly, empathy with the other is a crucial dimension of the Islamic sense of being religious. The poor have the right to share in the wealth of the rich, the obligatory zakāt, literally purification and growth. Zakāt that purifies one’s wealth is an integral part of individual piety and self-development ( tazkiyyat an-nafs) . Human dignity in the Qurʾan is expressed with karāma and khilāfa (stewardship of earth). Karāma has meanings of being generous, welcoming, free and noble, showing ethical conduct. Finally, the Qurʾan recognises that the embodiment of Shariʿa in life will necessarily be context-dependent, reflecting individual differences and social conditions. Therefore, it acknowledges the inevitable diversity in the historical applications of Shariʿa (Q 5:48, 45:18) and its universal values. As the social context of Muslim communities changed, Muslim scholars reinterpreted core Muslim teachings.

In Islam, the formation of the first faithful community (ʾ umma ) and completion of the Divine revelation are considered co-temporal. This historical experience has shaped a distinctive Islamic perception of what constitutes a sacred scripture and how it should be interpreted. Muslim belief that the Qurʾan is literally Divine speech, has erroneously led to the conclusion that this necessarily implies a literalist perception of scripture. On the contrary, the prophetic and early Muslim attitude towards the Qurʾan shows more dynamic and contextual interpretative features (Sahin, 2013 ). The interpretation occurs in the text itself since parts of the scripture explain other parts (intra-textual hermeneutics). The Qurʾan emphasises that human reason cannot exhaust all the meanings and wisdom embedded in the Divine word (Q 18:109, 31:27). The original intended authorial meanings cannot always be traced backed to an objectified, literal meaning, hence the human interpretive act, ta ʾ wīl (tracing the origins), remains polyvocal and future orientated taking into account the changing life conditions of the communities.

A central task of the prophet was to explain the Qurʾan to its first audience which has a normative function in Muslim tradition. The prophet embodies the Divine message in real life. Thus, his prophetic conduct, sunna , became a wisdom tradition, acting as guide to all aspects of Muslim life. The sunna , originally transmitted orally, came to be written down as reports, Hadith. The Qurʾan and the prophetic sunna remained open to new interpretations ( ijtihād ). The interpretation of Islam by the first generations, through adopting a consensus-based decision-making process, is also considered normative, worthy of emulation. Most of the legal edicts in the Qurʾan are often qualified with an ethical alternative i. e. ‘an eye for an eye’, retributive justice, is moderated by restorative justice, encouraging the victim to forgive the offender or accept a monetary compensation. Moreover, as circumstances changed, the legal positions were revised by abrogation or, as the second Caliph Omar famously did, by suspending some of the scripture-based laws. Unlike later Muslim hermeneutics that saw Islam mainly from the prism of law, early Islamic interpretative engagement had an ethical, contextual focus. This has enabled growth and development within the Muslim living tradition through a progressive agenda of continuous social reform toward realising the Qurʾan’s ethical demand of forming a compassionate, just society (Rahman, 1995 ).

This rather egalitarian interpretive attitude can be seen in the Islamic perception of community, ʾ umma , as an inclusive polity responding to the reality of plurality in the city where Islam gained its first social expression. The famous ‘Medinah Pledge’ (622), led by the prophet, envisioned an inclusive civic polity that contained diverse faith communities and aimed to safeguard the wellbeing of all. The Qurʾanic concept of “people of the Book” indicates recognition of the religious other. However, it is often forgotten that prophetic traditions also emphasise the notion of “God’s people” ( ʿiyāal Allah ), a more inclusive category that is open to the non-religious other. Thus, within the first city where Islam emerged as a social reality, the public space was used to facilitate peaceful coexistence. This seems to have shaped the prophet’s style of leadership, as he is reported to have said “a person’s goodness lies in her or his willingness to be part of a community or to bring people together as a community”.

The fundamental ethical logic that permeates the Qurʾan can be summarised as follows: God, by virtue of gifting humanity with life, expects recognition and gratitude for this act of Divine generosity. Upon reflection, those who choose to acknowledge God’s favour and willingly express their gratitude by worshiping Him alone, became “faithful” (literally experience safety, trust). Existentially, faithfulness is tied to the ethical attitude of gratefulness i. e. engaging with a relationship of care and respect towards oneself and others, including the environment and the Creator. In Islam’s core narrative, the Divine-human relationship reflects a relational ethics of mutual recognition and cooperation for establishing justice on earth. The Qurʾan encourages meaningful debate, consensus building and taking into account the lived reality of the community. The early Islamic contextual epistemology shares some interesting features with Habermas’ ( 1990 ) debate, dialogue and consensus-centred theory of knowledge, and negotiating the common good within contemporary plural, secular societies. Within the Qurʾanic discourse there is a trust in human capacity to discover truth, good and bad, and engage with consensus building ( ijmāʿ ), essential for the survival and coexistence of communities. During the prophet-led formation of Muslim society, there seemed to have been a shared clarity on the basic ethical values necessary for communal wellbeing. There appear to have been few abstract theological discussions on what constitutes good ( ḥusn ) or bad ( qubḥ ) and whether Divine commands determine the nature of good or bad. This typical Hellenic way of framing moral discussions dominated medieval Muslim theological and philosophical discussions. In this sense, the prophet’s city, Medinah, should neither be confused with ancient Athens nor with the cosmopolitan medieval Baghdad. The Qurʾanic approach to social ethics seems to follow common sense and work through a consensus-based epistemology, where goodness or harm to society are clearly discernible without much metaphysical discussion.

The Danger of Reifying Shariʿa into a Body of Ahistorical Laws

Interpreting Shariʿa as relational ethics does not mean reducing Islam to the level of private morality, a charge levelled against postcolonial Islamic modernist reformism. Al-Isfahani (d. 1086), a well-regarded mediaeval Muslim scholar for example, offered educationally-informed ethical hermeneutics to discern the moral values of Shariʿa. His work, al-dharīʿa ilā makārim ash-sharīʿa (the means to achieving moral excellence and dignity of the divine path) (Al-Isfahani, 1985 ), articulates social ethics rooted in Qurʾanic anthropology. The book begins with a discussion on the human condition including its biological ( ṭabʿ / fiṭra ) givenness and its central ethical and educational character that individuals acquire within a given social context. Law is defined as an aid to moral agency and not the other way around. Al-Isfahani critically integrates elements of ancient Greek practical virtue ethics ( phronesis ) in formulating his version of Islamic relational ethics. The ethical character of Shariʿa was not recognised as an after-thought to a legal system but as shaping the very fabric of what it means to be a human being. He distinguishes between rules discerned from Shariʿa ( aḥkām ) and its core humanising moral ethos as makārim . The latter enables humans to develop an inner ethical competence guiding human transformation ( tarbiyya ) and qualifying humans for stewardship of the earth ( khalifa ) which signifies dignity ( karāma ) bestowed by God on humanity.

Classical Muslim legal scholars identified five rights that summarised the ultimate purpose of Islamic law ( maqāṣid al-sharīʿa ): protecting life, family, property, religion and the human reasoning capacity to preserve human sanity (Sahin, 2011 ). These aims are sometimes considered alongside a hierarchy of needs (i. e. essential, required and aesthetic) that individuals or communities exhibit. This metalegal discourse appears to have emerged from analysing the raison d’être of the laws ( taʿīl al-aḥkām ) and discerning ( istiqrā ʾ/ istinbāṭ) the Divine intentions in the revelation. The preoccupation with authorial intentions seems to have led to text-focused legal interpretations, at the expense of the gradually disappearing earlier context-based hermeneutics evident in the hermeneutical approach of authoritative figures like Imam Malik (d. 795) who considered the entire experience of Medina, where Islamic society first emerged, as normative. Apart from the Zahiri school of thought, which limited textual engagement to its external sense only (the ẓahir ), all other Islamic legal schools were in favour of discerning the objectives intended to protect human good by the scripture. Ibrahim al-Nakhaʿi (d. 717), an early legal authority (Qalʿajī, 1979 ) who advocated the use of reason while engaging with the Qurʾan, argued that “the Divine revelation demands to be reasoned with, in order to discern its objectives and wisdom, meant to protect human wellbeing”. Subsequently, the concept of the higher objectives of law was worked out by scholars until it was systematised by Izz b. Abdassalaam (d. 1262) and al-Shatibi (d. 1388). However, the ethics seem largely perceived as a complementary aspect ( taḥsīniyyāt ) to this overwhelmingly legal interpretative framework.

Today, the relational ethics integral to the concept of Shariʿa, have been eclipsed to such an extent that they are increasingly perceived, by Muslims and wider society, as a reified, ahistorical, rigid system of rules and regulations. Without reclaiming this human dignity-focussed relational ethics embedded in Shariʿa, pressing issues like gender-inequality and attitudes towards religious or non-religious others in the modern Muslim communities cannot be adequately addressed. The call for the application of Shariʿa becomes empty political rhetoric, completely disassociated from protecting human freedom, dignity, welfare and the common good. Even a distinctive socio-ethical principle enshrined in the Qurʾan, such as “enjoining good and preventing harm” to ensure public welfare is maintained can be reduced to an apparatus of inhumane control, as briefly exemplified by the totalitarian hysteria of the so-called Islamic State (IS).

The main shortcoming in the maqāṣid discourse lies in its legalistic framing and ahistorical application, which prevents it from acting at a higher critical ethical hermeneutics level. The actual determination of the good ( maṣlaḥa ) intended to be protected, is subject to numerous legal conditions ( ḍawābiṭ ) and focused on discerning the authorial intentions rather than recognizing the lived reality of the faithful. This legal perception of the maqāṣid is evident in the theological discourse of its early proponents. Al-Ghazali (d. 1111), one of the first formulators of the concept, for example, mostly invokes maqāṣid in its legal sense and often omits its ethical prerequisites. While trying to reconcile divine omnipotence and human moral responsibility, he does not seem to be particularly bothered with the apparent contradiction in saying that Shariʿa protects human reason (ʾ aql ) and yet severely curtails human agency and responsibility in producing moral actions. In his best-known work, iḥyā ʾ, completed after an experience of spiritual transformation and synthesising his most mature understanding of Islam, Al-Ghazali largely abandons legalism in recapturing the holistic moral and spiritual guidance embedded in Shariʿa. Abu Bakr ibn Al-Arabi (d. 1148) in his Apologia ( 2001 ) ( al-ʿawāṣim min al-qawāṣim ), written to justify the innocence of all companions involved in the first civil war ( fitna 656–661), and which fundamentally shaped the medieval Sunni quietist political theology until modern times, does not once raise the issue of justice or remember the Qurʾanic ethical principle: “killing an innocent soul amounts to killing all humanity.” (Q 5:32)

Similarly, the classical genres on ethics such as adab and the faḍā ʾ il (the excellences of rulers, judges) do not go beyond a well-crafted hyperbolic discourse. The ethical sense invoked by the concept of ʾ adab originally meant a particular set of moral norms for a good life, cultivated by a class of literati in the context of Muslim court culture, and mostly remained an elitist pursuit which for commoners meant moral coercion ( ta ʾ dīb ). Within the politically quietist and heavily legalistic Sunni piety and theological discourse, justice and ethics, two fundamental values of the Qurʾan, have often been marginalised. I. Güler ( 2011 ) offers a critical analysis as to how the Qurʾan’s human freedom and justice-focused ethics of care were eroded within the predestinarian Sunni theological discourse, originally designed to justify suppressing political dissent, which has contributed to cultural stagnation in modern Muslim societies. The encounter with western secular modernity pushed early Muslim reformists to stress the moral character of Shariʿa, through popularising the notions of maqāṣid and common good ( maṣlaḥa ) (Salvatore, 2009 ; Salvatore & Eickelman, 2005 ). However, the political motive of trying to reconcile Islam with secular modernity has often yielded to a secular temptation to simply abrogate the Qurʾan’s Medinan chapters, which cover complex sociopolitical issues.

The concept fiqh al-ʿaqalliyyāt , minority jurisprudence (Hassan, 2013 ), is an extension of a similar legal epistemology that does not actually help to contextualise Islam in the modern world. Some aspects of Islamic law (family law) are accommodated within secular legal systems of Europe (the UK’s common law) which, in varying degrees, acknowledge legal pluralism in order to accommodate minority communities’ claims to their own distinctive legal traditions when resolving family disputes. Accommodation of Shariʿa is now slowly happening in the areas of finance, family matters, and food industry. There are even Shariʿa courts, mostly acting as Muslim arbitration tribunals; and a European fatwā council overseeing an expanding ‘halalification’ industry. However, tensions between upholding the liberal principle of equality which informs secular democratic citizenship and the demand for recognition of difference in multicultural societies can cause conflict (Turner & Possamai, 2015 ). While analysing Muslim scholars’ legal response to issues affecting Muslim women in Britain, Larsen ( 2018 ) suggests that the maqāṣid discourse is similar to a secular, common morality. She seems unaware that fatwās are legal verdicts based on the premodern fiqh regulating female conduct. Maqāṣid and fiqh al-ʿaqalliyyāt do not seem to act as metaethical discourses. As legal concepts they reflect a wider medieval politico-legal idea that divides the world into the “abode of Islam” and the “abode of non-Islam”. Within such an imperial political framing, ahistorical approaches to the Qurʾan become dominant. Verses like “don’t take Jews or Christians as your friends” (Q 6:66) tend to be perceived literally, ignoring the contextual reality of war as the background of the verse that was extensively commented on, while other verses praising people of the book are not remembered. This ahistorical literalism ignores the Qurʾan’s rhetorical discourse and takes the complex politico-legal doctrine of al-walāʾ wa-l-barā ʾ, “disassociation from non-Muslims” to be a categorical ban on Muslim involvement with secular public space.

However, stripped of its legal shell, the notion of fiqh al-ʿaqalliyyāt could actually be a powerful theological concept; it literally refers to facilitating an understanding of Islam within the reality of being a minority community. This indicates a radical rethink of what it means to be a Muslim in the modern world, where Muslims no longer hold political power nor form a majority. In its legalistic framing fiqh al-ʿaqalliyyāt is limited to an ahistorical application of a particular school of thought’s jurisprudence on complex and sensitive issues of the contemporary world such as gender relations and social work; controversial issues such as the non-religious other, blasphemy and apostacy, which might cause more harm than benefit. This would even violate legal maxims in Islamic law suggesting “preventing common harm” ( sadd adh-dharā ʾ iʿ ) always has priority. What is more important is to carefully consider whether the application of specific, pre-modern fiqh rules enables the protection of human dignity embedded in the Islamic core narrative, while addressing contemporary issues and guiding Muslim communities’ relationships with wider society.

This inquiry emphasised the need to rediscover the relational ethics embedded in the concept of Shariʿa and its significance in facilitating a transformative Islamic engagement with the public space and contributing to the common good within the Muslim minority context of Europe. Shariʿa is further grounded in the holistic Islamic educational view of human flourishing, tarbiyya , that aims to facilitate a human formation characterised by gratitude, dignity and just living. The concept of relational ethics was discussed in a reflective dialogue with Levinas’ phenomenology-informed ethical philosophy and Habermas’s ‘theory of communicative action’.

The study argued the need for an inclusive public space where religious minorities are welcomed, without, fear of being stereotyped, policed or pressured to self-censure. The communicative process within the cultural and religious plurality of European societies cannot be limited to having mere conversations , often occurring between communities living parallel lives, but should also be producing concrete convergences in addressing inequalities, renewing public trust and working towards peaceful coexistence. The role of Muslim faith leaders in guiding their communities to take part in such a convergent public engagement, and thus facilitating a sense of belonging to the European Muslim ʾ umma , is undeniable. European Muslim leadership education needs to equip young faith leaders to facilitate contextual understandings of Islam and to prepare them for working within a societal reality of great religious and cultural diversity and interdependence.

The political developments of the last two decades have hindered European Muslims’ openness to critically address their internal problems and to engage actively with wider society. In social work which addresses social deprivation and wellbeing issues, the level of public and community engagement does not seem to be either inclusive or transformative. There is an urgent need to conduct empirical research to understand the changing needs of Muslim youth, the impact of religious extremism, poverty, mental health, delinquency and intra-community tensions within the European Muslim diaspora. Cultivating the values of shared relational ethics remains an effective way of responding to the plurality defining European societies, generating awareness about the responsibility of “living the face of one another” and renewing public trust in forming an inclusive conception of the common good.

All translations of the Qurʾan are the author’s own.

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Sahin, A. (2022). Islam, Social Work and Common Good in the Muslim Minority Context of Europe: Rethinking Shariʿa as Relational Ethics. In: Schmid, H., Sheikhzadegan, A. (eds) Exploring Islamic Social Work. Muslims in Global Societies Series, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95880-0_11

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

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[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

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[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

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[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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