semi structured interviewing in practice close research

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Semi-Structured Interviewing in Practice-Close Research

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Search terms: Practice-close research, semi-structured interviewing, data collection, qualitative research, research methods

Scientific Inquiry provides a forum to facilitate the ongoing process of questioning and evaluating practice, presents informed practice based on available data, and innovates new practices through research and experimental learning.

Practice-close research is a term that refers to nurses doing qualitative research in their areas of practice. Not surprisingly, we are often drawn to research questions that arise in our own areas of practice or that resonate as issues in our own lives that could be addressed through nursing research. For the recipients of nursing care, it is important that nurse researchers pursue these questions and integrate findings into care delivery. Yet, there are also challenges in practice-close research; these include (a) the researcher's responsibility to be explicit about her or his preconceptions about an issue, and (b) the researcher's interactions with study participants (Lykkeslet & Gjengedal, 2007).

Interviewing, the most frequently used data collection strategy in qualitative studies (Burnard, 2005; Nunkoosing, 2005; Sandelowski, 2002), is commonly used in practice-close research. The purpose of this paper is to describe for specialists in pediatric nursing a particular interviewing style: the semi-structured interview in the context of a practice-close research study.

The study on which this paper is based was a communitybased research project that examined health in families of young children with special needs. Ethics approval for the study was obtained from the University of British Columbia. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 15 parents (11 mothers and 4 fathers) with children between the ages of 7.5 months and 5 years. My interest in this area was based on my own experiences of having a child with special needs. Although I am not a pediatric nurse, I am very interested in family nursing, which was central to this research. Thus, my personal experiences of being a parent of a chUd receiving nursing care and other supports, partnered with my nursing self, drew me into this practice-close research project. The overall aim of the study was to examine family health and factors that supported/hindered family health among families that included a young child with special needs. During the course of the study, three research team members from the larger research team conducted the interviews...

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• Glob Qual Nurs Res
• v.2; Jan-Dec 2015

Situating and Constructing Diversity in Semi-Structured Interviews

Michele j. mcintosh.

1 Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada

Janice M. Morse

2 University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA

Although semi-structured interviews (SSIs) are used extensively in research, scant attention is given to their diversity, underlying assumptions, construction, and broad applications to qualitative and mixed-method research. In this three-part article, we discuss the following: (a) how the SSI is situated historically including its evolution and diversification, (b) the principles of constructing SSIs, and (c) how SSIs are utilized as a stand-alone research method, and as strategy within a mixed-method design.

In this article, we will explore the evolution, proliferation, diversification, and utilization of the semi-structured interview (SSI) as both a data collection strategy and a research method. We suggest that, since the 1990s, the SSI has proliferated, diversified, and evolved from a research strategy to an independent research method, and to one that is increasingly used by a multiplicity of disciplines. It has a unique structure that affords it an affinity with qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method research. Unfettered by foundational philosophical commitments, the SSI accommodates a multiplicity of philosophical assumptions that may reflect feminist, critical, phenomenological, and neo-positivist aims. The purpose of SSIs is to ascertain participants’ perspectives regarding an experience pertaining to the research topic. Beyond that common denominator, however, SSIs have diversified into different types, each uniquely oriented to assessing, confirming, validating, refuting, or elaborating upon existing knowledge and the discovery of new knowledge. Furthermore, the contemporary SSI may be empathetic and politically engaged. The diverse types of SSIs produce knowledge that may be politically active, taking the stance of the participants and committed to improving their lives.

As a data collection strategy, we examine its fit with various methods. When used as a stand-alone method, we identify four major purposes: descriptive/confirmative, descriptive/corrective, descriptive/interpretative, and descriptive/divergent. SSIs also play important roles in mixed-method research, research involving translation, and as a basis for instrument development.

What Is the SSI?

The SSI is designed to ascertain subjective responses from persons regarding a particular situation or phenomenon they have experienced. It employs a relatively detailed interview guide or schedule, and may be used when there is sufficient objective knowledge about an experience or phenomenon, but the subjective knowledge is lacking ( Merton & Kendall, 1946 ; Morse & Field, 1995 ; Richards & Morse, 2007). Analysis of the objective knowledge constitutes the framework for the development of this guide and foci for the development of the interview question stems. These interview questions focus on the responses of each participant and constitute the structure of the SSI. Participants are free to respond to these open-ended questions as they wish, and the researcher may probe these responses. This framework and flexibility of the responses constitute the semi-structured aspect of this method. It makes it unique among interview methods for the degree of relevancy it provides the topic while remaining responsive to the participant ( Bartholomew, Henderson, & Marcia, 2000 ).

Analytically, the SSI is characterized by comparing participants responses by item. Because all participants are asked the same questions in the same order, data collected are comparable, and may be numerically transformed and quantified.

The type of data derived from SSIs cannot be obtained using structured questionnaires, participant observation, or analysis of the literature, although SSIs may be combined with these other data collection strategies. Also, these data cannot be obtained through unstructured interviews, as unstructured interviews do not control the participant’s response; SSI participants’ responses are directed to specific areas of inquiry.

However, there is apparent confusion among researchers regarding what constitutes an SSI and its distinction from other types of interviews such as the guided interview. The guided interview reflects the structure of the research domain and lists the questions that will be asked of each participant. It does not focus the participants’ responses to any particular aspect of their experience and often begins with a grand tour question. Then, depending on a participant’s response, the researcher follows with a loosely organized list of questions. Responses are neither collected by item, nor does the analysis proceed item by item, but rather by theme or categorization. However, with the SSI, all questions are asked of all participants in the same order, and all data are analyzed systematically item-by-item,

The hybrid term in-depth semi-structured interviews also causes confusion and is unnecessary. While SSIs do provide the participants with the freedom to answer the open-ended questions using as much time as they wish, their responses are not often in-depth. Thus, in-depth, guided, and SSIs are disparate interview types that must not be conflated.

Situating SSIs

The evolution of the ssi.

The historical antecedent of the contemporary SSI was the “focused interview” conceived of, and procedurally advanced by Robert Merton and Patricia Kendall in 1946. The focused interview arose out of studies of the social and psychological effects of mass communications—radio, print, and film ( Merton & Kendall, 1946 ). Its initial purpose was to provide some basis for interpreting statistically significant effects of mass communications.

Merton and Kendall (1946) outline the character of such applications by examining the role of the focused interview at four distinct points: (a) specifying the effective stimulus, (b) interpreting discrepancies between anticipated and actual effects, (c) interpreting discrepancies between prevailing effects and effects among subgroups (i.e., “deviant cases”), and (d) interpreting processes involved in experimentally induced effects. These original roles of the focused interview constitute the antecedents for the contemporary types of SSIs that we will describe later.

The Empathetic Turn of the Interview

The “empathetic” turn of the interview refers to a shift in the interviewer’s perspective from a neutral, objective stance to one of political involvement. Fontana and Frey (2008) write,

Empathetic interviewing takes an ethical stance in favor of the individual or group being studied. The interviewer becomes an advocate and partner in the study, hoping to be able to use the results to advocate social policies and ameliorate the conditions of the interviewee. (p. 696)

Thus, the empathetic turn became a key catalyst in the diversification of SSIs.

Philosophical Foundation of the SSI

Traditionally, a mature method was defined in part by its adherence to a philosophical foundation, as, for instance, cultural theory that underpins ethnography (Richards & Morse, 2007). This requirement now appears to be changing and researchers have greater flexibility and may draw upon various underlying philosophical perspectives for their work. For instance, Charmaz (2009) suggested that grounded theory strategies may be used with other theoretical starting points and states that “few subscribe to symbolic inter-actionist theoretical orthodoxy” (p. 134). Similarly, Kvale (1996) observed that a “phenomenological approach in a general non-philosophical sense” is prevalent in qualitative research (p. 52). This non-adherence of qualitative research methods to a unitary and explicit philosophical foundation, however, does not mean that research practice is uninformed or not influenced by a variety of philosophical perspectives—or that it is underdeveloped ( Avis, 2003 ).

SSIs, as do all qualitative research methods, involve practices that develop, are molded, and mature with use. The emergence of various typologies of SSIs are, in part, distinguished by their unique philosophical influences derived from quantitative and qualitative paradigms—neo-positivism, dialectics, and phenomenology in particular. SSIs involve principles in practice ( Seale, Gobo, Gubrium, & Silverman, 2004 ). Such principles are not de-contextualized or abstracted from the research itself but appear as assumptions, and are reflected in the methodological strategies used. As research practice expands so, too, do the philosophical principles it draws from to guide it. Philosophical issues are similarly informed by research practice. In this way, both method and philosophy advance and mature. Therefore, SSIs as present day practice are informed by assumptions but do not adhere to a unitary, explicit philosophical foundation.

Affinity of SSIs to the Quantitative Paradigm

The focused interview was originally conjoined with experimental science, constituting the interpretive component to the statistical analysis. Contemporarily, the SSI maintains this affinity to the quantitative paradigm. It has the structure, sample size, and suitability for quantification that appeals to quantitative researchers and it is the most frequent qualitative method included in mixed-method research ( Bryman, 2006 ; Povee & Roberts, 2015 ). Similarly, the SSI method is more compatible with research ethic reviews that privilege quantitative research and the unpredictable emergent designs of in-depth interviews. Thus, the SSI has been able to accommodate the current political conditions that threaten other types of qualitative research.

A Typology of SSIs

A diversification of SSIs has paralleled its proliferation. Examination of studies that used the SSI as a method revealed different types of SSIs, differentiated according to purpose, epistemological privilege of established knowledge implicit in the interview guide or the knowledge of the participant(s), the role of the participants, and the outcome of the research. These characteristics enabled the construction of a typology (see Table 1 ).

Heuristic Typology of Semi-Structured Interviews.

Descriptive/confirmative

Historically, the focused interview aimed to augment experimental findings with subjective responses; the analytic component of the findings was augmented by this interpretive component. The descriptive/confirmative contemporary type of SSI most closely approximates this original interview role, with the purpose to obtain subjective responses to the objective knowledge, to test the hypothetical assumptions or theoretical frame. Although participants’ perspectives and experiences are important, they are most relevant for confirming the frame, so that this type of interview epistemologically privileges the known rather than the knower.

Thus, the outcome of the descriptive/confirmative type of SSIs is to confirm the objective knowledge of the interviewer’s frame. In the examples below, instruments or theories derived from prior scientific study are confirmed by the subjective responses of interview participants. These theories or instruments, now confirmed, may themselves be used as modes of clinical or social assessment or program evaluation. From a “pure” qualitative paradigm, this approach is risky, violating the qualitative edict not placing the researcher’s agenda onto the participant—which is a cardinal threat to validity. This research should therefore be evaluated carefully.

Descriptive/confirmative SSIs have been more recently used to assess the following: the usefulness of a research impact framework to capture the impact of health services and policy research ( Kuruvilla, Mays, & Walt, 2007 ), the relevance of “uncertainty reduction” theory to the experience of homeless teen mothers ( Scappaticci & Blay, 2009 ), the suitability of the disease-specific health-related quality of life instrument for use with patients after myocardial infarction ( Roebuck, Furze, & Thompson, 2001 ), and finally, the potential for the Osteoporotic pain program to increase patient’s insight, skills, and motivation to self help and possibly reduce pain ( Jensen & Harder, 2004 ).

Descriptive/corrective

Historically, a primary aim of the focused interview was to interpret discrepancies between anticipated and actual effects ( Merton & Kendall, 1946 ). Similarly, the purpose of the contemporary descriptive/corrective SSI is to evaluate the dominant discursive representation of an experience by comparing it with participants’ actual experiences. This type of interview uniquely juxtaposes what is known about an experience (i.e., established knowledge in the literature), or known only from the privileged perspectives of others (e.g., those persons who represent others, such as researchers reporting on the vulnerable, invisible groups), with the perspectives of those whose views are typically absent or under-represented and who have actual material knowledge of this experience. The word “disjuncture” ( Smith, 1990 ) refers to the discrepancies between the conceptualization and textual mediation of an experience with the actual material experience of participants.

The elucidation of disjuncture is not the intended outcome of this type of research but is, rather, the means to correction. The outcome of this interview research is to confirm, refute, or elaborate upon the assumptions of the frame. The intention is that the participants’ actual experiences of the phenomenon will act as a corrective to the assumptions in the dominant discourse and effect political action for change.

Evidencing a social constructivist approach, this type of interview epistemologically privileges both the knower and the known. Descriptive/corrective SSIs exemplify empathetic interviewing and hence are particularly useful to research with feminist and critical aims such as institutional ethnography, participatory action research and social movement research ( Blee & Taylor, 2002 ). The researcher and the participant collaborate to produce knowledge with which to effect political change.

Descriptive/corrective SSIs have juxtaposed the perspectives of mothers addicted to crack cocaine regarding mothering, with popular assumptions of such mothers ( Kearney, Murphy, & Rosenbaum, 1994 ); general physician’s explanatory models for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) with the explanatory models used by patients afflicted with the condition ( Casiday, Hungin, Cornford, deWit, & Blell, 2009a , 2009b ); and media and scientific representations of the female orgasm with women’s subjective thoughts and feelings regarding it ( Lavie-Ajayi & Joffe, 2009 ). Disjunctures were revealed and pointed to dominant assumptions or practices in need of revision or correction: Mothers addicted to crack uphold as strong commitments to mothering as mothers who are not addicted; physicians do not know the full impact of IBS on sufferers’ lives; women graft the importance of relational and emotive aspects of orgasm onto the scientifically driven representations of it.

Corrective action indicated by these disjunctures included greater sharing between physicians’ and patients such that medical interventions are informed by patient perspectives; the need for woman-centered policies and programs, including safe drug-free housing, health care, child care, education, and job assistance; and the laying bare of cultural and social norms associated with having orgasms such that the set of anxieties they produce might be reduced and this, in turn, may diminish women’s experience of having problems with orgasms ( Casiday et al., 2009a , 2009b ; Kearney et al., 1994 ; Lavie-Ajayi & Joffe, 2009 ).

Descriptive/interpretive

Historically, the aim of the focused interview was to elucidate the subjective response to the stimulus. The descriptive/interpretive contemporary type of SSI is exemplified by research with the aim of discovering the experiential world of the respondent within topical dimensions. SSIs are a viable option for researchers with parsimonious yet phenomenological aims. This type of interview epistemologically privileges the participant as knower. From the outset, the frame is acknowledged to be limited and subjective knowledge is critical to its expansion. Sometimes the limited knowledge of the frame is confirmed and expanded by participants’ perspectives; sometimes the frame is refuted by participants’ perspectives and gives rise to new categories, themes, and hypothesis with which to understand the experience.

Descriptive/interpretive interviews have been used to investigate the long-term impact of sudden infant death ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ), next-of-kin’s perceptions of end-of-life care ( Williams, Woodby, Bailey, & Burgio, 2008 ), maternal infanticides in Fiji ( Adinkrah, 2000 ), and influences on parents’ fever management—beliefs, experiences, and information sources ( Walsh, Edwards, & Fraser, 2007 ).

Discoveries that emerged from these interviews included the discovery that parents who have experienced the sudden death of an infant still view the death of their child as affecting their daily life in important ways 12 to 15 years after it happened ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ). Second, a critical discovery that emerged from the study investigating maternal infanticides in Fiji ( Adinkrah, 2000 ) was that, contrary to the legal definition of infanticide that presupposes postpartum depression in infanticidal behavior, unwanted pregnancies were the major precipitant for maternal neonaticides. Most “offenders” were young, poor, unmarried Fijian women with minimal formal education. This discovery leads to the hypothesis that if unwanted pregnancies were curtailed, the incidence of infanticide would decrease.

Descriptive/divergent

Historically, another application of the focused interview was to “interpret discrepancies between prevailing effects and effects among subgroups—deviant cases” ( Merton & Kendall, 1946 , p. 542). Contemporarily, the descriptive/divergent type of SSI applies the same interview guide to disparate groups of participants to discern differences and similarities in perspectives and experiences among them with respect to the dominant discourse that underpins the interview guide. The purpose of this type of interview is to contrast perspectives of different groups of knowers. This type of interview epistemologically privileges the knowers and seeks to discern their contrasting perspectives and experiences.

Descriptive/divergent SSIs have been used to investigate such topics as women’s attitudes toward technology (resistant versus flexible) and their childbirth experiences ( Kornelson, 2005 ), women’s attitudes toward postmenopausal long-term hormone therapy (five different types of users were identified who differed from each other in terms of their reasons for using hormones, their expectations of this type of therapy, and their personal habits and circumstances; Kolip, Hoefling-Engels, & Schmacke, 2009 ), elite women wrestlers’ muscles (senior wrestlers accepted the “athletic body” and muscularity with its social costs; junior wrestlers were “holding back” giving priority to the “private body”; Sisjord & Kristiansen, 2009 ), and lesbian versus gay activists’ attitudes toward transgender inclusion ( Stone, 2009 ).

The elucidation of divergent perspectives, attitudes, and experiences regarding phenomena enables deeper insight into various ways that people negotiate the personal and social contexts that shape human choices and experiences.

Constructing the SSI

Preparing the interview schedule.

SSIs are semi-standardized, and characterized by the design and utilization of this schedule. They are conducted using an interview questionnaire or schedule comprised of predetermined or scheduled primary questions or question stems, followed by subquestions or “probes.” It is important that these questions are open-ended and formulated to elicit unstructured responses and generate discussion. These questions are typically asked of each interviewee in the same way and in a systematic order, but the questions are semi-structured in that the interviewers are allowed freedom to diverge slightly from the script. There is some variability granted to the researcher within the limits of the intended replicability of the schedule to rephrase questions to elicit the pertinent information or to provide clarification ( Irvine, Drew, & Sainsbury, 2013 ). More important than the exact phrasing of the question is conveying equivalence of meaning to all participants ( Denzin, 1989 ). Furthermore, the interviewers are expected to probe within each participant’s responses ( Berg, 1989 ). These probes are intended to elaborate beyond the participant’s initial response. For example, probes such as “In what way . . . ?” or “Tell me . . . ?” or “Such as . . . ?” These dual qualities of replicability and flexibility yield pertinent as well as rich data.

Probes may be scheduled (scripted) appearing after the question stems on the questionnaire (to be asked after the initial participant response), or unscheduled arising from the dialogue. Unscheduled prompts are improvisational, and some researchers find that respondents more fully express their perspectives in response to the unscheduled prompts ( Berg, 1989 ).

Creating the SSI

To prepare the interview schedule, the researcher must (a) identify the domain of the topic under investigation including its boundaries, (b) identify the categories of the topic, and (c) identify the question stems. Once the questionnaire is drafted, it is critiqued and tested. A previously mentioned descriptive/interpretive SSI study will be used to illustrate this process. The particular study, conducted by Dyregrov and Dyregrov (1999) , sought to ascertain parents’ perspectives and experiences of the sudden death of their infants after the passage of a significant amount of time.

Identifying the domain of the topic

SSIs are used when the researcher knows enough about the topic to be able to identify the domain and the main components of the topics but is unable to anticipate all the possible answers ( Morse & Field, 1995 ). The more extensive the investigator’s knowledge, the more precisely can the aspects to be covered in the interview be outlined in advance and the more significant questions may be posed ( Kvale, 1996 ; Merton & Kendall, 1946 ).

Interviewers know in advance of constructing the interview which topics they wish to include and even some of the questions they wish to ask. This knowledge of the phenomenon may be variously acquired. Researchers may have initially observed or experienced the phenomenon. Spradley (1979) and Patton (1980) suggest that researchers prepare a preliminary outline listing all the broad categories they feel may be relevant to their study. Conducting a literature review is an essential component in ascertaining what is known about the phenomenon, using the literature in an “informed, skeptical, or comparative manner” ( Morse, 2003 , p. 891, Morse 2006 ) to maintain an inductive approach to questionnaire development. Knowledge about the phenomenon may also be derived from the researcher’s “conceptual baggage”—information acquired from clinical practice or prior fieldwork ( Kirby & McKenna, 1989 , p. 21). Thus, familiarity with the phenomenon is not exclusively derived from the literature but also from the researcher’s intuition, experience, and observation. Furthermore, the domain of the research topic is delimited by boundaries so that a specific aspect to be investigated is tightly circumscribed.

• Example : “Long-Term Impact of Sudden Infant Death” ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ): In this study, the domains of inquiry were, first, parents’ experiences and perspectives regarding the death of a child over time and, second, gender differences in parental response to death over time. The following boundaries delimited the topic, that is, indicated what would remain outside of the research domain: (a) Time—parents’ acute response to the recent death of infants; (b) Nature of death—infant death due to accident or intent.

Identifying the categories

Once the domain and its boundaries have been delineated, the researcher can focus within the domain to ascertain its categories. The domain is subdivided into categories established by their particular shared characteristics.

• Example : In the above mentioned study, the domain of parental response to infant death over time was subdivided into categories: (a) the experience of the cot death, (b) parental communication about the lost child over the years, and (c) the subjective meaning regarding the effects the loss of their child had over the 12 to 15 years. These categories were amassed from a literature review that included studies pertaining to the acute crisis reactions following the loss of an infant child, to family responses over time to an older child who dies of cancer, and the different patterns of paternal versus maternal grief response ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ).

Identifying the items

Items are then constructed from each of these conceptual categories. An item is defined as an individual article or unit that is part of a collection or set. These items form the main structure or question stems formulated for the interview schedule.

• Example : The following items were derived from the category pertaining to parental communication about the lost child over the years.

The parents were asked about how they had talked about and memorialized the child over the years (i.e., pictures, the grave, and celebration of birthdays), and if anyone in the family needed or wanted to talk about the dead child more than others and how did the rest of the family meet these demands? ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 , p. 641)

When the domain, categories, and question stems are determined, a chart can be constructed that depicts the domain, its categories, and the question stems, as well as the literature from which they were derived. This chart or “aide memoire” can be used as a resource interviewers may consult before or during the interview (depending upon whether the interviews are face-to-face or over the telephone) to remind them of the relevance of the question to the topic and its specific intent ( Irvine, Drew, & Sainsbury, 2013 ). This enables improvisational prompts that maintain congruency with the information intended by the question itself and can optimize the ascertainment of the information sought. This may be particularly useful to a novice researcher or to an experienced researcher in the early interviews of a new project. The chart used in the research example is shown in Table 2 .

Construction of Interview Schedule for Domain of Parental Responses to Sudden Death of Their Infant Over Time.

Writing the question stems

Lazarsfeld (1954) offers three principles to guide the construction of question stems: specification, division, and tacit assumption. These principles have been renamed and elaborated upon but these original principles still constitute the basis of question design ( Berg, 1989 ; Rubin & Rubin, 1995 ).

Specification refers to the focus of each question. This principle is easily achieved in the construction of question stems because they are derived from specific categories of the domain. The principle of division ensures that the questions stems are appropriately worded and sequenced. Questions need to be formulated to ensure they are adequately and clearly communicated. Many researchers choose zero order level of communication—that is, the wording of the questions and ideas conveyed are leveled to the least sophisticated of all potential respondents. Furthermore, affectively worded questions should be neutralized. Instead of asking “ Why did you . . . ?” ask “Can you tell me how you decided to . . . ?” Neutral questions, even when the content is sensitive, improve the likelihood of a full answer. Questions should be presented in a logical, possibly chronological, order ( Leech, 2002 ). Logical order means the interview should move from mild, non-threatening questions to more complex and sensitive questions as the interview proceeds. Questions should not be double-barreled but should address only one aspect of a category ( Berg, 1989 ). Finally, the principle of tacit assumption refers to the process of making explicit what is implicit in participants’ responses. This principle is accomplished via scheduled and unscheduled probes.

Questions collect data in implicit and explicit ways. Explicit data collection is the responses obtained. Implicit data collection is how questions motivate these responses by giving an impression of the interviewer—for example, questions convey the extent of the interviewer’s understanding of the topic area. This instills trust in the participant that he or she will be understood and may inspire fuller responses. The participant must always be kept in mind, therefore, when constructing the questions.

Piloting the interview schedule

Once the content and form of the questionnaire appear satisfactory, it should be subjected to critique or internal testing ( Mann, 1985 ) to ensure its cogency. The following questions may guide this assessment ( Chadwick, Bahr, & Albrecht, 1984 ):

• Has the researcher included all of the questions necessary?
• Do the questions elicit the types of response that were anticipated?
• Is the language of the research instrument meaningful to the respondents?
• Are there other problems with the questions, such as double meaning or multiple issues embedded in a single question?
• Are the questions in logical order?
• Finally, does the interview guide, as developed, help to motivate respondents to participate in the study?

Testing allows the interview schedule to be rehearsed in mock conditions that closely approximate the actual to amend it before main data collection. Pre-testing also allows the prospective interviewers to rehearse their interview performance. How participants respond to questions, whether the questions elicit the intended information, and the interviewers’ capacity to collect data are illuminated by this process such that amendments may be made in advance of actual interviews.

As a Stand Alone Method

The interview schedule can be administered via written questionnaire, electronically (via chat rooms, virtual spaces, electronic mail), face-to-face, over the telephone, and as a component of a quantitative questionnaire ( Fontana & Prokos, 2007 ). The following section identifies the relative advantages and disadvantages of each of these modes of administration.

Face-to-face

The face-to-face administration of the SSI has both advantages and disadvantages ( Shuy, 2001 ). Among the advantages are the following: (a) The presence of the interviewer gives structure to the interview situation. Communication is optimized because both verbal and non-verbal communication is possible. More complex interview schedules are possible as the interviewer may clarify questions if the participant appears confused and unscheduled prompts that elicit clearer and more elaborate responses from participants may be improvised. In addition, visual aids may be presented to respondents to ascertain their perspectives. (b) The physical presence of the interviewer may allow him or her to discern any discomfort or unease on the part of the respondent and offer a break or emotional support, hence face-to-face may be a more ethical way to conduct the research.

Disadvantages may include the following: (a) Participants feel inhibited when asked to respond to sensitive questions face-to-face—more socially desirable answers and conventional answers may be given than when a self-administered questionnaire is utilized. (b) Unwanted interviewer affect is maximized in this type of interview. For example, the physical presence such as the appearance of the interviewer is known to affect respondents and their answers. The face-to-face interview maximizes the influence of the interviewer such that the responses from participants are very similar. (c) Conducting this type of interview is costly in terms of time and money. Fewer face-to-face interviews can be completed in a given time period than via other modalities, for example, Internet or telephone ( de Leeuw, 2008 ).

Telephone interviews

The advantages of telephone administered SSIs include (a) enhanced accessibility to hard-to-reach populations such as those who are elderly, infirm, live in geographically remote locations, and for those who must participate surreptitiously, for example, women experiencing abuse; (b) exclusive auditory communication, that is, absence of visual cues means that any barriers are removed, for example, preconceived ideas about the interviewer caused by their appearance that may impede participants from fully expressing their perspectives; (c) telephone interviews may encompass a large geographic area including countries and continents; (d) they are less costly in terms of time and labor and are therefore more efficient. Furthermore, more interviews may be conducted in a given time period than might not be feasible with face-to-face interviews. Disadvantages include the following: (a) Recruitment may be compromised if prospective participants must pay long distance telephone charges to enroll or find out more information about a study, and (b) recruitment may be compromised if only participants who have access to a telephone or telephone coverage may participate ( Liamputtong, 2007 ).

Using the Internet

The Internet is a medium for self-administered semi-structured questionnaires as well as conducting the interviews themselves (Fontana & Frey, 2005). The advantages of electronic modes of administration include the following: (a) Privacy—Some sensitive topic research suggests that people prefer the anonymity of the computer, than disclosing face-to-face ( DiLillo, DeGue, Kras, Loreto-Colgan, & Nash, 2006 ). Although electronic mail makes identity difficult to protect, participants (including the interviewer) in interviews in virtual worlds such as Second Life may assume an avatar identity. (b) Recruitment—The Internet allows for fast collection of large numbers of questionnaires at low cost, and exploding the potential for global recruitment. The disadvantages may include the following: (a) Distress—Although participants may disclose more information in a self-administered questionnaire, some report feeling more distressed than when answering questions face-to-face with an interviewer ( Halek, Murdoch, & Fortier, 2005 ). As the participant is not immediately accessible, the researcher cannot immediately respond therapeutically. (b) Recruitment—Not all prospective participants have access to the Internet. However, electronic administration provides an opportunity to those participants precluded from more typical modes of participation because of disability, age, or geographic isolation. (c) Data collection—Many people may “lurk” or not give the questionnaire adequate time; Internet questionnaires must be short, with less than 10 to 15 minutes to complete ( de Leeuw, 2008 ). (d) Design of questionnaire—The design and implementation of Internet semi-structured questionnaires require highly skilled personnel who combine technical knowledge as well as knowledge on usability and visual design. This increases the cost of this mode of administration ( de Leeuw, 2008 ).

As components of a quantitative questionnaire

SSIs may also be administered as a component of a quantitative questionnaire. This mixed design may combine the advantages of two administration strategies. The quantitative questionnaire serves as an objective instrument, the findings of which may be triangulated with the perspectives of the respondent in response to the open-ended questions of the interview. The timing of the administration of the questionnaire with respect to the interview may be critical—closed-ended questions posed first may inhibit more complete responses to those posed during the interview.

The data from SSIs have also been used in the creation of quantitative instruments. For example, the content analysis of data derived from qualitative studies yields categories that are useful to the construction of a questionnaire. For example, Morse and Doan (1987) conducted a qualitative study to ascertain adolescent girls’ perspectives regarding menarche. Researchers used the data derived from that study in the construction of the Likert-type scale items for an adolescent menstrual attitude questionnaire ( Morse, Kieren, & Bottorff, 1993 ).

Sample size for data adequacy

Sampling for SSI research must be guided by the following principle to ensure the data collected are adequate. A minimum of 30 participants is recommended for initial recruitment to ensure adequate data collection. Adequacy of data in this type of research is defined in both qualitative (i.e., the depth of data collected) and quantitative terms (i.e., the number of datum collected). 1 SSI data may be thin. Although participants know they are free to respond to questions as they wish, they are also aware that they are to respond to scheduled questions. Hence, participants may respond to categorical questions in kind. The complexity or simplicity of responses is also related to the topic of investigation, the mode of administration of the interview schedule (face-to-face may facilitate more elaborate responses than online or self-completed questionnaires), the participants (whether they are willing, reflective, articulate), the ability of the interviewer to draw people out, and how motivating the questions are for participants’ responses.

The second aspect of adequacy, however, is the sufficiency of the data for quantitative analysis. Because SSI data are collected with an interview schedule in which each participant is asked the same questions, data analysis proceeds by item. Such analysis is amenable to non-parametric statistical analysis ( Morse, 1992 ). A sample size of 30 is the minimum number recommended for such statistical analysis to be meaningful. Finally, in addition to qualitative and quantitative analysis, data derived from SSIs may be used in a mixed-method design, for example, a QUAL-quan sequential mixed-method design in which the qualitative data are transformed for quantitative analysis. In this case, the QUAL sample size needs to be minimally 30 for adequacy of the quantitative analysis ( Morse & Niehaus, 2009 ).

Sampling for appropriate data

The second principle to guide SSI sampling ensures the collection of appropriate data; that is, data that are representative of the phenomenon under investigation. Sampling for SSI research is purposive; therefore, participants for SSIs are selected because of their particular experiences, perspectives, or expertise, and not because they are demographically representative of the larger population ( Blee & Taylor, 2002 ; Rubin & Rubin, 1995 ). Purposive sampling is essential to SSI research to optimize valid findings that may be extended to other arenas. This is contrary to the literature that cites conscious bias as a constant danger with purposive sampling and advises that findings from studies that employ it be regarded with caution ( LoBiondo-Wood & Haber, 2005 ). There are various strategies to purposively sample: convenient (eligibility criteria are posted and the first volunteers who meet it comprise the sample), snowball (people with inside knowledge of eligible participants connect them with the research project), homogeneous (people who are very similar), and variable (participants who represent the full scope of the domain).

• Example : In the study that investigated the long-term impact of sudden infant death ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ), the purposive sample was comprised of participants who had lost a child to SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) between 1981 and 1984. The participants were people who were married couples at the time of the death of their child and who had previously been interviewed approximately 1 year after their loss. The couples were heterosexual to meet the dimension of gender important to the analysis of grief response.

Data Analysis

As noted, the objective of SSI research is to elicit and ascertain participants’ perspectives to confirm, correct, or discover new knowledge pertaining to the focus of inquiry. Therefore, the analysis of SSI data is designed to provide a comprehensive and accurate descriptive summary of participants’ perspectives. Unlike other research methods such as grounded theory or phenomenology, neither are SSI data usually abstracted into theory, nor are they mined to discern the essence of participants’ experience. Analysis remains close to the data.

Data analysis proceeds by (a) preparing the data for analysis, (b) conducting content analysis, and (c) if desired and the sample size is adequate, transforming the textual data into numerical data.

Preparation of the data for analysis

Preparing the interview data for content analysis involves the transcription of audio files to text, and importing transcripts into Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis (CAQDA) software ( Lewins & Silver, 2007 ).

Transcription

When having an audiotape transcribed, it is crucial that the tape be transcribed exactly (word-for-word) from the tape and not paraphrased. Identifying information that may compromise the privacy of the participants and/or those to whom they refer during the interview can be removed at this time to maintain confidentiality. If the researcher requires, symbols may be utilized to indicate the tone of the voice (e.g., tears, laughter, expletives), with pauses or gaps indicated by dashes or ellipses and emotion indicated by square brackets, for example, [fearfully]. All pages of the transcript are numbered and the participant number is placed before each item number ( Morse & Field, 1995 ). Once the transcript is returned from the typist, the content is checked against the audiotape to ensure accuracy of the data. If qualitative data software is to be used, a program that is capable of categorizing data by item, and then sorting/categorizing according to the research codes, should be selected.

Conducting content analysis 2

The purpose of content analysis is to sort and summarize the informational content of the data, by item and by common characteristics within the data.

Qualitative content analysis

The first task is to derive codes from the data. The researcher works by item, first reading all participants’ responses to the same question. The researcher then uses standard coding procedure, highlighting important words or phrases, and making notes in the margin that emphasize important features in each response.

Once the researcher grasps the commonalities appearing in each response, the sorting process begins. Initially, keeping the categories broad, data are sorted according to similar characteristics and, once these categories become “cluttered” and lengthy, they are subdivided into smaller categories. Ideally, more that one researcher should code data, and inter-rater agreement calculated to determine reliability ( Campbell, Quincey, Osserman, & Pedersen, 2013 ). A definition is developed and assigned to each category and a synthesizing statement about each category and subcategory is written.

Data transformation

Quantification or counting is not incongruous with, but integral to, qualitative research ( Morgan, 1993 ; Morse, 2012; Sandelowski, 2000 ). Because every participant has been asked the same question in the same order, SSIs are amenable to counting by participant ( Morse & Niehaus, 2009 ). The different types of responses to each categorical question stem may be tabulated and the responses expressed as percentages, frequencies, or non-parametric statistics, with the n (the sample size), as the total number of participants. Quantification, or displaying information numerically, allows patterns to emerge from the data with greater clarity ( Sandelowski, 2000 ). Descriptive statistics such as calculating frequencies, relative frequencies, and means may be employed to discern, describe, and summarize such patterns—analytically and ideographically—if they exist, in the qualitative data. Non-parametric statistics may reveal relationship between items.

Mixed-method design

SSIs are the most common qualitative research method to be used in mixed-method designs—those that integrate qualitative and quantitative research ( Bryman, 2006 ; Morse, 2012; Povee & Roberts, 2015 ). Indeed, every SSI study, therefore, may itself constitute a qualitatively driven, mixed-method design through the internal transformation of its data set from qualitatively analyzed textual data into numerical data for quantitative analysis ( Morse & Niehaus, 2009 ).

• Example : The study by Dyregrov and Dyregrov (1999) could have been a QUAL-quan mixed-method design. The interviews were conducted to ascertain participants’ perspectives and experiences regarding the death of their infants over time. Once the content of these responses have been qualitatively analyzed (i.e., coded and sorted for the purpose of describing and summarizing the responses), they could have been transformed from textual data to numerical data for the purpose of supplementary quasi-statistical analysis by non-parametric statistics.

Transforming textual data to numerical data

If researchers want to supplement the core qualitative analysis of the interview data with a quantitative component they must transform the textual interview data into numerical data. This transformation of data occurs after the qualitative content analysis is completed—that is, the supplemental component is conducted as a sequel.

First, however, a codebook must be created. This is accomplished by revisiting the categories that have emerged from the coding of data for each question. These categories as well as the inclusion and exclusion criteria and an example (from the data) of a code that belongs to it are entered as headers in the codebook. These categories are then tested against all the data that belong to each item. The categories must be discrete and comprehensive—all the data must fit into one of the categories. Different coders complete the process of tabulating data within the categories. Inter-rater reliability refers to the degree of confluence that exists among independent raters. Once the codebook is satisfactory, tabulation occurs—This results in frequency of categorical responses per participant. It is the establishment of frequencies that transforms the data from text to numbers. From these frequencies, other descriptive statistics such as relative frequencies may be calculated. With these numbers, non-parametric statistics such as chi-square may be used. The chi-square independence test is useful in determining whether there is an association or statistical dependence between two characteristics of a population.

• Example : While investigating parental responses to the death of their infants over time ( Dyregrov & Dyregrov, 1999 ), a pattern was discerned—marital communication about the death of their infant appeared to be correlated with less intense grieving; conversely, couples who did not communicate about their infant’s death experienced more intense grief. Tabulating the frequencies of categories pertaining to communication as well as those associated with grief reactions would make the data amenable to chi-square statistical analysis to discern whether or not a statistically significant relationship exists between these experiences.

Once the results of the quantitative supplementary component have been calculated, they serve to augment the results of the core component.

Results of SSI research constitute descriptive summaries that are valuable primarily as end-products and, secondarily, as entry points for future study. The end-product is knowledge—either confirmation or correction of that which already exists or discovery of new knowledge. Results of SSI research may seem simple, that is, “mere” concrete description rather than abstract and theoretical. But this is deceptive—such research results are key pivots to the advancement of knowledge. This advancement of knowledge is far-reaching, influencing multiple disciplines and typologies of knowledge. SSIs advance critical, feminist, phenomenological, and mixed methodological aims.

In this article, we have discussed how the SSI has developed from a research strategy to a prevalent and diversified research method. We traced the historical development of the SSI from its inception as a focused interview through its advancement via significant social, cultural, and historical moments. Such moments included the empathetic turn in interviewing, the contemporary privileging of quantitative research, and concomitantly the norming of research ethics review. Contemporary research methods adopt various philosophical assumptions rather than maintaining a tight theory-method commitment to a solitary philosophical foundation. SSI research is epistemologically versatile and compatible with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method approaches. We advance a typology of SSIs that may be used as a strategy in an overall research design, a sequential or simultaneous supplement to the core in mixed- or multiple-method research, or it can constitute a single data set mixed-method design and it can stand alone.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dr. D. Jean Clandinin for her assistance with this research.

Author Biographies

Michele J. McIntosh is an Assistant Professor at the Trent-Fleming School of Nursing, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. A predominantly interpretive scholar, she is keenly interested in qualitative research methodologies, strategies and ethics.

Janice M. Morse , is a Professor and the Barnes Presidential Chair, College of Nursing, University of Utah, and Professor Emeritus, University of Alberta.

1. If the “free-flow” of information is reduced, as it is in semistructured interviews, the amount of data obtained from each participant is more limited, hence, the number of participants must be increased to obtain data adequacy (Morse, 2000). A sample N = 30 for semi-structured interviews is derived from several sources. In marketing research, Griffin and Hauser (1993) note that an N of 20-30 reduces the possibility of “missing” a minority opinion. Should the researchers wish to transform data and report quantitative results for the interviews, data averages will be more stable, and non-parametric analyses stronger, with a sample size of 30 or more ( Bond & Fox, 2013 ).

2. Some authors conduct thematic analysis (see, for example, Riera et al., 2015 ; Wiley, Cooper, Wood, & Leask, 2015 ). In this case, researchers override the item structure of the semi-structured interview, and look for themes in the participant responses across all items and interviews by analyzing line-by-line. When using a thematic analysis, it is not possible to transform these data quantitatively.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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6 Semi-structured interviewing

• Published: June 2005
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This chapter presents a guide to conducting effective semi-structured interviews. It discusses the nature of semi-structured interviews and why they should be used, as well as preparation, the logistics of conducting the interview, and reflexivity.

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Methodology

Semi-Structured Interview | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on January 27, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.

A semi-structured interview is a data collection method that relies on asking questions within a predetermined thematic framework. However, the questions are not set in order or in phrasing.

In research, semi-structured interviews are often qualitative in nature. They are generally used as an exploratory tool in marketing, social science, survey methodology, and other research fields.

They are also common in field research with many interviewers, giving everyone the same theoretical framework, but allowing them to investigate different facets of the research question .

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order.
• Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
• Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

Table of contents

What is a semi-structured interview, when to use a semi-structured interview, advantages of semi-structured interviews, disadvantages of semi-structured interviews, semi-structured interview questions, how to conduct a semi-structured interview, how to analyze a semi-structured interview, presenting your results (with example), other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about semi-structured interviews.

Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured types of interviews.

• Unlike in an unstructured interview, the interviewer has an idea of what questions they will ask.
• Unlike in a structured interview, the phrasing and order of the questions is not set.

Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility. Asking set questions in a set order allows for easy comparison between respondents, but it can be limiting. Having less structure can help you see patterns, while still allowing for comparisons between respondents.

Semi-structured interviews are best used when:

• You have prior interview experience. Spontaneous questions are deceptively challenging, and it’s easy to accidentally ask a leading question or make a participant uneasy.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. Participant answers can guide future research questions and help you develop a more robust knowledge base for future research.

Just like in structured interviews, it is critical that you remain organized and develop a system for keeping track of participant responses. However, since the questions are less set than in a structured interview, the data collection and analysis become a bit more complex.

Differences between different types of interviews

Make sure to choose the type of interview that suits your research best. This table shows the most important differences between the four types.

Semi-structured interviews come with many advantages.

Best of both worlds

No distractions, detail and richness.

However, semi-structured interviews also have their downsides.

Low validity

High risk of research bias, difficult to develop good semi-structured interview questions.

Since they are often open-ended in style, it can be challenging to write semi-structured interview questions that get you the information you’re looking for without biasing your responses. Here are a few tips:

• Define what areas or topics you will be focusing on prior to the interview. This will help you write a framework of questions that zero in on the information you seek.
• Write yourself a guide to refer to during the interview, so you stay focused. It can help to start with the simpler questions first, moving into the more complex ones after you have established a comfortable rapport.
• Be as clear and concise as possible, avoiding jargon and compound sentences.
• How often per week do you go to the gym? a) 1 time; b) 2 times; c) 3 times; d) 4 or more times
• If yes: What feelings does going to the gym bring out in you?
• If no: What do you prefer to do instead?
• If yes: How did this membership affect your job performance? Did you stay longer in the role than you would have if there were no membership?

Once you’ve determined that a semi-structured interview is the right fit for your research topic , you can proceed with the following steps.

Step 1: Set your goals and objectives

You can use guiding questions as you conceptualize your research question, such as:

• What are you trying to learn or achieve from a semi-structured interview?
• Why are you choosing a semi-structured interview as opposed to a different type of interview, or another research method?

If you want to proceed with a semi-structured interview, you can start designing your questions.

Step 2: Design your questions

Try to stay simple and concise, and phrase your questions clearly. If your topic is sensitive or could cause an emotional response, be mindful of your word choices.

One of the most challenging parts of a semi-structured interview is knowing when to ask follow-up or spontaneous related questions. For this reason, having a guide to refer back to is critical. Hypothesizing what other questions could arise from your participants’ answers may also be helpful.

Step 3: Assemble your participants

There are a few sampling methods you can use to recruit your interview participants, such as:

• Voluntary response sampling : For example, sending an email to a campus mailing list and sourcing participants from responses.
• Stratified sampling of a particular characteristic trait of interest to your research, such as age, race, ethnicity, or gender identity.

Step 4: Decide on your medium

It’s important to determine ahead of time how you will be conducting your interview. You should decide whether you’ll be conducting it live or with a pen-and-paper format. If conducted in real time, you also need to decide if in person, over the phone, or via videoconferencing is the best option for you.

Note that each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages:

• Pen-and-paper may be easier for you to organize and analyze, but you will receive more prepared answers, which may affect the reliability of your data.
• In-person interviews can lead to nervousness or interviewer effects, where the respondent feels pressured to respond in a manner they believe will please you or incentivize you to like them.

Step 5: Conduct your interviews

As you conduct your interviews, keep environmental conditions as constant as you can to avoid bias. Pay attention to your body language (e.g., nodding, raising eyebrows), and moderate your tone of voice.

Relatedly, one of the biggest challenges with semi-structured interviews is ensuring that your questions remain unbiased. This can be especially challenging with any spontaneous questions or unscripted follow-ups that you ask your participants.

After you’re finished conducting your interviews, it’s time to analyze your results. First, assign each of your participants a number or pseudonym for organizational purposes.

The next step in your analysis is to transcribe the audio or video recordings. You can then conduct a content or thematic analysis to determine your categories, looking for patterns of responses that stand out to you and test your hypotheses .

Transcribing interviews

Before you get started with transcription, decide whether to conduct verbatim transcription or intelligent verbatim transcription.

• If pauses, laughter, or filler words like “umm” or “like” affect your analysis and research conclusions, conduct verbatim transcription and include them.
• If not, you can conduct intelligent verbatim transcription, which excludes fillers, fixes any grammatical issues, and is usually easier to analyze.

Transcribing presents a great opportunity for you to cleanse your data . Here, you can identify and address any inconsistencies or questions that come up as you listen.

Your supervisor might ask you to add the transcriptions to the appendix of your paper.

Coding semi-structured interviews

Next, it’s time to conduct your thematic or content analysis . This often involves “coding” words, patterns, or recurring responses, separating them into labels or categories for more robust analysis.

Due to the open-ended nature of many semi-structured interviews, you will most likely be conducting thematic analysis, rather than content analysis.

• You closely examine your data to identify common topics, ideas, or patterns. This can help you draw preliminary conclusions about your participants’ views, knowledge or experiences.
• After you have been through your responses a few times, you can collect the data into groups identified by their “code.” These codes give you a condensed overview of the main points and patterns identified by your data.
• Next, it’s time to organize these codes into themes. Themes are generally broader than codes, and you’ll often combine a few codes under one theme. After identifying your themes, make sure that these themes appropriately represent patterns in responses.

Analyzing semi-structured interviews

Once you’re confident in your themes, you can take either an inductive or a deductive approach.

• An inductive approach is more open-ended, allowing your data to determine your themes.
• A deductive approach is the opposite. It involves investigating whether your data confirm preconceived themes or ideas.

After your data analysis, the next step is to report your findings in a research paper .

• Your methodology section describes how you collected the data (in this case, describing your semi-structured interview process) and explains how you justify or conceptualize your analysis.
• Your discussion and results sections usually address each of your coded categories.
• You can then conclude with the main takeaways and avenues for further research.

Example of interview methodology for a research paper

Let’s say you are interested in vegan students on your campus. You have noticed that the number of vegan students seems to have increased since your first year, and you are curious what caused this shift.

You identify a few potential options based on literature:

• Perceptions about personal health or the perceived “healthiness” of a vegan diet
• Concerns about animal welfare and the meat industry
• Increased climate awareness, especially in regards to animal products
• Availability of more vegan options, making the lifestyle change easier

Anecdotally, you hypothesize that students are more aware of the impact of animal products on the ongoing climate crisis, and this has influenced many to go vegan. However, you cannot rule out the possibility of the other options, such as the new vegan bar in the dining hall.

Since your topic is exploratory in nature and you have a lot of experience conducting interviews in your work-study role as a research assistant, you decide to conduct semi-structured interviews.

You have a friend who is a member of a campus club for vegans and vegetarians, so you send a message to the club to ask for volunteers. You also spend some time at the campus dining hall, approaching students at the vegan bar asking if they’d like to participate.

Here are some questions you could ask:

• Do you find vegan options on campus to be: excellent; good; fair; average; poor?
• How long have you been a vegan?
• Follow-up questions can probe the strength of this decision (i.e., was it overwhelmingly one reason, or more of a mix?)

Depending on your participants’ answers to these questions, ask follow-ups as needed for clarification, further information, or elaboration.

• Do you think consuming animal products contributes to climate change? → The phrasing implies that you, the interviewer, do think so. This could bias your respondents, incentivizing them to answer affirmatively as well.
• What do you think is the biggest effect of animal product consumption? → This phrasing ensures the participant is giving their own opinion, and may even yield some surprising responses that enrich your analysis.

After conducting your interviews and transcribing your data, you can then conduct thematic analysis, coding responses into different categories. Since you began your research with several theories about campus veganism that you found equally compelling, you would use the inductive approach.

Once you’ve identified themes and patterns from your data, you can draw inferences and conclusions. Your results section usually addresses each theme or pattern you found, describing each in turn, as well as how often you came across them in your analysis. Feel free to include lots of (properly anonymized) examples from the data as evidence, too.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

A semi-structured interview is a blend of structured and unstructured types of interviews. Semi-structured interviews are best used when:

• You have prior interview experience. Spontaneous questions are deceptively challenging, and it’s easy to accidentally ask a leading question or make a participant uncomfortable.

The four most common types of interviews are:

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order. 
• Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

Inductive reasoning is a bottom-up approach, while deductive reasoning is top-down.

Inductive reasoning takes you from the specific to the general, while in deductive reasoning, you make inferences by going from general premises to specific conclusions.

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Unstructured and Semistructured Interviewing

This chapter gives an introduction to qualitative interviewing in its unstructured and semistructured forms. Initially, the human world is depicted as a conversational reality in which interviewing takes a central position as a research method. Interviewing is presented as a social practice that has a cultural history and that appears in a variety of formats in the 21st century. A number of distinctions are introduced, which are relevant when mapping the field of qualitative interviewing between different levels of structure, numbers of participants, media of interviewing, and interviewer styles. A more detailed exposition of semistructured lifeworld interviewing is offered because this is arguably the standard form of qualitative interviewing today.

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This chapter gives an introduction to qualitative interviewing in its unstructured and semistructured forms. Initially, the human world is depicted as a conversational reality in which interviewing takes a central position as a research method. Interviewing is presented as a social practice that has a cultural history and that today appears in a variety of different formats. A number of distinctions are introduced, which are relevant when mapping the field of qualitative interviewing between different levels of structure, numbers of participants, media of interviewing, and also interviewer styles. A more detailed exposition of semistructured life world interviewing is offered because this is arguably the standard form of qualitative interviewing today.

Pengembangan E-modul Berbasis Smartphone Pada Materi Integral Tak Tentu Berorientasi Keterampilan Abad Ke-21

Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menghasilkan aplikasi e-modul berbasis smartphone pada materi integral tak tentu berorientasi keterampilan abad ke-21 yang valid, praktis, dan efektif. Penelitian menggunakan metode Research and Development (R&D) dari Borg dan Gall yang dimodifikasi menjadi enam langkah. Hasil penelitian menyatakan bahwa hasil skor validasi ahli materi sebesar 4.2 termasuk kategori valid, ahli media diperoleh 3.8 termasuk kategori valid dan guru matematika diperoleh 3.7 termasuk kategori valid. Sedangkan hasil efektivitas diperoleh dari persentase ketuntasan 70% dengan kategori tinggi, dan n-gain sebesar 0,7682 termasuk kategori interpretasi tinggi. Lebih jauh, hasil praktis diperoleh 44.55 jumlah rata-rata skor pernyataan yang termasuk kategori sangat praktis dan 39.80 jumlah rata-rata skor pernyataan yang termasuk kategori praktis. Berdasarkan hasil tersebut maka dapat disimpulkan bahwa pengembangan aplikasi e-modul berbasis smartphone merupakan media yang valid, praktis, dan efektif. Abstract: The research aims to produce a valid, practical, and effective smartphone-based e-module applications 21st-century skills-oriented integral material. The Research method was developmental research (R&D) according to Borg and Gall which was modified into six steps. The results of the research show that the validity of material experts score is 4.2 (valid category), media experts obtained is 3.8 (valid category) and the mathematics teacher score is 3.7 (valid category). While the effectiveness results obtained from the percentage of completeness of 70% with a high category and n-gain of 0.7682 including the high interpretation category. As well as the practical results obtained 44.55 the average number of statements in the very practical category and 39.80 the average number of statements in the practical category. Based on these results it can be concluded that the development of smartphone-based e-module applications is a valid, practical, and effective medium.

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Inadequate Dietary Education and Poor Adherence to a High Protein, Low Sodium Diet in Cirrhosis: Mixed Methods Approach

• Original Article
• Published: 28 June 2024

Cite this article

• Cristal Brown 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 ,
• Rabecca Hernandez 1   na1 ,
• Ty Ford 1   na1 ,
• Nazan Aksan 1 ,
• Clara DiVincenzo 1 , 2 , 4 &
• Andrew J. Muir 3  

Malnutrition in cirrhosis is associated with poor outcomes, leading to guidelines for a high protein, low sodium diet; however, there is no guidance regarding the implementation of diet education in clinical practice.

A mixed methods study enrolled 21 patients with cirrhosis and their caregivers. Semi-structured interviews on barriers and facilitators of dietary education and adherence were conducted. Demographic and clinical data were obtained, along with quantitative measures of dietary adherence, including 24-h food recall and spot urine sodium. Combined deductive and inductive coding was used to identify qualitative themes, along with a quantitative assessment of interviews. Quantitative data was reported using descriptive statistics with frequencies, mean and confidence intervals.

Participants were mostly male (16/21) with a mean age 57.8 years (SE 2.8) and MELD-Na 9 (SE 1.2). 4 themes emerged: 1. More than 50% of participants and caregivers endorsed no or inadequate diet education 2. They reported mostly negative experiences with dietary adherence with largest impact on social life 3. Facilitators of adherence included the presence of household support and fear of complications of cirrhosis 4. Overwhelmingly desired non-generic handouts and information. Dietary adherence was poor with only one participant meeting protein and sodium requirements based on food recall. Four participants who adhered to < 2000 mg sodium had inadequate daily caloric intake.

Conclusions

Dietary education is inadequate, and adherence to dietary recommendations is poor in patients with cirrhosis. Future studies should use these barriers and facilitators for intervention development.

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Data Availability

No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Automated self-administered dietary assessment

Body mass index

Extracellular water

International normalized ratio of prothrombin time

Kilocalories

Karnofsky performance scale

Metabolic-dysfunction associated steatotic liver disease

Model for end-stage liver disease-sodium score

Basal metabolic rate

Total body water

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Katherine Sebastian, Senior Research Program Manager for UT Austin Dell Medical School, for her assistance with the IRB process, review of study materials and administrative support throughout this study. Your experience and insights were invaluable in the success of this project.

This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health under Award Number 1 K12 TR004529-01, and with the Cambia Health Foundation Sojourns Scholar Leadership Award.

Author information

Rabecca Hernandez and Ty Ford share the second author position for equal contributions to the data analysis and manuscript development.

Authors and Affiliations

Dell Medical School, University of Texas at Austin, 1601 Trinity St., Building B, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

Cristal Brown, Rabecca Hernandez, Ty Ford, Nazan Aksan & Clara DiVincenzo

Ascension Medical Group, 1601 Trinity St., Building B, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

Cristal Brown & Clara DiVincenzo

Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, 300 W Morgan St., Durham, NC, 27701, USA

Andrew J. Muir

University of Texas Health Austin, 1601 Trinity St Building A, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

University of Texas at Austin, Health Discovery Building 1601 Trinity St Z0900, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

Cristal Brown

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Contributions

Cristal Brown : Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Original Draft, formal analysis, Visualization, Supervision, Funding Acquisition. Rabecca-Kimberly Hernandez : Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing-Original Draft, Project administration. Ty Ford : Formal analysis, Writing- Original Draft. Nazan Aksan : Formal analysis, Writing- Original Draft, Visualization. Clara DiVincenzo : Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing-Review & Editing. Andrew J. Muir : Writing- Review & Editing, Supervision.

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Correspondence to Cristal Brown .

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This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC) and the University of Texas at Austin’s Institutional Review Board.

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Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Brown, C., Hernandez, R., Ford, T. et al. Inadequate Dietary Education and Poor Adherence to a High Protein, Low Sodium Diet in Cirrhosis: Mixed Methods Approach. Dig Dis Sci (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-024-08526-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10620-024-08526-2

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Unstructured and semi-structured interviewing

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• PMID: 27707390
• DOI: 10.7748/nr.1.3.23.s4

At first glance, the idea of collecting data through some kind of interviewing can seem an attractively easy one; it is just talking to people, asking questions and recording the answers. The would-be researcher quickly discovers, however, that interviewing can be a complex and daunting undertaking.

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