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• Published: 06 April 2020

The influence of education on health: an empirical assessment of OECD countries for the period 1995–2015

• Viju Raghupathi 1 &
• Wullianallur Raghupathi 2  

Archives of Public Health volume  78 , Article number:  20 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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A clear understanding of the macro-level contexts in which education impacts health is integral to improving national health administration and policy. In this research, we use a visual analytic approach to explore the association between education and health over a 20-year period for countries around the world.

Using empirical data from the OECD and the World Bank for 26 OECD countries for the years 1995–2015, we identify patterns/associations between education and health indicators. By incorporating pre- and post-educational attainment indicators, we highlight the dual role of education as both a driver of opportunity as well as of inequality.

Adults with higher educational attainment have better health and lifespans compared to their less-educated peers. We highlight that tertiary education, particularly, is critical in influencing infant mortality, life expectancy, child vaccination, and enrollment rates. In addition, an economy needs to consider potential years of life lost (premature mortality) as a measure of health quality.

Conclusions

We bring to light the health disparities across countries and suggest implications for governments to target educational interventions that can reduce inequalities and improve health. Our country-level findings on NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training) rates offer implications for economies to address a broad array of vulnerabilities ranging from unemployment, school life expectancy, and labor market discouragement. The health effects of education are at the grass roots-creating better overall self-awareness on personal health and making healthcare more accessible.

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Introduction

Is education generally associated with good health? There is a growing body of research that has been exploring the influence of education on health. Even in highly developed countries like the United States, it has been observed that adults with lower educational attainment suffer from poor health when compared to other populations [ 36 ]. This pattern is attributed to the large health inequalities brought about by education. A clear understanding of the health benefits of education can therefore serve as the key to reducing health disparities and improving the well-being of future populations. Despite the growing attention, research in the education–health area does not offer definitive answers to some critical questions. Part of the reason is the fact that the two phenomena are interlinked through life spans within and across generations of populations [ 36 ], thereby involving a larger social context within which the association is embedded. To some extent, research has also not considered the variances in the education–health relationship through the course of life or across birth cohorts [ 20 ], or if there is causality in the same. There is therefore a growing need for new directions in education–health research.

The avenues through which education affects health are complex and interwoven. For one, at the very outset, the distribution and content of education changes over time [ 20 ]. Second, the relationship between the mediators and health may change over time, as healthcare becomes more expensive and/or industries become either more, or less hazardous. Third, some research has documented that even relative changes in socioeconomic status (SES) can affect health, and thus changes in the distribution of education implies potential changes in the relationship between education and health. The relative index of inequality summarizes the magnitude of SES as a source of inequalities in health [ 11 , 21 , 27 , 29 ]. Fourth, changes in the distribution of health and mortality imply that the paths to poor health may have changed, thereby affecting the association with education.

Research has proposed that the relationship between education and health is attributable to three general classes of mediators: economic; social, psychological, and interpersonal; and behavioral health [ 31 ]. Economic variables such as income and occupation mediate the relationship between education and health by controlling and determining access to acute and preventive medical care [ 1 , 2 , 19 ]. Social, psychological, and interpersonal resources allow people with different levels of education to access coping resources and strategies [ 10 , 34 ], social support [ 5 , 22 ], and problem-solving and cognitive abilities to handle ill-health consequences such as stress [ 16 ]. Healthy behaviors enable educated individuals to recognize symptoms of ill health in a timely manner and seek appropriate medical help [ 14 , 35 ].

While the positive association between education and health has been established, the explanations for this association are not [ 31 ]. People who are well educated experience better health as reflected in the high levels of self-reported health and low levels of morbidity, mortality, and disability. By extension, low educational attainment is associated with self-reported poor health, shorter life expectancy, and shorter survival when sick. Prior research has suggested that the association between education and health is a complicated one, with a range of potential indicators that include (but are not limited to) interrelationships between demographic and family background indicators [ 8 ] - effects of poor health in childhood, greater resources associated with higher levels of education, appreciation of good health behaviors, and access to social networks. Some evidence suggests that education is strongly linked to health determinants such as preventative care [ 9 ]. Education helps promote and sustain healthy lifestyles and positive choices, nurture relationships, and enhance personal, family, and community well-being. However, there are some adverse effects of education too [ 9 ]. Education may result in increased attention to preventive care, which, though beneficial in the long term, raises healthcare costs in the short term. Some studies have found a positive association between education and some forms of illicit drug and alcohol use. Finally, although education is said to be effective for depression, it has been found to have much less substantial impact in general happiness or well-being [ 9 ].

On a universal scale, it has been accepted that several social factors outside the realm of healthcare influence the health outcomes [ 37 ]. The differences in morbidity, mortality and risk factors in research, conducted within and between countries, are impacted by the characteristics of the physical and social environment, and the structural policies that shape them [ 37 ]. Among the developed countries, the United States reflects huge disparities in educational status over the last few decades [ 15 , 24 ]. Life expectancy, while increasing for all others, has decreased among white Americans without a high school diploma - particularly women [ 25 , 26 , 32 ]. The sources of inequality in educational opportunities for American youth include the neighborhood they live in, the color of their skin, the schools they attend, and the financial resources of their families. In addition, the adverse trends in mortality and morbidity brought on by opioids resulting in suicides and overdoses (referred to as deaths of despair) exacerbated the disparities [ 21 ]. Collectively, these trends have brought about large economic and social inequalities in society such that the people with more education are likely to have more health literacy, live longer, experience better health outcomes, practice health promoting behaviors, and obtain timely health checkups [ 21 , 17 ].

Education enables people to develop a broad range of skills and traits (including cognitive and problem-solving abilities, learned effectiveness, and personal control) that predispose them towards improved health outcomes [ 23 ], ultimately contributing to human capital. Over the years, education has paved the way for a country’s financial security, stable employment, and social success [ 3 ]. Countries that adopt policies for the improvement of education also reap the benefits of healthy behavior such as reducing the population rates of smoking and obesity. Reducing health disparities and improving citizen health can be accomplished only through a thorough understanding of the health benefits conferred by education.

There is an iterative relationship between education and health. While poor education is associated with poor health due to income, resources, healthy behaviors, healthy neighborhood, and other socioeconomic factors, poor health, in turn, is associated with educational setbacks and interference with schooling through difficulties with learning disabilities, absenteeism, or cognitive disorders [ 30 ]. Education is therefore considered an important social determinant of health. The influence of national education on health works through a variety of mechanisms. Generally, education shows a relationship with self-rated health, and thus those with the highest education may have the best health [ 30 ]. Also, health-risk behaviors seem to be reduced by higher expenditure into the publicly funded education system [ 18 ], and those with good education are likely to have better knowledge of diseases [ 33 ]. In general, the education–health gradients for individuals have been growing over time [ 38 ].

To inform future education and health policies effectively, one needs to observe and analyze the opportunities that education generates during the early life span of individuals. This necessitates the adoption of some fundamental premises in research. Research must go beyond pure educational attainment and consider the associated effects preceding and succeeding such attainment. Research should consider the variations brought about by the education–health association across place and time, including the drivers that influence such variations [ 36 ].

In the current research, we analyze the association between education and health indicators for various countries using empirical data from reliable sources such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and World Bank. While many studies explore the relationship between education and health at a conceptual level, we deploy an empirical approach in investigating the patterns and relationships between the two sets of indicators. In addition, for the educational indicators, we not only incorporate the level of educational attainment, but also look at the potential socioeconomic benefits, such as enrollment rates (in each sector of educational level) and school life expectancy (at each educational level). We investigate the influences of educational indicators on national health indicators of infant mortality, child vaccinations, life expectancy at birth, premature mortality arising from lack of educational attainment, employment and training, and the level of national health expenditure. Our research question is:

What are some key influencers/drivers in the education-health relationship at a country level?

The current study is important because policy makers have an increasing concern on national health issues and on policies that support it. The effect of education is at the root level—creating better overall self-awareness on personal health and making healthcare more accessible. The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 discusses the background for the research. Section 3 discusses the research method; Section 4 offers the analysis and results; Section 5 provides a synthesis of the results and offers an integrated discussion; Section 6 contains the scope and limitations of the research; Section 7 offers conclusions with implications and directions for future research.

Research has traditionally drawn from three broad theoretical perspectives in conceptualizing the relationship between education and health. The majority of research over the past two decades has been grounded in the Fundamental Cause Theory (FCT) [ 28 ], which posits that factors such as education are fundamental social causes of health inequalities because they determine access to resources (such as income, safe neighborhoods, or healthier lifestyles) that can assist in protecting or enhancing health [ 36 ]. Some of the key social resources that contribute to socioeconomic status include education (knowledge), money, power, prestige, and social connections. As some of these undergo change, they will be associated with differentials in the health status of the population [ 12 ].

Education has also been conceptualized using the Human Capital Theory (HCT) that views it as a return on investment in the form of increased productivity [ 4 ]. Education improves knowledge, skills, reasoning, effectiveness, and a broad range of other abilities that can be applied to improving health. The third approach - the signaling or credentialing perspective [ 6 ] - is adopted to address the large discontinuities in health at 12 and 16 years of schooling, which are typically associated with the receipt of a high school diploma and a college degree, respectively. This perspective considers the earned credentials of a person as a potential source that warrants social and economic returns. All these theoretical perspectives postulate a strong association between education and health and identify mechanisms through which education influences health. While the HCT proposes the mechanisms as embodied skills and abilities, FCT emphasizes the dynamism and flexibility of mechanisms, and the credentialing perspective proposes educational attainment through social responses. It needs to be stated, however, that all these approaches focus on education solely in terms of attainment, without emphasizing other institutional factors such as quality or type of education that may independently influence health. Additionally, while these approaches highlight the individual factors (individual attainment, attainment effects, and mechanisms), they do not give much emphasis to the social context in which education and health processes are embedded.

In the current research while we acknowledge the tenets of these theoretical perspectives, we incorporate the social mechanisms in education such as level of education, skills and abilities brought about by enrollment, school life expectancy, and the potential loss brought about by premature mortality. In this manner, we highlight the relevance of the social context in which the education and health domains are situated. We also study the dynamism of the mechanisms over countries and over time and incorporate the influences that precede and succeed educational attainment.

We analyze country level education and health data from the OECD and World Bank for a period of 21 years (1995–2015). Our variables include the education indicators of adult education level; enrollment rates at various educational levels; NEET (Not in Employment, Education or Training) rates; school life expectancy; and the health indicators of infant mortality, child vaccination rates, deaths from cancer, life expectancy at birth, potential years of life lost and smoking rates (Table 1 ). The data was processed using the tools of Tableau for visualization, and SAS for correlation and descriptive statistics. Approaches for analysis include ranking, association, and data visualization of the health and education data.

Analyses and results

In this section we identify and analyze patterns and associations between education and health indicators and discuss the results. Since countries vary in population sizes and other criteria, we use the estimated averages in all our analyses.

Comparison of health outcomes for countries by GDP per capita

We first analyzed to see if our data reflected the expectation that countries with higher GDP per capita have better health status (Fig. 1 ). We compared the average life expectancy at birth, average infant mortality, average deaths from cancer and average potential year of life lost, for different levels of GDP per capita (Fig. 1 ).

Associations between Average Life Expectancy (years) and Average Infant Mortality rate (per 1000), and between Deaths from Cancer (rates per 100,000) and Average Potential Years of Life Lost (years), by GDP per capita (for all countries for years 1995–2015)

Figure 1 depicts two charts with the estimated averages of variables for all countries in the sample. The X-axis of the first chart depicts average infant mortality rate (per 1000), while that of the second chart depicts average potential years of life lost (years). The Y-axis for both charts depicts the GDP per capita shown in intervals of 10 K ranging from 0 K–110 K (US Dollars). The analysis is shown as an average for all the countries in the sample and for all the years (1995–2015). As seen in Fig. 1 , countries with lower GDP per capita have higher infant mortality rate and increased potential year of life lost (which represents the average years a person would have lived if he or she had not died prematurely - a measure of premature mortality). Life expectancy and deaths from cancer are not affected by GDP level. When studying infant mortality and potential year lost, in order to avoid the influence of a control variable, it was necessary to group the samples by their GDP per capita level.

Association of Infant Mortality Rates with enrollment rates and education levels

We explored the association of infant mortality rates with the enrollment rates and adult educational levels for all countries (Fig. 2 ). The expectation is that with higher education and employment the infant mortality rate decreases.

Association of Adult Education Levels (ratio) and Enrollment Rates (ratio) with Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000)

Figure 2 depicts the analysis for all countries in the sample. The figure shows the years from 1995 to 2015 on the X axis. It shows two Y-axes with one axis denoting average infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births), and the other showing the rates from 0 to 120 to depict enrollment rates (primary/secondary/tertiary) and education levels (below secondary/upper secondary/tertiary). Regarding the Y axis showing rates over 100, it is worth noting that the enrollment rates denote a ratio of the total enrollment (regardless of age) at a level of education to the official population of the age group in that education level. Therefore, it is possible for the number of children enrolled at a level to exceed the official population of students in the age group for that level (due to repetition or late entry). This can lead to ratios over 100%. The figure shows that in general, all education indicators tend to rise over time, except for adult education level below secondary, which decreases over time. Infant mortality shows a steep decreasing trend over time, which is favorable. In general, countries have increasing health status and education over time, along with decreasing infant mortality rates. This suggests a negative association of education and enrollment rates with mortality rates.

Association of Education Outcomes with life expectancy at birth

We explored if the education outcomes of adult education level (tertiary), school life expectancy (tertiary), and NEET (not in employment, education, or training) rates, affected life expectancy at birth (Fig. 3 ). Our expectation is that adult education and school life expectancy, particularly tertiary, have a positive influence, while NEET has an adverse influence, on life expectancy at birth.

Association of Adult Education Level (Tertiary), NEET rate, School Life Expectancy (Tertiary), with Life Expectancy at Birth

Figure 3 show the relationships between various education indicators (adult education level-tertiary, NEET rate, school life expectancy-tertiary) and life expectancy at birth for all countries in the sample. The figure suggests that life expectancy at birth rises as adult education level (tertiary) and tertiary school life expectancy go up. Life expectancy at birth drops as the NEET rate goes up. In order to extend people’s life expectancy, governments should try to improve tertiary education, and control the number of youths dropping out of school and ending up unemployed (the NEET rate).

Association of Tertiary Enrollment and Education with potential years of life lost

We wanted to explore if the potential years of life lost rates are affected by tertiary enrollment rates and tertiary adult education levels (Fig. 4 ).

Association of Enrollment rate-tertiary (top) and Adult Education Level-Tertiary (bottom) with Potential Years of Life Lost (Y axis)

The two sets of box plots in Fig. 4 compare the enrollment rates with potential years of life lost (above set) and the education level with potential years of life lost (below set). The analysis is for all countries in the sample. As mentioned earlier, the enrollment rates are expressed as ratios and can exceed 100% if the number of children enrolled at a level (regardless of age) exceed the official population of students in the age group for that level. Potential years of life lost represents the average years a person would have lived, had he/she not died prematurely. The results show that with the rise of tertiary adult education level and tertiary enrollment rate, there is a decrease in both value and variation of the potential years of life lost. We can conclude that lower levels in tertiary education adversely affect a country’s health situation in terms of premature mortality.

Association of Tertiary Enrollment and Education with child vaccination rates

We compared the performance of tertiary education level and enrollment rates with the child vaccination rates (Fig. 5 ) to assess if there was a positive impact of education on preventive healthcare.

Association of Adult Education Level-Tertiary and Enrollment Rate-Tertiary with Child Vaccination Rates

In this analysis (Fig. 5 ), we looked for associations of child vaccination rates with tertiary enrollment and tertiary education. The analysis is for all countries in the sample. The color of the bubble represents the tertiary enrollment rate such that the darker the color, the higher the enrollment rate, and the size of the bubble represents the level of tertiary education. The labels inside the bubbles denote the child vaccination rates. The figure shows a general positive association of high child vaccination rate with tertiary enrollment and tertiary education levels. This indicates that countries that have high child vaccination rates tend to be better at tertiary enrollment and have more adults educated in tertiary institutions. Therefore, countries that focus more on tertiary education and enrollment may confer more health awareness in the population, which can be reflected in improved child vaccination rates.

Association of NEET rates (15–19; 20–24) with infant mortality rates and deaths from Cancer

In the realm of child health, we also looked at the infant mortality rates. We explored if infant mortality rates are associated with the NEET rates in different age groups (Fig. 6 ).

Association of Infant Mortality rates with NEET Rates (15–19) and NEET Rates (20–24)

Figure 6 is a scatterplot that explores the correlation between infant mortality and NEET rates in the age groups 15–19 and 20–24. The data is for all countries in the sample. Most data points are clustered in the lower infant mortality and lower NEET rate range. Infant mortality and NEET rates move in the same direction—as infant mortality increases/decrease, the NEET rate goes up/down. The NEET rate for the age group 20–24 has a slightly higher infant mortality rate than the NEET rate for the age group 15–19. This implies that when people in the age group 20–24 are uneducated or unemployed, the implications on infant mortality are higher than in other age groups. This is a reasonable association, since there is the potential to have more people with children in this age group than in the teenage group. To reduce the risk of infant mortality, governments should decrease NEET rates through promotional programs that disseminate the benefits of being educated, employed, and trained [ 7 ]. Additionally, they can offer financial aid to public schools and companies to offer more resources to raise general health awareness in people.

We looked to see if the distribution of population without employment, education, or training (NEET) in various categories of high, medium, and low impacted the rate of deaths from cancer (Fig. 7 ). Our expectation is that high rates of NEET will positively influence deaths from cancer.

Association of Deaths from Cancer and different NEET Rates

The three pie charts in Fig. 7 show the distribution of deaths from cancer in groups of countries with different NEET rates (high, medium, and low). The analysis includes all countries in the sample. The expectation was that high rates of NEET would be associated with high rates of cancer deaths. Our results, however, show that countries with medium NEET rates tend to have the highest deaths from cancer. Countries with high NEET rates have the lowest deaths from cancer among the three groups. Contrary to expectations, countries with low NEET rates do not show the lowest death rates from cancer. A possible explanation for this can be attributed to the fact that in this group, the people in the labor force may be suffering from work-related hazards including stress, that endanger their health.

Association between adult education levels and health expenditure

It is interesting to note the relationship between health expenditure and adult education levels (Fig. 8 ). We expect them to be positively associated.

Association of Health Expenditure and Adult Education Level-Tertiary & Upper Secondary

Figure 8 shows a heat map with the number of countries in different combinations of groups between tertiary and upper-secondary adult education level. We emphasize the higher levels of adult education. The color of the square shows the average of health expenditure. The plot shows that most of the countries are divided into two clusters. One cluster has a high tertiary education level as well as a high upper-secondary education level and it has high average health expenditure. The other cluster has relatively low tertiary and upper secondary education level with low average health expenditure. Overall, the figure shows a positive correlation between adult education level and compulsory health expenditure. Governments of countries with low levels of education should allocate more health expenditure, which will have an influence on the educational levels. Alternatively, to improve public health, governments can frame educational policies to improve the overall national education level, which then produces more health awareness, contributing to national healthcare.

Association of Compulsory Health Expenditure with NEET rates by country and region

Having explored the relationship between health expenditure and adult education, we then explored the relationship between health expenditure and NEET rates of different countries (Fig. 9 ). We expect compulsory health expenditure to be negatively associated with NEET rates.

Association between Compulsory Health Expenditure and NEET Rate by Country and Region

In Fig. 9 , each box represents a country or region; the size of the box indicates the extent of compulsory health expenditure such that a larger box implies that the country has greater compulsory health expenditure. The intensity of the color of the box represents the NEET rate such that the darker color implies a higher NEET rate. Turkey has the highest NEET rate with low health expenditure. Most European countries such as France, Belgium, Sweden, and Norway have low NEET rates and high health expenditure. The chart shows a general association between low compulsory health expenditure and high NEET rates. The relationship, however, is not consistent, as there are countries with high NEET and high health expenditures. Our suggestion is for most countries to improve the social education for the youth through free training programs and other means to effectively improve the public health while they attempt to raise the compulsory expenditure.

Distribution of life expectancy at birth and tertiary enrollment rate

The distribution of enrollment rate (tertiary) and life expectancy of all the countries in the sample can give an idea of the current status of both education and health (Fig. 10 ). We expect these to be positively associated.

Distribution of Life Expectancy at Birth (years) and Tertiary Enrollment Rate

Figure 10 shows two histograms with the lines representing the distribution of life expectancy at birth and the tertiary enrollment rate of all the countries. The distribution of life expectancy at birth is skewed right, which means most of the countries have quite a high life expectancy and there are few countries with a very low life expectancy. The tertiary enrollment rate has a good distribution, which is closer to a normal distribution. Governments of countries with an extremely low life expectancy should try to identify the cause of this problem and take actions in time to improve the overall national health.

Comparison of adult education levels and deaths from Cancer at various levels of GDP per capita

We wanted to see if various levels of GDP per capita influence the levels of adult education and deaths from cancer in countries (Fig. 11 ).

Comparison of Adult Education Levels and Deaths from Cancer at various levels of GDP per capita

Figure 11 shows the distribution of various adult education levels for countries by groups of GDP per capita. The plot shows that as GDP grows, the level of below-secondary adult education becomes lower, and the level of tertiary education gets higher. The upper-secondary education level is constant among all the groups. The implication is that tertiary education is the most important factor among all the education levels for a country to improve its economic power and health level. Countries should therefore focus on tertiary education as a driver of economic development. As for deaths from cancer, countries with lower GDP have higher death rates, indicating the negative association between economic development and deaths from cancer.

Distribution of infant mortality rates by continent

Infant mortality is an important indicator of a country’s health status. Figure 12 shows the distribution of infant mortality for the continents of Asia, Europe, Oceania, North and South America. We grouped the countries in each continent into high, medium, and low, based on infant mortality rates.

Distribution of Infant Mortality rates by Continent

In Fig. 12 , each bar represents a continent. All countries fall into three groups (high, medium, and low) based on infant mortality rates. South America has the highest infant mortality, followed by Asia, Europe, and Oceania. North America falls in the medium range of infant mortality. South American countries, in general, should strive to improve infant mortality. While Europe, in general, has the lowest infant mortality rates, there are some countries that have high rates as depicted.

Association between child vaccination rates and NEET rates

We looked at the association between child vaccination rates and NEET rates in various countries (Fig. 13 ). We expect countries that have high NEET rates to have low child vaccination rates.

Association between Child Vaccination Rates and NEET rates

Figure 13 displays the child vaccination rates in the first map and the NEET rates in the second map, for all countries. The darker green color shows countries with higher rates of vaccination and the darker red represents those with higher NEET rates. It can be seen that in general, the countries with lower NEET also have better vaccination rates. Examples are USA, UK, Iceland, France, and North European countries. Countries should therefore strive to reduce NEET rates by enrolling a good proportion of the youth into initiatives or programs that will help them be more productive in the future, and be able to afford preventive healthcare for the families, particularly, the children.

Average smoking rate in different continents over time

We compared the trend of average smoking rate for the years 1995–201 for the continents in the sample (Fig. 14 ).

Trend of average smoking rate in different continents from 1995 to 2015

Figure 14 depicts the line charts of average smoking rates for the continents of Asia, Europe, Oceania, North and South America. All the lines show an overall downward trend, which indicates that the average smoking rate decreases with time. The trend illustrates that people have become more health conscious and realize the harmful effects of smoking over time. However, the smoking rate in Europe (EU) is consistently higher than that in other continents, while the smoking rate in North America (NA) is consistently lower over the years. Governments in Europe should pay attention to the usage of tobacco and increase health consciousness among the public.

Association between adult education levels and deaths from Cancer

We explored if adult education levels (below-secondary, upper-secondary, and tertiary) are associated with deaths from cancer (Fig. 15 ) such that higher levels of education will mitigate the rates of deaths from cancer, due to increased awareness and proactive health behavior.

Association of deaths from cancer with adult education levels

Figure 15 shows the correlations of deaths from cancer among the three adult education levels, for all countries in the sample. It is obvious that below-secondary and tertiary adult education levels have a negative correlation with deaths from cancer, while the upper-secondary adult education level shows a positive correlation. Barring upper-secondary results, we can surmise that in general, as education level goes higher, the deaths from cancer will decrease. The rationale for this could be that education fosters more health awareness and encourages people to adopt healthy behavioral practices. Governments should therefore pay attention to frame policies that promote education. However, the counterintuitive result of the positive correlation between upper-secondary levels of adult education with the deaths from cancer warrants more investigation.

We drilled down further into the correlation between the upper-secondary education level and deaths from cancer. Figure 16 shows this correlation, along with a breakdown of the total number of records for each continent, to see if there is an explanation for the unique result.

Association between deaths from cancer and adult education level-upper secondary

Figure 16 shows a dashboard containing two graphs - a scatterplot of the correlation between deaths from cancer and education level, and a bar graph showing the breakdown of the total sample by continent. We included a breakdown by continent in order to explore variances that may clarify or explain the positive association for deaths from cancer with the upper-secondary education level. The scatterplot shows that for the European Union (EU) the points are much more scattered than for the other continents. Also, the correlation between deaths and education level for the EU is positive. The bottom bar graph depicts how the sample contains a disproportionately high number of records for the EU than for other continents. It is possible that this may have influenced the results of the correlation. The governments in the EU should investigate the reasons behind this phenomenon. Also, we defer to future research to explore this in greater detail by incorporating other socioeconomic parameters that may have to be factored into the relationship.

Association between average tertiary school life expectancy and health expenditure

We moved our focus to the trends of tertiary school life expectancy and health expenditure from 1995 to 2015 (Fig. 17 ) to check for positive associations.

Association between Average Tertiary School Life Expectancy and Health Expenditure

Figure 17 is a combination chart explaining the trends of tertiary school life expectancy and health expenditure, for all countries in the sample. The rationale is that if there is a positive association between the two, it would be worthwhile for the government to allocate more resources towards health expenditure. Both tertiary school life expectancy and health expenditure show an increase over the years from 1995 to 2015. Our additional analysis shows that they continue to increase even after 2015. Hence, governments are encouraged to increase the health expenditure in order to see gains in tertiary school life expectancy, which will have positive implications for national health. Given that the measured effects of education are large, investments in education might prove to be a cost-effective means of achieving better health.

Our results reveal how interlinked education and health can be. We show how a country can improve its health scenario by focusing on appropriate indicators of education. Countries with higher education levels are more likely to have better national health conditions. Among the adult education levels, tertiary education is the most critical indicator influencing healthcare in terms of infant mortality, life expectancy, child vaccination rates, and enrollment rates. Our results emphasize the role that education plays in the potential years of life lost, which is a measure that represents the average years a person would have lived had he/she not died prematurely. In addition to mortality rate, an economy needs to consider this indicator as a measure of health quality.

Other educational indicators that are major drivers of health include school life expectancy, particularly at the tertiary level. In order to improve the school life expectancy of the population, governments should control the number of youths ending up unemployed, dropping out of school, and without skills or training (the NEET rate). Education allows people to gain skills/abilities and knowledge on general health, enhancing their awareness of healthy behaviors and preventive care. By targeting promotions and campaigns that emphasize the importance of skills and employment, governments can reduce the NEET rates. And, by reducing the NEET rates, governments have the potential to address a broad array of vulnerabilities among youth, ranging from unemployment, early school dropouts, and labor market discouragement, which are all social issues that warrant attention in a growing economy.

We also bring to light the health disparities across countries and suggest implications for governments to target educational interventions that can reduce inequalities and improve health, at a macro level. The health effects of education are at the grass roots level - creating better overall self-awareness on personal health and making healthcare more accessible.

Scope and limitations

Our research suffers from a few limitations. For one, the number of countries is limited, and being that the data are primarily drawn from OECD, they pertain to the continent of Europe. We also considered a limited set of variables. A more extensive study can encompass a larger range of variables drawn from heterogeneous sources. With the objective of acquiring a macro perspective on the education–health association, we incorporated some dependent variables that may not traditionally be viewed as pure health parameters. For example, the variable potential years of life lost is affected by premature deaths that may be caused by non-health related factors too. Also there may be some intervening variables in the education–health relationship that need to be considered. Lastly, while our study explores associations and relationships between variables, it does not investigate causality.

Conclusions and future research

Both education and health are at the center of individual and population health and well-being. Conceptualizations of both phenomena should go beyond the individual focus to incorporate and consider the social context and structure within which the education–health relationship is embedded. Such an approach calls for a combination of interdisciplinary research, novel conceptual models, and rich data sources. As health differences are widening across the world, there is need for new directions in research and policy on health returns on education and vice versa. In developing interventions and policies, governments would do well to keep in mind the dual role played by education—as a driver of opportunity as well as a reproducer of inequality [ 36 ]. Reducing these macro-level inequalities requires interventions directed at a macro level. Researchers and policy makers have mutual responsibilities in this endeavor, with researchers investigating and communicating the insights and recommendations to policy makers, and policy makers conveying the challenges and needs of health and educational practices to researchers. Researchers can leverage national differences in the political system to study the impact of various welfare systems on the education–health association. In terms of investment in education, we make a call for governments to focus on education in the early stages of life course so as to prevent the reproduction of social inequalities and change upcoming educational trajectories; we also urge governments to make efforts to mitigate the rising dropout rate in postsecondary enrollment that often leads to detrimental health (e.g., due to stress or rising student debt). There is a need to look into the circumstances that can modify the postsecondary experience of youth so as to improve their health.

Our study offers several prospects for future research. Future research can incorporate geographic and environmental variables—such as the quality of air level or latitude—for additional analysis. Also, we can incorporate data from other sources to include more countries and more variables, especially non-European ones, so as to increase the breadth of analysis. In terms of methodology, future studies can deploy meta-regression analysis to compare the relationships between health and some macro-level socioeconomic indicators [ 13 ]. Future research should also expand beyond the individual to the social context in which education and health are situated. Such an approach will help generate findings that will inform effective educational and health policies and interventions to reduce disparities.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset analyzed during the current study is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Fundamental Cause Theory

Human Capital Theory

Not in Employment, Education, or Training

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Socio-economic status

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Raghupathi, V., Raghupathi, W. The influence of education on health: an empirical assessment of OECD countries for the period 1995–2015. Arch Public Health 78 , 20 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-020-00402-5

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Health Education and Health Promotion: Key Concepts and Exemplary Evidence to Support Them

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Health is regarded as the result of an interaction between individual and environmental factors. While health education is the process of educating people about health and how they can influence their health, health promotion targets not only people but also their environments. Promoting health behavior can take place at the micro level (the personal level), the meso level (the organizational level, including e.g. families, schools and worksites) and at the macro level (the (inter)national level, including e.g. governments). Health education is one of the methods used in health promotion, with health promotion extending beyond just health education.

Models and theories that focus on understanding health and health behavior are of key importance for health education and health promotion. Different classes of models and theories can be distinguished, such as planning models, behavioral change models, and diffusion models. Within these models different topics and factors are relevant, ranging from health literacy, attitudes, social influences, self-efficacy, planning, and stages of change to evaluation, implementation, stakeholder involvement, and policy changes. Exemplary health promotion settings are schools, worksites, and healthcare, but also the domains that are involved with policy development. Main health promotion methods can involve a variety of different methods and approaches, such as counseling, brochures, eHealth, stakeholder involvement, consensus meetings, community ownership, panel discussions, and policy development. Because health education and health promotion should be theory- and evidence-based, personalized interventions are recommended to take empirical findings and proven theoretical assumptions into account.

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Department of Health Promotion, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

Hein de Vries & Stef P. J. Kremers

Department of Psychology and Methods, Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences, Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen, Germany

Sonia Lippke

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Edwin B. Fisher

Psychological Sciences, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA, USA

Linda D. Cameron

Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences and Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA

Alan J. Christensen

Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland

Ulrike Ehlert

School of Public Health, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China

Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

Brian Oldenburg

Departments of Medical Psychology, Academic Medical Center (AMC) and VU University Medical Center (VUMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Frank J. Snoek

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de Vries, H., Kremers, S.P.J., Lippke, S. (2018). Health Education and Health Promotion: Key Concepts and Exemplary Evidence to Support Them. In: Fisher, E., et al. Principles and Concepts of Behavioral Medicine. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-93826-4_17

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What you need to know about education for health and well-being

Why focus on education for health and well-being.

Children and young people who receive a good quality education are more likely to be healthy, and likewise those who are healthy are better able to learn.

Globally, learners face a range of challenges that stand in the way of their education, their schooling and their futures. A few of these are related to their health and well-being. Estimates show that some 246 million learners experience violence in and around school every year and 73 million children live in extreme poverty, food insecurity and hunger. Pregnancy related complications are the leading cause of death among girls aged 15-19, and the COVID-19 pandemic has vividly highlighted the unmet needs of learners and their mental health.

UNESCO works to promote the physical and mental health and well-being of learners. By reducing health-related barriers to learning, such as gender inequality, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), early and unintended pregnancy, violence and discrimination, and malnutrition, UNESCO, governments and school systems can pose serious threats to the well-being of learners, and to the completion of all learners’ education.

Why is health and well-being key for learners?

The link between education to health and well-being is clear. Education develops the skills, values and attitudes that enable learners to lead healthy and fulfilled lives, make informed decisions, and engage in positive relationships with everyone around them. Poor health can have a detrimental effect on school attendance and academic performance.  Health-promoting schools  that are safe and inclusive for all children and young people are essential for learning.

Statistics  show that higher levels of education among mothers improve children’s nutrition and vaccination rates, while reducing preventable child deaths, maternal mortality and HIV infections. Maternal deaths would be reduced by two thirds, saving 98,000 lives, if all girls completed primary education. There would be two‑thirds fewer child marriages, and an increase in modern contraceptive use, if all girls completed secondary education.

At UNESCO, education for health and well-being refers to resilient, health-promoting education systems that integrate school health and well-being as a fundamental part of their daily mission. Only then will our learners be prepared to thrive, to learn and to build healthy, peaceful and sustainable futures for all.

• The relevance and contributions of education for health and well-being to the advancement of human rights, sustainable development & peace: thematic paper , UNESCO, 2022

How is UNESCO advancing learners’ health and well-being for school and life?

UNESCO has a long-standing commitment to improve health and education outcomes for learners. Guided by the  UNESCO Strategy on Education for Health and Well-Being,  UNESCO envisions a world where learners thrive and works across three priority areas to ensure all learners are empowered through:

• school systems that promote their  physical and mental health  and well-being
• quality, gender-transformative  comprehensive sexuality education  that includes HIV, life skills, family and rights
• safe and inclusive learning environments  free from all forms of violence, bullying, stigma and discrimination

Through its unique expertise, wide network and a range of strategic partnerships, UNESCO supports tailored interventions in formal educational settings at regional and country levels, with a focus on adolescents. Key areas of actions include:  technical guidance  at global levels, and targeted and holistic action at national levels such as the Our Rights, Our Lives, Our Future (O3) programme; joint efforts through the  Global Partnership Forum for comprehensive sexuality education  and the  School-related gender-based violence working group ; guidance on school health and nutrition; advocacy around the  International Day against violence and bullying at school ; capacity-building and knowledge generation such as the  Health and education resource centre .

UNESCO aims to make health education appropriate and relevant for different age groups including young learners and adolescents, thus working closely with young people and youth networks. It identifies adolescence (ages 10-19) as ‘a critical window of opportunity to invest in education, skills and competencies; with benefits for well-being now, into future adult life, and for the next generation’ and a time when schools should impart healthy habits that will empower adolescents to become healthy citizens.  Young People Today  is an initiative aiming to improve the health and well-being of young people in the Eastern and Southern Africa region.

Why is comprehensive sexuality education key for learners’ health and well-being?

Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is  widely recognised as a key intervention  to advance gender equality, healthy relationships and sexual and reproductive health, all of which have been shown to positively improve education and health outcomes.

At UNESCO, CSE is a curriculum-based process of teaching and learning about the cognitive, emotional, physical and social aspects of sexuality. It offers life-saving knowledge and develops the values, skills and behaviours young people need to make informed choices for their health and well-being while promoting respect for human rights, gender equality and diversity. CSE empowers learners to realize their health, well-being and dignity, develop respectful relationships and understand their sexual and health rights throughout their lives. Effective CSE is delivered in an age-appropriate manner.

Without correct knowledge on sexual and reproductive health, learners face risks directly impacting their education and future. For example, early and unintended pregnancy increases the risk of absenteeism, poor academic attainment and early drop-out from school for girls, while also having educational implications for young fathers.

Through its O3 flagship programme, UNESCO contributes to the health and well-being of young people in Africa with a view to reducing new HIV infections, early and unintended pregnancy, gender-based violence, and child and early marriage. The O3 programme has benefitted over 28 million learners so far and has introduced ‘O3Plus’, focusing on actions in favour of young people in tertiary education.

UNESCO’s  Foundation for Life and Love campaign  (#CSEandMe) aims to highlight the benefits of good quality CSE for all young people. Because CSE is about relationships, gender, puberty, consent, and sexual and reproductive health, for all young people.

Why is UNESCO building back healthy and resilient schools?

As the education of 1.6 billion learners came to a halt as a result of the unprecedented COVID-19 global health pandemic, the world became witness to the crucial importance of schools as lifelines for learners’ health and well-being. Schools are a social safety net providing essential health education and services including meals,   identifying signs of mistreatment or violence, establishing links to health services, fostering social connections and promoting physical activity. And without this safety net, millions of learners were at risk.

For example, early and forced marriage and unintended adolescent pregnancy rose during the pandemic and lockdown periods. This resulted in more dropouts from school, leaving learners and girls in particular out of school. The pandemic vividly illustrated the interlinkages between education and health, and the urgent need to work across sectors to advance the interests of future generations,  building back resilient  education systems to prevent, prepare for and respond to health crises. It also highlighted learners’ unmet need for support around their mental health.

Learner mental health and well-being is an integral part of UNESCO’s work on health education and the promotion of safe and inclusive learning environments. UNESCO joined with UNICEF and the WHO to launch a  Technical Advisory Group  of experts to advise educational institutions on ensuring schools respond appropriately to crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Calls for papers

Call for special issue proposals.

The journal of Health Education is currently looking for special issue proposals. Health Education is a leading journal which reflects the best of modern thinking ...

Thank you to the 2022 Reviewers of Health Education

The publishing and editorial teams would like to thank the following, for their invaluable service as 2022 reviewers for this journal. We are very grateful for the contributions made. With their help, the journal has been able to publish such high...

Thank you to the 2021 Reviewers of Health Education

The publishing and editorial teams would like to thank the following, for their invaluable service as 2021 reviewers for this journal. We are very grateful for the contributions made. With their help...

Health Education partnership with EERA’s Health and Wellbeing Education Network

We’re delighted to announce the partnership between Health Education and EERA’s Health and Wellbeing Education Network. The Health and Wellbeing net...

Literati awards

Health Education - Literati Award Winners 2023

We are to pleased to announce our 2023 Literati Award winners. Outstanding Paper Motivating or stigmatising? The public...

Health Education - Literati Award Winners 2022

We are pleased to announce our 2022 Literati Award winners. Outstanding Paper Less than human: dehumanisation...

Health Education is a leading journal which reflects the best of modern thinking about health education. It offers stimulating and incisive coverage of current debates, concerns, interventions, and initiatives, and provides a wealth of evidence, research, information, and ideas to inform and inspire those in both the theory and practice of health education. Health Education plays a crucial role in the development of a healthy, inclusive, and equitable social, psychological, and physical environment.

Aims and scope

Health Education is a leading journal which reflects the best of modern thinking about health education.

The journal aims to publish high-quality research and critical debate, encompassing the broad range of health education approaches operating at individual, community, organisational and societal levels.  We encourage international contributions and papers written from academic researchers and practitioners.   The journal seeks to foster contributions from a range of methodological perspectives, we encourage qualitative and quantitative studies; mixed method research; and evidence reviews and synthesis.  Theoretical and discursive papers are also welcomed, but contact with the Editor-in-Chief should be sought in advance.

Health Education offers stimulating and incisive coverage of current debates, concerns, interventions, and initiatives, and provides a wealth of evidence, research, information, and ideas to inform and inspire those in both the theory and practice of health education. Health Education plays a crucial role in the development of a healthy, inclusive, and equitable social, psychological, and physical environment.

Typical areas of interest include: 

• Health education in the digital age
• Health education in settings – schools, universities, workplaces, prisons
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The Importance of Health Education

Understanding the Numbers When reviewing job growth and salary information, it’s important to remember that actual numbers can vary due to many different factors — like years of experience in the role, industry of employment, geographic location, worker skill and economic conditions. Cited projections do not guarantee actual salary or job growth.

When it comes to building a healthy community, the importance of health education cannot be overlooked. Community health workers collaborate with all stakeholders in a community — from its citizens to its government, education and medical officials — to improve health and wellness and ensure equal access to healthcare.

First, What is Health Education?

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health education is a tool to improve a population's general health and wellness through promoting knowledge and healthy practices ( WHO PDF source ).

Although the subject is often taught in school settings, students aren't the only ones who need to know about health. In fact, all age groups and demographics can benefit from health education.

Why is Health Education Important?

Community health education looks at the health of a community as a whole, seeking to identify health issues and trends within a population and work with stakeholders to find solutions to these concerns.

The importance of health education impacts many areas of wellness within a community, including:

• Chronic disease awareness and prevention
• Injury and violence prevention
• Maternal and infant health
• Mental and behavioral health
• Nutrition, exercise and obesity prevention
• Tobacco use and substance abuse

Community health educators work with public health departments, schools, government offices and even local nonprofits to design educational programs and other resources to address a community’s specific needs.

“As public health professionals, with aid of community leaders, we strive to ensure community wellness as it pertains to health education,” said Dr. Tanyi Obenson .

Obenson is a public health clinical faculty member at Southern New Hampshire University (SNHU) who holds a PhD in Public Health. “A healthier community is a better community,” he said.

How Does Health Education Impact a Community?

Health education can impact communities by addressing relevant issues and concerns at a local level. For example:

Healthcare Disparities

In addition to providing educational resources and programming to a community, public health educators also work to ensure all members of a community have equal access to wellness resources and healthcare services.

“When considering care access and delivery within communities, health equity and social justice are one in the same,” said Dr. Natalie Rahming , an adjunct healthcare faculty member at SNHU with almost two decades of experience working in the healthcare field. “The social determinants of health classify the various ways in which an individual’s identity characteristics and social positions are woven into a fabric of discrimination.”

According to Rahming, common health disparities include:

• Gender health disparities
• Racial or ethnic health disparities
• Rural and urban health disparities
• Socioeconomic health disparities

Rahming said racism and other disparities have manifested into unequal distribution of care across distinct groups over many generations.

“A community health worker seeks to abolish or ameliorate health inequity from a social lens, whereas other health care workers approach it at an individual perspective,” she said. “Both are critical for healthcare advancement.”

Community Health Education and Government Policy

The importance of health education also extends into policy and legislation development at a local, state and national level, informing and influencing key decisions that impact community health.

From campaigns and legislation to enforce seat belt use and prevent smoking to programs that boost the awareness and prevention of diabetes, public health workers provide research and guidance to inform policy development.

“The collaboration of community leaders is essential to form a shared commitment and results-oriented approach to improving the health of our most vulnerable populations,” she said.

The Economic Importance of Health Education

Health education can also boost a community’s economy by reducing healthcare spending and lost productivity due to preventable illness. 

Obesity and tobacco use, for example, cost the United States billions of dollars each year in healthcare costs and lost productivity.

According to the National Collaborative on Childhood Obesity (NCCOR), the annual loss in economic productivity due to obesity and related issues is expected to total as much as $580 billion by 2030 ( NCCOR PDF source ). The total economic cost of tobacco use costs the United States more than $300 billion each year, including $156 billion in lost productivity , according to the CDC. 

Programs designed to help community members combat expensive health issues not only boost individuals’ health but also provide a strong return on investment for communities.

According to the CDC, states with strong tobacco control programs see a $55 return on every $1 investment , mostly from avoiding costs to treat smoking-related illness. The national cost of offering the National Diabetes Prevention Program is about $500 per participant , significantly lower than the $9,600 spent on diabetes care per type 2 diabetes patient each year.

Find Your Program

How to become a community healthcare worker.

A community healthcare worker's goal is to help others, starting with education. 

To begin your career in community healthcare, you'll typically need a minimum of a high school diploma or associate degree . The work done within public health and community healthcare differs from other healthcare fields and impacts communities in different ways requiring different training and understanding of healthcare. 

“Unlike individual healthcare delivery, public health investigates the systems and trends that impact behaviors and outcomes within a community collectively," said Rahming. “This research facilitates the identification of needs and provision of tools to promote disease prevention, individual empowerment, and improved wellness that enhances the quality of life for all."

Earning your bachelor's degree in public health  or community health could help you advance your career and better understand your work. On top of your classroom education, many community health care workers are required to complete on-the-job training. According to BLS, training often covers communication, outreach, and information based upon your specific community health focus.

Public Health Education: A Growing Field

As the health, social and economic impacts of community health education continue to grow, so does the field of public health and health promotion.

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the role of health education specialist is projected to grow by 7% through 2032, faster than the average for all occupations.*

BLS said that health education specialists usually need a bachelor's degree but that some health education specialist jobs require you to have a master's degree, too.

Earning your Master of Public Health (MPH) degree  could be a proactive way to expand your knowledge and prepare for a career in the public health education field. Whether you want to be a health education specialist or an epidemiologist, there are a variety of things you can do with your MPH . You can also focus your MPH studies on specific areas, such as global health, by adding a concentration to your degree. 

When considering MPH programs, look for one accredited by the Council on Education for Public Health ( CEPH ), such as SNHU's. CEPH is an independent agency recognized by the U.S. Department of Education, and their accreditation means that the program has met the standards.

In an accredited MPH program, you can gain the skills you need to lead illness and disease prevention efforts, build community wellness programs and advocate for public health policy.

Whether you decide to pursue an MPH or community health education degree, the public health education field has a wide variety of settings where you may work. According to BLS, these settings include:  

• Government organizations and public health departments
• Hospitals and healthcare facilities
• Nonprofit organizations
• Private businesses and employee wellness programs
• Schools and colleges

“I believe that more and more communities are seeing benefits from wellness-related initiatives and receiving positive marks about them,” Gifford said. “Hence, community leaders are seeing this as not just a business-driven necessity, but also something that impacts the well being and quality of life of their citizens.”

Discover more about SNHU’s bachelor's in community health : Find out what courses you'll take, skills you’ll learn and how to request information about the program. 

*Cited job growth projections may not reflect local and/or short-term economic or job conditions and do not guarantee actual job growth. Actual salaries and/or earning potential may be the result of a combination of factors including, but not limited to: years of experience, industry of employment, geographic location, and worker skill.

Danielle Gagnon is a freelance writer focused on higher education. She started her career working as an education reporter for a daily newspaper in New Hampshire, where she reported on local schools and education policy. Gagnon served as the communications manager for a private school in Boston, MA before later starting her freelance writing career. Today, she continues to share her passion for education as a writer for Southern New Hampshire University. Connect with her on LinkedIn . 

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About southern new hampshire university.

SNHU is a nonprofit, accredited university with a mission to make high-quality education more accessible and affordable for everyone.

Founded in 1932, and online since 1995, we’ve helped countless students reach their goals with flexible, career-focused programs . Our 300-acre campus in Manchester, NH is home to over 3,000 students, and we serve over 135,000 students online. Visit our about SNHU  page to learn more about our mission, accreditations, leadership team, national recognitions and awards.

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 22 August 2005

Effectiveness of different methods of health education: A comparative assessment in a scientific conference

• Asim Saha 1 ,
• Era Poddar 2 &
• Minal Mankad 3  

BMC Public Health volume  5 , Article number:  88 ( 2005 ) Cite this article

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Every individual mode of health education has its own merits, drawbacks as well as their own sphere of effectiveness. A specific mode of communication is more useful in a specific setting on a specific group than others. To search for optimum mode of communication for a specific audience is a major area of research in health education. The issue of imparting health education to a gathering of educated people, representing different fields of knowledge has remained a relatively less lighted aspect of health education research. In this backdrop this study was initiated for making a comparative assessment of different methods of dissemination of health education among educated people.

A cross-sectional interviewer administered questionnaire survey was conducted involving 142 randomly selected subjects during the last session of a five-day conference having health as main theme when the opinion of the delegates regarding different communication methods was asked for. Collected data was analyzed not only to find out the optimum mode of education dissemination in such a setting but also to find the contribution of different factors in the preferences of the study subjects.

The participants opted more (60%) for focused programs of smaller audience (sectional program). In both broad area (main program) and focused area programs (sectional), the participants preferred lectures (62% and 65.7% respectively). Specific topics were preferred both in lectures (67.6%) and symposia (57.7%). In the exhibition, exhibits seemed to be more attractive (62%) than the posters. Qualification has emerged to be a contributing factor in peoples' choice towards sectional programme and also in their affinity to symposia. Increased age was a significant contributor in participants' preference towards specific topics. Physical barriers of communication appeared to be a problem in the main program as well as in the exhibition. Lack of coherence among the speakers was reported (69%) to be a major reason for which symposia was not preferred.

This study concluded that while planning for health education dissemination in an educated group a focused programme should be formulated in small groups preferably in the form of lectures on specific topics, more so while dealing with participants of higher age group having higher educational qualification.

Peer Review reports

Health education is a process by which individuals and groups of people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance or restoration of health [ 1 ]. Communication in relation to health education involves different modes like lectures, group or panel discussions, symposia, poster or exhibit presentation etc. Every individual mode of health education has its own merits, drawbacks as well as their own sphere of effectiveness. In addition it has to overcome the barriers of communication (e.g. physiological, psychological, environmental and cultural). Research on the effectiveness of different modes of health education dissemination is already in progress to examine the utility of a specific mode of communication in a specific setting [ 2 , 3 ] on a specific group [ 4 ]. It has been observed that different educational methods may be specially suitable for different groups of people depending upon their age, sex, educational qualification, background and nature of job [ 5 ]. Comparative assessment of effectiveness of different educational methods has also been done on some target groups in different communicational settings [ 6 ].

Imparting health education to an educated group is a special arena of interest because of the fact that this educated group may have a major role in the propagation of the achieved knowledge in future. This why communication of health education in a gathering of educated people (e.g. conferences) should have separate specifications in relation to its content and mode of communication. Naturally, this becomes an arena and area of special interest and not much of research is undertaken in this aspect till date. In this backdrop this cross-sectional study was initiated during a scientific conference for making a comparative assessment of different methods of dissemination of health education among educated people.

This study was conducted in a scientific conference where 2250 scientists from different branches of science gathered. It was a mega event having health as the theme and experts of various fields attended this conference from different parts of the globe. This conference was organized by one of the scientific bodies of the country and this conference aimed at disseminating health related issues among the scientists, science managers, policy makers, students and general public. This conference is an annual event (largest scientific gathering of the country), which undertakes an issue every year as the theme and communicates the messages on the theme. This activity being the oldest of the country also is well known for its impact on building awareness and opinion among the scientific community as well as general public. In this way it has not only generated scientific movement in the past involving common mass also but also many times it has substantially influenced policy making . Various aspects of health promotion, health technology, implication of health in nation's development etc. were discussed and three modes of education dissemination were used; lecture, symposium and exhibition. The conference activity had two divisions; main program and sectional program (fourteen sections were there). Main programme consisted of deliberation containing discussion on different aspects of science and health, addressing the conference participants at large whereas sectional programmes dealt with a section of the attendees and focused only the issues related to the specific section . Main program consisted of lectures, symposia and an exhibition whereas the sectional program consisted of lectures and symposia. In the main program, lectures and symposia were of two types; some were based on specific topics and some were based on relatively broader topics. So far as the lectures are concerned, specific topic lectures included presentation like "cholera-epidemiology, genetics and vaccine development", "role of a tool box of diagnosis for tuberculosis in endemic country", "disease elimination: the kala-azar experience" etc. and broader topic lectures were like "health science and our future", "role of public health in national economics" etc. In case of symposia, the specific topic symposia dealt with the issues like "challenges in combating malaria", "high altitude dysfunction" etc. and the broader topic symposia were on the topics like "environment & health", "bridging the gap between health science and society". Each of these symposia consisted of three or more deliberations from different speakers talking on different aspects of the topic. For example the symposium on "combating malaria" contained topics like "control of malaria in mosquito vector", "current status and strategies for old and new drugs for treatment, prevention and control", "prospects of vaccine", "cost and benefit of malaria control", and "malaria research, development and control strategies" . Topics of lectures and symposia of sectional programs were specific to the concerned section. For example, lectures of medical science section consisted of lectures like "factors other than iodine deficiency in endemic goiter", "mechanism of action of enterotoxin of vibrio cholerae", etc. and lectures of environmental science section contained lectures like "biomonitoring of health effects of urban air pollution", "arsenic exposure and effects on liver", etc. Similarly, symposia of medical science section had topic like "development of ergonomics in India" and symposia of environmental science included topics like "environmental endocrine disruptors and reproductive health". These symposia again consisted of different speakers' deliberations on various aspects of the topic of the symposia . The exhibition contained two types of materials: posters and exhibits. Posters were prepared on the topics like "prevention of dust related diseases", "how to combat diarrhoeal diseases?" etc. Exhibits were models/instruments, which were displayed and demonstrated for easy conveyance of the related messages. Exhibits contained "spirometer – an instrument early diagnosis of morbidity related to dust related diseases", "model showing transmission of malaria from mosquito vector to human host" etc .

This cross-sectional interviewer administered questionnaire survey was conducted during the last session of this five-day conference when the opinion of the delegates regarding different programs was asked for. Necessary ethical clearance was obtained from the institutional ethics committee of National Institute of Occupational Health, India for the purpose of this study . While calculating the sample size for this study we presumed the lowest choice prevalence to be 10% (as there was no available literature of this nature) and accordingly we calculated the sample size for prevalence study using acceptable range 5–15%. Thus the minimum sample size for 5% level of significance was calculated as 130. We set our target as 150 subjects. Selection of subjects was done by using random numbers generated by Microsoft Excel Software. Initially 3 sections (out of 14 sections) were selected randomly and 50 participants from each section were approached for the study. Of the 150 persons approached for study, 142 agreed to participate.

All the participants were enquired about their choices in relation to all the different aspects of the conference. Analysis of the collected information was undertaken using SPSS release 6.1.4 software. Along with descriptive analysis of the data, univariate analysis was done initially. Afterwards logistic regression technique was applied to obtain contribution of different factors in the choices of the participants. As we intended to identify the most suitable mode of communication for each division/section of this conference (e.g. lectures, symposia), it was essential to ensure that the findings should be on the basis of merits/demerits of the mode of communication only. For this reason, while going for multivariate analysis, our intention was to observe whether the decision of choices made by the study participants was independent of the factors that might affect the choices (e.g. age, qualification, background, presence of physical barriers of communication, coherence among speakers, etc.) . Variables like higher qualification (Ph.D/MD or higher), higher designation (Associate Professor or equivalent and above), attending alone or with friends, education background (medical/non-medical) problem in understanding English, origin (urban/rural), noise-congestion-invisibility (absence/presence), coherence among speakers in case of symposia (absent/present) were taken as categorical variables & age was introduced as continuous variable in the logistic regression model. These variables were introduced as covariates in the logistic regression model and the choices of the study participants (e.g. section programme better, lecture, better, specific topic better etc.) were introduced one by one as the outcome variable. In this way the role of the possible interfering factors on each of the choices of the participants could be evaluated . In our analysis we accommodated all variables together in the logistic regression model to obtain the contribution of every individual variable adjusting for the effects of other variables.

Mean age of the study subjects was 33.2 (11.1) years. 67.6% of the subjects were males and 32.4% of the participants were females. 25.4% subjects were more than 40 years of age. 52 (36.6) subjects had higher qualification whereas 44 (31) subjects had higher designation. 16.9% subjects were attending alone whereas rest were along with their friends. Only 16 (11.3) persons had some difficulty in understanding communication in English language. Medical background was found in 8 (5.6) subjects and 20 (14.1) subjects had their origin in rural areas. 54.9% participants reported presence of noise-congestion-invisibility and 69% talked about lack of coherence among the speakers of the symposia.

So far as choice of the participants is concerned, 86 (60.0) subjects opined that sectional programme was better than the main programme. When assessment of main programme was asked for 62% subjects remarked that lectures were best, whereas 29.2% and 13% participants were of the opinion that exhibition and symposium was best. Regarding the sectional programme, it was observed that 65.7% subjects liked lectures rather than symposia. In case of lectures and symposia of main programme, 96 (67.6) and 82 (57.7) subjects respectively liked specific topics better. In the exhibition, exhibits seemed to be more attractive (62%) than the posters (Table- 1 ).

Table- 2 and Table- 3 , shows the contribution of different factors in determining the choices of the participants. Age of the participants had significant effect in their choices in relation to assessment of lectures and symposia of main programme (multivariate analysis). In case of both lectures and symposia of main programme, significantly positive regression co-efficient showed that specific topic was better for advanced age people. Higher qualification was a significant contributor in preferring sectional programme as such and also in preferring symposia of the sectional programme rather than the lecture (univariate analysis). On multivariate analysis, it was found that higher qualification was a stronger (odds ratio raised from 3.2 to 9.1) contributor for preference of sectional programme. But in case of preference of symposia of sectional programme it became a weaker contributor (though odds ratio increased from 2.9 to 3.7, it became non-significant). On this analysis, higher qualification was also observed to be a significant contributor in case of preference of symposia of main programme. Medical background could not show any significant effect in case of any of the choices except for preference of exhibits (odds ratio was 6.4 in univariate analysis and 19.7 in multivariate analysis) even though the content of all the communications were health related issues. Absence of barriers like noise-congestion-invisibility was a significant contributor (multivariate analysis) while preferring sectional programme as such and also for preference of exhibits. Coherence among the speakers appeared to be the most important factor while assessing symposia of both main and sectional programme (univariate analysis). The significance of this factor increased many folds when the data was subjected to multivariate analysis.

Sectional programmes were being attended by concerned audience in the form of a relatively smaller group and the topics were specific to the concerned section. This may have been the reason of participants' preference towards sectional programme over main programme (main programme was addressing a broader audience of non-specific nature). In main as well as sectional programmes, lectures were preferred over symposia. This may be due to the fact that educated mass may have liked a comprehensive communication by a single deliverer more than a non-coherent message from multiple communicators (69% of subjects reported that there was poor coherence among the speakers of the symposia). For example a comprehensive lecture on "cholera – epidemiology, genetics and vaccine development" by a single deliverer has been more acceptable and useful than a symposium on "challenges in combating malaria" where different aspects of the topics were dealt with by different experts. This may have been due to the fact that the audience have liked a focused discussion a limited topic rather than a composite message on different aspects of a relatively larger area at a time. Lack of linkage between the speakers may also have been a matter of concern because it hinders the process of comprehensive learning on a larger topic . In case of main programme lecture had more impact than exhibition even. This has probably been a special feature of the educated audience. In spite of the lucidity of the message delivery inherent in exhibition, the study participants have opted more for lectures possibly because of the reason that the lectures contained optimum volume of messages delivered in a more elaborate and systematic manner . The completeness of a topic achieved through a lecture may have been the more attraction than the discreteness of message passed though individual posters or exhibits. Though people from a varied discipline of science were the audience in the main programme, specific topics were better in the lectures as well as in the symposia. This observation has been a salient finding of this study. Specific topics have been preferred everywhere by educated audience over relatively broader topics. People may have found specific in depth knowledge on topics like "cholera" or "malaria" more useful rather than general discussion on relatively broader topics like "environment and health" or "role of public health in national economics" . In the exhibition, exhibits have carried more impression than the posters. Participants may have liked hands on experience of operating different exhibits (instruments) more than the message disseminated by the posters .

So far as different possible determining factors of participants' decision are concerned, higher qualification has been a contributing factor in participants' preference towards sectional programme (OR 9.1, 95% CI 1.2–17.0) and also in choosing main programme symposia better (OR 40.6, 95% CI 14.1–67.1). In the preference of symposia of sectional programme also higher qualification played a role. In this case, higher designation also showed some impact (though significant in univariate analysis it was not significant in multivariate analysis). Thus, qualification (in some cases designation also) has emerged to be a decisive factor in peoples' choice towards more specific subject oriented programme (sectional programme) and also in their affinity to symposia. Increased age was a significant contributor in participants' preference towards specific topics. Medical background has helped people only in understanding exhibits. The scientific details may have been easily understandable to such people due to their medical background. Physical barriers of communication (noise-congestion-invisibility) have contributed significantly in subjects' preference towards sectional programme as such and also in the choice of exhibits rather than the posters. This finding points towards the fact that physical barriers of communication play an important role in the success of a health education dissemination programme .

Some of the earlier studies have already stressed the need of exploding the background and character of the recipient group while imparting health education [ 7 ]. Some studies have shown the success of different modes of communication in different situations [ 8 – 12 ]. View of different recipient groups are different towards various modes of communication and the success of a health education programme depends on the planning of the structure of such a programme taking care of all the relevant factors [ 13 ]. The implication of a well-planned health education programme is far spreading and such a programme has a great potential in changing public attitudes [ 14 , 15 ]. This study also has strengthened the idea of planning the health education programme according to the background and character of participating groups. While addressing the issue of imparting health education to an educated mass, this study has come out with very specific observations. It has showed that health education programme in the form of lectures on specific topics dealing with a small section is more likely to succeed in case of educated audience. This study has pointed out that if an exhibition is planned for such audience, it should contain more and more exhibits rather than posters. Moreover, it has also been observed in this study that higher age has a positive role in participants' choice towards specific topics. Higher qualification has some positive impact in choice towards focused programme involving smaller groups. Importance of basic criteria for the success of a heath education endeavor like comprehensiveness of the content, role of physical barriers of communication and coherence among multiple speakers covering various aspects of a topic has also been highlighted by virtue of this study .

This study has come out with an important but relatively less lighted aspect of health education dissemination. It has addressed some of the important issues in imparting health education to a gathering of educated people, representing different fields of knowledge. On one hand this study has spoken for preference of a well-designed comprehensive lecture rather than a non-coherent symposia while on the other hand it has stressed the need of adoption of specific topics (more so with increasing age of the receptor population). At the end, this study has concluded that while planning for health education dissemination in an educated group a focused programme should be formulated in small groups preferably in the form of lectures on specific topics, more so while dealing with participants of higher age group having higher educational qualification .

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Saha, A., Poddar, E. & Mankad, M. Effectiveness of different methods of health education: A comparative assessment in a scientific conference. BMC Public Health 5 , 88 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-5-88

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Introduction

An individual’s physical and mental well-being is the concern of two similar areas of education: health education and physical education. Both deal with habits of exercise, sleep, rest, and recreation. Since physical well-being is only one aspect of a person’s overall health, physical education is often thought of as a part of health education.

Health education is an activity aimed at the improvement of health-related knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. It is used in schools to help students make intelligent decisions about health-related issues. There are many ways to teach health in schools. Usually instructors create and facilitate learning experiences that develop the student’s decision-making skills. Above all, teachers provide health information and a concern for factors that influence the quality of life.

Health behavior plays a major part in a person’s overall well-being. Since health-related behaviors are both learned and amenable to change, formal health education usually begins when a child is most flexible—in primary school. This is also when a child is more apt to accept positive health behaviors. It is in these early years that the negative effects of a lifetime of health abuse can be prevented. Many health problems are known to be linked to smoking, poor nutrition, obesity, lack of exercise, stress, and abuse of drugs and alcohol ( see alcohol ; drugs ; exercise ; habit and addiction ; stress ; weight control ).

Basic to health education is the principle of preventive care. Health educators attempt to teach people to be responsible for their own health and health care. They also discuss the benefits of medical technology and research. They often promote behavioral changes and modifications to improve health. ( See also holistic medicine .)

Health education and physical education programs exist throughout the world. In the United States, most health education and physical education programs are managed by governments (federal, state, and local), communities, schools, and organizations.

Government Programs

Many federally sponsored health and health-related programs are offered by the United States Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Resources and Services Administration, primarily through its Division of Maternal and Child Health, also has particular interests in the health of school-age children. This governmental body develops elementary school programs on human genetics and on accident and injury prevention.

The President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, based in Washington, D.C., promotes physical fitness and sports throughout the United States. The group recommends the Youth Fitness Test, developed by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), as the most effective physical fitness battery for use in public schools.

This test consists of six items: pull-ups or flexed-arm hang, standing long jump, 50-yard dash, shuttle run, sit-ups, and a long endurance run. Based on the results of the test, children 10 to 17 years of age can earn the Presidential Physical Fitness Award.

The Youth Fitness Test received some criticism that despite its usefulness in measuring athletic performance, it was not a valid indicator of health-related fitness. As a result of this concern, AAHPERD developed the Health-Related Physical Fitness Test in 1980. It measures cardiovascular function, body composition, flexibility, and abdominal strength.

The Office on Smoking and Health, originally in the Bureau of Health Education, is now part of the Office of the Assistant for Health. It maintains an inventory of information that is used by schools and often provides them with technical assistance.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration within the Department of Transportation provides schools with educational materials related to the use of alcohol, traffic safety, pedestrian and bicycle safety, and housing-occupancy protection. Its curriculum materials are directed to people of all ages. ( See also health agencies .)

School Programs

There has been some controversy about the differences between physical education and health education in schools in the United States. Some states and local school districts treat these two phases of education as being identical. In recent years, many schools have begun to treat health education and physical education as separate disciplines.

In order to facilitate school health and physical education programs, health education professionals combine and categorize generally accepted health education concepts into easily accessible forms. These forms include pamphlets, books, films, audio tapes, video tapes, and curriculum guides.

Primary and Elementary School

Health and physical education usually begins in primary school. Activities are carefully selected according to the child’s age, needs, sex, and physical condition. Children are encouraged to participate in running, climbing, jumping, swinging, and throwing. Such play activities help children to grow and develop.

Health education curricula are often tailored to the age, intellect, and interest of the students. They may include the following health-related concerns: mental health, body systems and the senses, nutrition, family life, alcohol, drugs and tobacco, safety and first aid, personal health, consumer health, diseases (chronic and communicable), environmental health, aging, and death. Each of these concerns is composed of dozens of topics. For example, personal health encompasses dental care, personal care, exercise, rest, physical fitness, and other topics. The general attitudes within a community may affect the elementary school curriculum. In some communities, for instance, sex education is considered a vital part of health education; in others it is felt that the subject should not be a part of the curriculum ( see sexuality ).

Secondary School and College

At the junior high school level, activities are selected in terms of individual and group needs. Other determining factors are the age and physical condition of the student. Competitive sports are introduced at this level, usually for both boys and girls. General health practices are reinforced in junior high school, and new practices, particularly those associated with group responsibility, are begun.

Physical education programs in high schools and colleges often have four parts: (1) an instructional program for all students; (2) an instructional program in which games or sports have been adapted for special needs; (3) an intramural program; and (4) an interscholastic program. Intramural, or “within the walls,” games involve competitions between teams of the same school. When different schools compete, the contests are called interscholastic (high school) or intercollegiate (college).

Complex team sports, such as football and basketball, are also introduced. The variety of sports activities is increased so that all students are given an equal opportunity for sports participation. Rather than having a program with monotonous exercises aimed at strength or discipline, modern physical education programs are designed to provide students with the opportunity to learn those natural activities that contribute to their personal development. Health and physical education curricula in many secondary schools and colleges reflect the recent concerns about problems associated with alcohol, drug, and tobacco abuse. They also include sex education. Different schools have varying means of providing information about these matters. By the time students enter high school, they have acquired some health knowledge as well as certain health attitudes and practices.

Organizational Programs

Numerous private and public health organizations and community groups have an interest in promoting health. Some may focus on particular diseases, disabilities, or an assortment of health problems. Others take on specific health projects to serve their community. Many of these organizations provide informational material and allocate funds for both health instruction and services. Nonprofit organizations also serve the community by providing health-related information to the general public ( see health agencies ).

Programs with health and physical education activities are also found in community centers, fitness clubs, churches, and many other recreational and social organizations. Youth organizations, such as the YMCA, YWCA, and scouting groups, play a particularly vital role in health education in local communities. Many promote Olympic development programs, Special Olympics programs, aerobics, and exercise ( see youth organizations ).

Many large companies provide health and fitness programs for their employees. These corporate programs have been found to reduce health-care costs and absenteeism. They also improve morale, job-satisfaction ratings, and the general health and attitude of employees. The corporate setting represents a logical link between the work site and the health and fitness of the employee. Many companies have in-house health and fitness facilities, education seminars, and workshops.

The physician has always tried to formulate rules of health based on knowledge and experience. These rules were probably the first attempt at health education. Two such regimens are attributed to the ancient physicians Hippocrates and Galen . Another was produced by the medieval medical school at Salerno, Italy. The health information provided by these programs was based on experience rather than on scientific evidence. In modern times, however, health and physical education is a more exact science and many of its teachings are based not only on scientific fact but also on the knowledge of the motivations behind human actions.

Health Education

In the United States sporadic attempts at teaching hygiene in the schools were made in the middle of the 19th century. The activities were more crisis oriented than preventive since epidemic diseases were the primary concern. By the turn of the century the need for health education was recognized, but improvements came slowly. In 1924 only four states had certification requirements for health education teachers in the secondary schools. Formal health education took the form of instruction in anatomy and physiology. Health was taught purely as a science, and emphasis was placed on cognitive information. As health education evolved, health teachers became more concerned with the attitudinal and behavioral aspects of students’ health as well.

Finally, by the 1930s, the idea of health education was thought of as a distinct, independent science. The first program of graduate training for health was established at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1921. By the 1960s many institutes had embarked on the professional preparation of teachers of health education. The crisis-oriented approach to health education was eventually replaced with the modern preventive health education. In the mid-1980s at least 43 states offered preparation programs for teachers of health education.

The beginning of health education in Great Britain is attributed to Sir Allen Daley, a medical officer of health. Daley saw the usefulness of public talks on health topics and pioneered the field of preventive medicine. He was instrumental in setting up the Central Council for Health Education in England.

Physical Education

The revival of gymnastics in the 18th and 19th centuries marked the beginning of large-scale physical instruction. In 1826 Harvard College established the first college gymnasium in the United States. In 1893 it became the first college to confer an academic degree in physical education. Many colleges issued entrance requirements and selective admission for entering students. The main emphasis was on sports participation. Remedial physical education and aquatics were also offered.

By 1925 city supervisors of physical education were employed to organize programs and assist classroom teachers in many elementary schools. The city could dictate the required number of classroom hours for physical education, usually 150 minutes per week for grades one through six.

By 1930 laws requiring physical education in the public schools had been enacted in 36 states. During World War II, physical education classes often lasted 30 minutes daily and included such activities as games, folk dance, story plays, tumbling, and health instruction. General physical education programs were developed at the college and university level for the general student, and professional programs were designed for students seeking a bachelor’s degree in physical education. Professional physical education at all levels in the educational spectrum has recently undergone major modifications.

In the 1950s there was much concern over the physical fitness of students in the United States, partly because of the results of a comparison between the physical fitness of students in the United States and those in Europe. Students from schools in the eastern United States were given a test, called the Kraus-Weber minimum muscular fitness test, in 1952. About 57 percent of the students failed one or more parts of the test. In Europe only about 8 percent of the students failed. The implications of the test led to the establishment, in 1956, of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness, shortly followed by the creation of the Youth Fitness Test Battery, designed by the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation.

James M. Eddy

Additional Reading

Anspaugh, D.J., and others. Teaching Today’s Health (Bell and Howell, 1983). Cornacchia, Harold J. and others. Health Education in Elementary Schools, 6th ed. (Mosby, 1983). Creswell, W.H. and Anderson, C.L. School Health Practice, 8th ed. (Mosby, 1984). Greene, W.H. and Simons-Morton, B.G. Introduction to Health Education (Macmillan, 1984).

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What Is Data Analysis? (With Examples)

Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful information, which can then be used to make informed decisions.

"It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts," Sherlock Holme's proclaims in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's A Scandal in Bohemia.

This idea lies at the root of data analysis. When we can extract meaning from data, it empowers us to make better decisions. And we’re living in a time when we have more data than ever at our fingertips.

Companies are wisening up to the benefits of leveraging data. Data analysis can help a bank to personalize customer interactions, a health care system to predict future health needs, or an entertainment company to create the next big streaming hit.

The World Economic Forum Future of Jobs Report 2023 listed data analysts and scientists as one of the most in-demand jobs, alongside AI and machine learning specialists and big data specialists [ 1 ]. In this article, you'll learn more about the data analysis process, different types of data analysis, and recommended courses to help you get started in this exciting field.

Read more: How to Become a Data Analyst (with or Without a Degree)

Beginner-friendly data analysis courses

Interested in building your knowledge of data analysis today? Consider enrolling in one of these popular courses on Coursera:

In Google's Foundations: Data, Data, Everywhere course, you'll explore key data analysis concepts, tools, and jobs.

In Duke University's Data Analysis and Visualization course, you'll learn how to identify key components for data analytics projects, explore data visualization, and find out how to create a compelling data story.

Data analysis process

As the data available to companies continues to grow both in amount and complexity, so too does the need for an effective and efficient process by which to harness the value of that data. The data analysis process typically moves through several iterative phases. Let’s take a closer look at each.

Identify the business question you’d like to answer. What problem is the company trying to solve? What do you need to measure, and how will you measure it? 

Collect the raw data sets you’ll need to help you answer the identified question. Data collection might come from internal sources, like a company’s client relationship management (CRM) software, or from secondary sources, like government records or social media application programming interfaces (APIs). 

Clean the data to prepare it for analysis. This often involves purging duplicate and anomalous data, reconciling inconsistencies, standardizing data structure and format, and dealing with white spaces and other syntax errors.

Analyze the data. By manipulating the data using various data analysis techniques and tools, you can begin to find trends, correlations, outliers, and variations that tell a story. During this stage, you might use data mining to discover patterns within databases or data visualization software to help transform data into an easy-to-understand graphical format.

Interpret the results of your analysis to see how well the data answered your original question. What recommendations can you make based on the data? What are the limitations to your conclusions? 

You can complete hands-on projects for your portfolio while practicing statistical analysis, data management, and programming with Meta's beginner-friendly Data Analyst Professional Certificate . Designed to prepare you for an entry-level role, this self-paced program can be completed in just 5 months.

Or, L earn more about data analysis in this lecture by Kevin, Director of Data Analytics at Google, from Google's Data Analytics Professional Certificate :

Read more: What Does a Data Analyst Do? A Career Guide

Types of data analysis (with examples)

Data can be used to answer questions and support decisions in many different ways. To identify the best way to analyze your date, it can help to familiarize yourself with the four types of data analysis commonly used in the field.

In this section, we’ll take a look at each of these data analysis methods, along with an example of how each might be applied in the real world.

Descriptive analysis

Descriptive analysis tells us what happened. This type of analysis helps describe or summarize quantitative data by presenting statistics. For example, descriptive statistical analysis could show the distribution of sales across a group of employees and the average sales figure per employee. 

Descriptive analysis answers the question, “what happened?”

Diagnostic analysis

If the descriptive analysis determines the “what,” diagnostic analysis determines the “why.” Let’s say a descriptive analysis shows an unusual influx of patients in a hospital. Drilling into the data further might reveal that many of these patients shared symptoms of a particular virus. This diagnostic analysis can help you determine that an infectious agent—the “why”—led to the influx of patients.

Diagnostic analysis answers the question, “why did it happen?”

Predictive analysis

So far, we’ve looked at types of analysis that examine and draw conclusions about the past. Predictive analytics uses data to form projections about the future. Using predictive analysis, you might notice that a given product has had its best sales during the months of September and October each year, leading you to predict a similar high point during the upcoming year.

Predictive analysis answers the question, “what might happen in the future?”

Prescriptive analysis

Prescriptive analysis takes all the insights gathered from the first three types of analysis and uses them to form recommendations for how a company should act. Using our previous example, this type of analysis might suggest a market plan to build on the success of the high sales months and harness new growth opportunities in the slower months. 

Prescriptive analysis answers the question, “what should we do about it?”

This last type is where the concept of data-driven decision-making comes into play.

Read more : Advanced Analytics: Definition, Benefits, and Use Cases

What is data-driven decision-making (DDDM)?

Data-driven decision-making, sometimes abbreviated to DDDM), can be defined as the process of making strategic business decisions based on facts, data, and metrics instead of intuition, emotion, or observation.

This might sound obvious, but in practice, not all organizations are as data-driven as they could be. According to global management consulting firm McKinsey Global Institute, data-driven companies are better at acquiring new customers, maintaining customer loyalty, and achieving above-average profitability [ 2 ].

Get started with Coursera

If you’re interested in a career in the high-growth field of data analytics, consider these top-rated courses on Coursera:

Begin building job-ready skills with the Google Data Analytics Professional Certificate . Prepare for an entry-level job as you learn from Google employees—no experience or degree required.

Practice working with data with Macquarie University's Excel Skills for Business Specialization . Learn how to use Microsoft Excel to analyze data and make data-informed business decisions.

Deepen your skill set with Google's Advanced Data Analytics Professional Certificate . In this advanced program, you'll continue exploring the concepts introduced in the beginner-level courses, plus learn Python, statistics, and Machine Learning concepts.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

Where is data analytics used ‎.

Just about any business or organization can use data analytics to help inform their decisions and boost their performance. Some of the most successful companies across a range of industries — from Amazon and Netflix to Starbucks and General Electric — integrate data into their business plans to improve their overall business performance. ‎

What are the top skills for a data analyst? ‎

Data analysis makes use of a range of analysis tools and technologies. Some of the top skills for data analysts include SQL, data visualization, statistical programming languages (like R and Python),  machine learning, and spreadsheets.

Read : 7 In-Demand Data Analyst Skills to Get Hired in 2022 ‎

What is a data analyst job salary? ‎

Data from Glassdoor indicates that the average base salary for a data analyst in the United States is $75,349 as of March 2024 [ 3 ]. How much you make will depend on factors like your qualifications, experience, and location. ‎

Do data analysts need to be good at math? ‎

Data analytics tends to be less math-intensive than data science. While you probably won’t need to master any advanced mathematics, a foundation in basic math and statistical analysis can help set you up for success.

Learn more: Data Analyst vs. Data Scientist: What’s the Difference? ‎

Article sources

World Economic Forum. " The Future of Jobs Report 2023 , https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_Jobs_2023.pdf." Accessed March 19, 2024.

McKinsey & Company. " Five facts: How customer analytics boosts corporate performance , https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/marketing-and-sales/our-insights/five-facts-how-customer-analytics-boosts-corporate-performance." Accessed March 19, 2024.

Glassdoor. " Data Analyst Salaries , https://www.glassdoor.com/Salaries/data-analyst-salary-SRCH_KO0,12.htm" Accessed March 19, 2024.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

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Finding Funding for Professional Development

Kristen Butler

Kentucky Nurse June 2024

This article appears on page 9 of

While continuing education hours are required by the Kentucky Board of Nursing, it is always an opportunity to grow your skill set, develop marketable skills, and then parlay those skills into opportunities.

Many companies offer some kind of assistance program to help their employees grow and learn, but only about 40% of people are aware of their company’s policy.

Some companies will contribute to coursework or full degree programs, while others focus their efforts on continuing education, conferences, or other networking and professional development avenues either through in-house programs or external opportunities. 

The first step is identifying course(s) or program(s) that are relevant to you and your goals. Then it’s time to figure out if your company can help pay for all, or part of it. 

Take steps to research how your employer has supported professional development in the past: 

• Go through your employee handbook or Intranet 
• Talk to colleagues  
• Reach out to your human resources department 
• Ask your direct supervisor  

If there is a formal process or policy:  

• Follow the steps carefully and completely 
• Maximize the use of company resources 
• Be aware of if and when funds or other resources reset

If there is NO formal process or policy: 

• Submit a proposal 
• List cost, dates, length, location, and all pertinent info 
• Explain how the chosen course, conference, degree, or other opportunity will benefit your employer 
• Be clear and direct about what you are asking of your employer including: ■ Full or partial funding and dollar amounts ■ Paid or unpaid time off requested (or note that you’re doing it on your own time) ■ Any other supports you may need to succeed

After program completion: 

• Write a thank-you note to leadership, sharing what you learned 
• If applicable, offer to share what you learned with other staff 
• Share the success with co-workers and colleagues

If the company you are working for doesn’t offer any funding or support, there are still alternate methods of securing help reaching your professional goals. There are many independent sources for grants, scholarships, and fellowships, including a variety of opportunities through the KNA and ANA to support education, research, and other specific projects. The KNA offers a myriad of free CE opportunities and discounts for members. Keep up to date with E-News, the KNA 365 app, and through our monthly events calendar to best take advantage of these free or low cost learning opportunities. 

Researching opportunities for education assistance and applying can save you money, and enable learning that will look impressive on your CV. The information learned can benefit you, your current and future organizations, and the people you work with, and care for. 

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Empowering Patients: Promoting Patient Education and Health Literacy

Pradnya brijmohan bhattad.

1 Cardiovascular Medicine, Saint Vincent Hospital, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, USA

Luigi Pacifico

Patients are generally keen to understand and obtain more information about their medical conditions. There exists a need to develop updated and thorough yet concise patient education handouts and to encourage healthcare providers (HCPs) to use uniform patient education methods.

A thorough review of literature on patient education material was performed prior to starting the study. A comparison with different resources regarding the appropriateness of patient education was done. Educating HCPs to effectively use patient educational materials incorporated into the electronic health record system, including electronic methods, such as the use of a patient portal, to help educate patients. 

Strategies were formulated to reduce the amount of processing and attending time required for fetching appropriate materials and lead to fast, efficient, and effective patient education. To improve the physical and psychosocial wellbeing of a patient, personalized patient education handouts, in addition to verbal education by the HCPs, augment the betterment of patient care via shared decision making and by improving patient satisfaction and health literacy.

Introduction

Patients are often eager to understand and know more about their medical conditions and health situation, and educating them with the most relevant, current, consistent, and updated information helps patients and their families significantly in the medical care and decision-making process [ 1 ]. 

Patients need formal education on the disease condition; they need to know their ailment, understand their symptoms, be educated on the diagnostics, appropriate medication use, and should be taught when to call for help. Several patient education handouts for various conditions are available, and there exists a need to assess which one is better suited for a particular disease/condition encountered and provides concise information. Patient education materials help educate the patients on their health conditions, improves their health literacy, and enhances and promotes informed decision-making based on the most current and updated medical and clinical evidence as well as patient preference [ 2 ].

The aim of this study was to develop updated patient education handouts and materials in addition to verbal counseling of the patients to help them understand the disease condition, diagnostic studies, proper advice on medications, and when to call for help. And to encourage healthcare providers (HCPs) to use uniform patient education materials.

The objectives of this study are 1) the implementation of quality improvement techniques of Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) cycles on patient education in clinical settings; 2) to enhance the delivery of patient education and create awareness amongst the HCPs regarding the importance of patient education and improved health literacy; 3) to verify if patient education handouts have the minimum necessary information that patient should know; 4) to compare patient education handouts from databases integrated in the electronic health record (EHR) with standard patient education database websites like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website, and MedlinePlus® site to make sure that they have the minimum necessary information; and 5) to educate and encourage HCPs on the use of appropriate patient education articles in the EHR and utilize an electronic patient portal for patient education, help transition the patient education to an electronic form, and increase efficacy and consistent patient education.

Materials and methods

A comprehensive review of the patient education materials on the most common medical ailments in various clinical settings was performed. We compared the existing patient education database integrated in the EHR with the standard resources such as the CDC, MedlinePlus via retrospective chart study format to ensure the minimum necessary information is available. 

A comparison of existing educational material was completed by analyzing other patient education materials from resources such as UpToDate (the basics/beyond the basics), MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine of NIH, CDC, and the US Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that effective, most updated, current, and evidence-based information is provided to the patients from the educational materials.

Search words were incorporated to help search for the educational articles in the existing EHR by the title of the article. Educational materials studied were relevant to the common medical ailments in various clinical settings. The patient handouts were made available in such a way that these should be able to be sent either through an electronic patient portal or printed out.

HCPs were educated in a session with pre- and post-lecture survey qualitative and quantitative questionnaires. The impact of these interventions was further assessed by pre- and post-intervention surveys after educating the HCPs.

Uniform updated patient education handouts were created after comparing them with standard resources. A pre-test survey questionnaire was obtained to discuss with HCPs regarding the current knowledge and practices of the usage of patient education handouts and the understanding of EHR to utilize uniform and standardized patient education handouts. After educating the HCPs, their knowledge regarding the use of EHR to effectively use patient education handouts was tested in a post-test survey questionnaire. After completion of the pre and post-test survey questionnaire by HCPs, analysis of the data performed (Figures ​ (Figures1 1 - ​ -20 20 ).

HCPs - healthcare providers

"Do you feel that attending and processing times required for fetching appropriate educational articles will be reduced if standard materials are outlined?"

“Do you think that efficient patient education is effective in creating and improving adherence to treatment, medication compliance, and for improving overall patient health?”

Quality improvement (QI), problem-solving, and gap analysis

QI techniques, including PDSA cycles, to improve patient education implemented in various clinical settings [ 1 ].

Reasons for Action

There is a need for updated and uniform patient education materials in addition to verbal counseling of the patient to help them understand the disease condition, diagnostic studies, proper advice on medications, and when to call for help, thereby enhancing health literacy. There exists several patient education materials for various ailments, and the need to assess which one is better suited for a disease condition and contains concise information.

Initial State

We reviewed the available patient education material from the patient education database integrated in the EHR, and compared it with current standardized resources such as MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine of NIH, CDC, and the US Department of Health and Human Services. A thorough review of literature on patient education material was performed prior to starting the study.

We compared more than one source regarding the appropriateness of patient education, most specifically, how to use the medications and when to call for help. The quality of educational materials regarding disease education, diagnostics education, education on medication use, and education on when to call for help was assessed. The resources described above were utilized for comparison.

Gap Analysis

A graph of the gap analysis is displayed in Figure ​ Figure21 21 below.

Solution Approach

It was noticed that the educational materials were available only in printed format. Enrolling patients on the electronic patient portal helps send educational materials to the patient as a soft copy in a faster and more efficient electronic format. 

Higher attending and processing time is required for fetching appropriate materials due to the unavailability of exact materials and using non-updated educational materials. Therefore, creating an index of educational articles on commonly encountered medical situations and ensuring that these articles are current and updated might make the process more efficient. 

There is a very limited time availability to impart specific educational elements with the limited appointment times. Appropriately detailed educational materials can be sent to the patient via a patient portal even after the patient encounter has ended. For patients with limited technology/computer use, educational materials can be mailed if they're missed during the encounter. 

Inadequate educational methods were utilized; thus, incorporating educational articles from resources other than the databases in the existing EHR, and using the index of educational articles on commonly encountered medical situations were applied.

Inefficient usage of the operational capacity of EHR for patient education, using database integrated in the EHR, and lack of training were identified. As a result, HCPs were trained on using educational materials for their patients in an efficient manner, and patient education was prioritized.

Rapid Experiment: Plan-Do-Study-Act Cycle

Plan: Plan to use appropriate patient education material from several sources made available in the index of the educational articles.

Do: Counsel and verbally educate the patients, along with providing educational materials. Obtain a verbal read-back from the patients about how to use medications and when to call for help.

Study: Use the teach-back method to make patients explain back the information provided in their own words to see if they understood the disease, diagnostics, medication use, and when to call for help to improve health literacy.

Act: If a patient has questions, address them appropriately and if need be, set up a follow-up appointment. 

Actions Taken

An index of educational materials relevant to the common medical ailments in various clinical settings was created. This index of educational materials was to guide HCPs in choosing appropriate and relevant articles in an efficient, quick, and timely manner for patients in various clinical settings. Effective use of patient educational materials in the database incorporated into the EHR, including electronic methods such as the use of the patient portal to help educate patients, was promoted. Alternate resources other than those from the database in the existing EHR were utilized. Educational materials in printed format were made available for patients with limited technology access. The amount of time required for fetching appropriate materials was reduced by creating and referencing to an index for commonly encountered medical situations.

Efficient and faster patient education was imparted with reduced processing and attending time required. Prioritized health education to improve health literacy. Efficient usage of operational capacity of database integrated in the EHR was undertaken to improve health literacy. HCPs were trained to use patient education materials efficiently. 

What Helped

Fast, efficient, and effective patient education helped patients and their families significantly in medical care and shared decision-making based on the most current and updated clinical evidence and patient preference. Creating an index of educational materials relevant to the medical conditions commonly encountered thereby reduced the amount of processing and attending time required for fetching appropriate materials. Effectively using patient educational materials in the database incorporated into the EHR, including electronic methods such as the use of a patient portal to help educate patients, using soft copy (electronic-copy) reduced requirement of printed materials. Correction of misconceptions that patients may have helped improve health literacy. 

What Went Well

Helping engage, encourage, and empower the patients in participating in their own health care and treatment decisions. Enhanced patient satisfaction and better outcomes (for instance, educating a patient on osteopenia encouraged them to continue/start the vitamin D supplementation, participate in regular exercise, healthy diet preferences, and health promotion). 

What Hindered

High HCP turnover rate with changing schedules hindered consistent use of patient education materials. Insufficient number of HCPs trained for patient education.

What Could Improve

Incorporating educational materials in the video format for patients who do not wish to read or talk about their health situations. Enhanced training of all the HCPs for effective and efficient use of patient education resources to allow consistency in effective patient education.

Personalized patient education engages, encourages, and empowers patients in participating in their own health care and treatment decisions and leading to better outcomes, decreased need for excess diagnostic testing, and enhanced patient satisfaction [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. This needs motivation on the part of the resident doctors, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, physicians, and the allied staff. 

The Advisory Committee on Training in Primary Care Medicine (ACTPCMD) recommends that Health Resources & Services Administration’s (HRSA) Title VII, Part C, Section 747 and 748 education and training programs should prepare students, faculty, and practitioners to involve patients and caretakers in shared medical decision-making which can happen well with better patient education process [ 6 ].

We as HCPs should cultivate good habits amongst ourselves to ensure patients know about their condition and treatment well. This will help increase medication and treatment compliance amongst patients and enhance the physician-patient relationship to a higher level.

Conclusions

To improve the physical and psychosocial well-being of a patient, personalized patient education materials, in addition to verbal education by the HCPs, augment the betterment of patient care via shared decision making and by improving patient satisfaction. There is a need to reiterate that HCPs understand patients' concerns and provide effective patient education and counseling for effective health care delivery.

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The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Human Ethics

Consent was obtained or waived by all participants in this study

Animal Ethics

Animal subjects: All authors have confirmed that this study did not involve animal subjects or tissue.