good thesis statement about physical fitness

Health Thesis Statemen

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Navigating the intricate landscape of health topics requires a well-structured thesis statement to anchor your essay. Whether delving into public health policies or examining medical advancements, crafting a compelling health thesis statement is crucial. This guide delves into exemplary health thesis statement examples, providing insights into their composition. Additionally, it offers practical tips on constructing powerful statements that not only capture the essence of your research but also engage readers from the outset.

What is the Health Thesis Statement? – Definition

A health thesis statement is a concise declaration that outlines the main argument or purpose of an essay or research paper thesis statement focused on health-related topics. It serves as a roadmap for the reader, indicating the central idea that the paper will explore, discuss, or analyze within the realm of health, medicine, wellness, or related fields.

What is an Example of a Medical/Health Thesis Statement?

Example: “The implementation of comprehensive public health campaigns is imperative in curbing the escalating rates of obesity and promoting healthier lifestyle choices among children and adolescents.”

In this example, the final thesis statement succinctly highlights the importance of public health initiatives as a means to address a specific health issue (obesity) and advocate for healthier behaviors among a targeted demographic (children and adolescents).

100 Health Thesis Statement Examples

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Discover a comprehensive collection of 100 distinct health thesis statement examples across various healthcare realms. From telemedicine’s impact on accessibility to genetic research’s potential for personalized medicine, delve into obesity, mental health, antibiotic resistance, opioid epidemic solutions, and more. Explore these examples that shed light on pressing health concerns, innovative strategies, and crucial policy considerations. You may also be interested to browse through our other  speech thesis statement .

• Childhood Obesity : “Effective school-based nutrition programs are pivotal in combating childhood obesity, fostering healthy habits, and reducing the risk of long-term health complications.”
• Mental Health Stigma : “Raising awareness through media campaigns and educational initiatives is paramount in eradicating mental health stigma, promoting early intervention, and improving overall well-being.”
• Universal Healthcare : “The implementation of universal healthcare systems positively impacts population health, ensuring access to necessary medical services for all citizens.”
• Elderly Care : “Creating comprehensive elderly care programs that encompass medical, social, and emotional support enhances the quality of life for aging populations.”
• Cancer Research : “Increased funding and collaboration in cancer research expedite advancements in treatment options and improve survival rates for patients.”
• Maternal Health : “Elevating maternal health through accessible prenatal care, education, and support systems reduces maternal mortality rates and improves neonatal outcomes.”
• Vaccination Policies : “Mandatory vaccination policies safeguard public health by curbing preventable diseases and maintaining herd immunity.”
• Epidemic Preparedness : “Developing robust epidemic preparedness plans and international cooperation mechanisms is crucial for timely responses to emerging health threats.”
• Access to Medications : “Ensuring equitable access to essential medications, especially in low-income regions, is pivotal for preventing unnecessary deaths and improving overall health outcomes.”
• Healthy Lifestyle Promotion : “Educational campaigns promoting exercise, balanced nutrition, and stress management play a key role in fostering healthier lifestyles and preventing chronic diseases.”
• Health Disparities : “Addressing health disparities through community-based interventions and equitable healthcare access contributes to a fairer distribution of health resources.”
• Elderly Mental Health : “Prioritizing mental health services for the elderly population reduces depression, anxiety, and cognitive decline, enhancing their overall quality of life.”
• Genetic Counseling : “Accessible genetic counseling services empower individuals to make informed decisions about their health, family planning, and potential genetic risks.”
• Substance Abuse Treatment : “Expanding availability and affordability of substance abuse treatment facilities and programs is pivotal in combating addiction and reducing its societal impact.”
• Patient Empowerment : “Empowering patients through health literacy initiatives fosters informed decision-making, improving treatment adherence and overall health outcomes.”
• Environmental Health : “Implementing stricter environmental regulations reduces exposure to pollutants, protecting public health and mitigating the risk of respiratory illnesses.”
• Digital Health Records : “The widespread adoption of digital health records streamlines patient information management, enhancing communication among healthcare providers and improving patient care.”
• Healthy Aging : “Promoting active lifestyles, social engagement, and cognitive stimulation among the elderly population contributes to healthier aging and reduced age-related health issues.”
• Telehealth Ethics : “Ethical considerations in telehealth services include patient privacy, data security, and maintaining the quality of remote medical consultations.”
• Public Health Campaigns : “Strategically designed public health campaigns raise awareness about prevalent health issues, motivating individuals to adopt healthier behaviors and seek preventive care.”
• Nutrition Education : “Integrating nutrition education into school curricula equips students with essential dietary knowledge, reducing the risk of nutrition-related health problems.”
• Healthcare Infrastructure : “Investments in healthcare infrastructure, including medical facilities and trained personnel, enhance healthcare access and quality, particularly in underserved regions.”
• Mental Health Support in Schools : “Introducing comprehensive mental health support systems in schools nurtures emotional well-being, reduces academic stress, and promotes healthy student development.”
• Antibiotic Stewardship : “Implementing antibiotic stewardship programs in healthcare facilities preserves the effectiveness of antibiotics, curbing the rise of antibiotic-resistant infections.”
• Health Education in Rural Areas : “Expanding health education initiatives in rural communities bridges the information gap, enabling residents to make informed health choices.”
• Global Health Initiatives : “International collaboration on global health initiatives bolsters disease surveillance, preparedness, and response to protect global populations from health threats.”
• Access to Clean Water : “Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation facilities improves public health by preventing waterborne diseases and enhancing overall hygiene.”
• Telemedicine and Mental Health : “Leveraging telemedicine for mental health services increases access to therapy and counseling, particularly for individuals in remote areas.”
• Chronic Disease Management : “Comprehensive chronic disease management programs enhance patients’ quality of life by providing personalized care plans and consistent medical support.”
• Healthcare Workforce Diversity : “Promoting diversity within the healthcare workforce enhances cultural competence, patient-provider communication, and overall healthcare quality.”
• Community Health Centers : “Establishing community health centers in underserved neighborhoods ensures accessible primary care services, reducing health disparities and emergency room utilization.”
• Youth Health Education : “Incorporating comprehensive health education in schools equips young people with knowledge about reproductive health, substance abuse prevention, and mental well-being.”
• Dietary Guidelines : “Implementing evidence-based dietary guidelines and promoting healthy eating habits contribute to reducing obesity rates and preventing chronic diseases.”
• Healthcare Innovation : “Investing in healthcare innovation, such as telemedicine platforms and wearable health technologies, transforms patient care delivery and monitoring.”
• Pandemic Preparedness : “Effective pandemic preparedness plans involve cross-sector coordination, rapid response strategies, and transparent communication to protect global health security.”
• Maternal and Child Nutrition : “Prioritizing maternal and child nutrition through government programs and community initiatives leads to healthier pregnancies and better child development.”
• Health Literacy : “Improving health literacy through accessible health information and education empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their well-being.”
• Medical Research Funding : “Increased funding for medical research accelerates scientific discoveries, leading to breakthroughs in treatments and advancements in healthcare.”
• Reproductive Health Services : “Accessible reproductive health services, including family planning and maternal care, improve women’s health outcomes and support family well-being.”
• Obesity Prevention in Schools : “Introducing physical activity programs and nutritional education in schools prevents childhood obesity, laying the foundation for healthier lifestyles.”
• Global Vaccine Distribution : “Ensuring equitable global vaccine distribution addresses health disparities, protects vulnerable populations, and fosters international cooperation.”
• Healthcare Ethics : “Ethical considerations in healthcare decision-making encompass patient autonomy, informed consent, and equitable resource allocation.”
• Aging-in-Place Initiatives : “Aging-in-place programs that provide home modifications and community support enable elderly individuals to maintain independence and well-being.”
• E-Health Records Privacy : “Balancing the benefits of electronic health records with patients’ privacy concerns necessitates robust data security measures and patient consent protocols.”
• Tobacco Control : “Comprehensive tobacco control measures, including high taxation and anti-smoking campaigns, reduce tobacco consumption and related health risks.”
• Epidemiological Studies : “Conducting rigorous epidemiological studies informs public health policies, identifies risk factors, and guides disease prevention strategies.”
• Organ Transplant Policies : “Ethical organ transplant policies prioritize equitable organ allocation, ensuring fair access to life-saving treatments.”
• Workplace Wellness Programs : “Implementing workplace wellness programs promotes employee health, reduces absenteeism, and enhances productivity.”
• Emergency Medical Services : “Strengthening emergency medical services infrastructure ensures timely responses to medical crises, saving lives and reducing complications.”
• Healthcare Access for Undocumented Immigrants : “Expanding healthcare access for undocumented immigrants improves overall community health and prevents communicable disease outbreaks.”
• Primary Care Shortage Solutions : “Addressing primary care shortages through incentives for healthcare professionals and expanded training programs enhances access to basic medical services.”
• Patient-Centered Care : “Prioritizing patient-centered care emphasizes communication, shared decision-making, and respecting patients’ preferences in medical treatments.”
• Nutrition Labels Impact : “The effectiveness of clear and informative nutrition labels on packaged foods contributes to healthier dietary choices and reduced obesity rates.”
• Stress Management Strategies : “Promoting stress management techniques, such as mindfulness and relaxation, improves mental health and reduces the risk of stress-related illnesses.”
• Access to Reproductive Health Education : “Ensuring access to comprehensive reproductive health education empowers individuals to make informed decisions about their sexual and reproductive well-being.”
• Medical Waste Management : “Effective medical waste management practices protect both public health and the environment by preventing contamination and pollution.”
• Preventive Dental Care : “Prioritizing preventive dental care through community programs and education reduces oral health issues and associated healthcare costs.”
• Pharmaceutical Pricing Reform : “Addressing pharmaceutical pricing reform enhances medication affordability and ensures access to life-saving treatments for all.”
• Community Health Worker Role : “Empowering community health workers to provide education, support, and basic medical services improves healthcare access in underserved areas.”
• Healthcare Technology Adoption : “Adopting innovative healthcare technologies, such as AI-assisted diagnostics, enhances accuracy, efficiency, and patient outcomes in medical practices.”
• Elderly Falls Prevention : “Implementing falls prevention programs for the elderly population reduces injuries, hospitalizations, and healthcare costs, enhancing their overall well-being.”
• Healthcare Data Privacy Laws : “Stricter healthcare data privacy laws protect patients’ sensitive information, maintaining their trust and promoting transparent data management practices.”
• School Health Clinics : “Establishing health clinics in schools provides easy access to medical services for students, promoting early detection and timely treatment of health issues.”
• Healthcare Cultural Competence : “Cultivating cultural competence among healthcare professionals improves patient-provider communication, enhances trust, and reduces healthcare disparities.”
• Health Equity in Clinical Trials : “Ensuring health equity in clinical trials by diverse participant representation enhances the generalizability of research findings to different populations.”
• Digital Mental Health Interventions : “Utilizing digital mental health interventions, such as therapy apps, expands access to mental health services and reduces stigma surrounding seeking help.”
• Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases : “Exploring the connection between aging and neurodegenerative diseases informs early interventions and treatment strategies to mitigate cognitive decline.”
• Healthcare Waste Reduction : “Implementing sustainable healthcare waste reduction measures decreases environmental impact and contributes to a greener healthcare industry.”
• Medical Ethics in End-of-Life Care : “Ethical considerations in end-of-life care decision-making ensure patient autonomy, quality of life, and respectful treatment choices.”
• Healthcare Interoperability : “Enhancing healthcare data interoperability between different medical systems and providers improves patient care coordination and information sharing.”
• Healthcare Disparities in Indigenous Communities : “Addressing healthcare disparities in Indigenous communities through culturally sensitive care and community engagement improves health outcomes.”
• Music Therapy in Healthcare : “Exploring the role of music therapy in healthcare settings reveals its positive effects on reducing pain, anxiety, and enhancing emotional well-being.”
• Healthcare Waste Management Policies : “Effective healthcare waste management policies regulate the disposal of medical waste, protecting both public health and the environment.”
• Agricultural Practices and Public Health : “Analyzing the impact of agricultural practices on public health highlights the connections between food production, environmental health, and nutrition.”
• Online Health Information Reliability : “Promoting the reliability of online health information through credible sources and fact-checking guides empowers individuals to make informed health decisions.”
• Neonatal Intensive Care : “Advancements in neonatal intensive care technology enhance premature infants’ chances of survival and long-term health.”
• Fitness Technology : “The integration of fitness technology in daily routines motivates individuals to engage in physical activity, promoting better cardiovascular health.”
• Climate Change and Health : “Examining the health effects of climate change emphasizes the need for mitigation strategies to protect communities from heat-related illnesses, vector-borne diseases, and other climate-related health risks.”
• Healthcare Cybersecurity : “Robust cybersecurity measures in healthcare systems safeguard patient data and protect against cyberattacks that can compromise medical records.”
• Healthcare Quality Metrics : “Evaluating healthcare quality through metrics such as patient satisfaction, outcomes, and safety indicators informs continuous improvement efforts in medical facilities.”
• Maternal Health Disparities : “Addressing maternal health disparities among different racial and socioeconomic groups through accessible prenatal care and support reduces maternal mortality rates.”
• Disaster Preparedness : “Effective disaster preparedness plans in healthcare facilities ensure timely responses during emergencies, minimizing casualties and maintaining patient care.”
• Sleep Health : “Promoting sleep health education emphasizes the importance of quality sleep in overall well-being, preventing sleep-related disorders and associated health issues.”
• Healthcare AI Ethics : “Navigating the ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in healthcare, such as diagnosis algorithms, safeguards patient privacy and accuracy.”
• Pediatric Nutrition : “Prioritizing pediatric nutrition education encourages healthy eating habits from a young age, reducing the risk of childhood obesity and related health concerns.”
• Mental Health in First Responders : “Providing mental health support for first responders acknowledges the psychological toll of their work, preventing burnout and trauma-related issues.”
• Healthcare Workforce Burnout : “Addressing healthcare workforce burnout through organizational support, manageable workloads, and mental health resources improves patient care quality.”
• Vaccine Hesitancy : “Effective strategies to address vaccine hesitancy involve transparent communication, education, and addressing concerns to maintain vaccination rates and community immunity.”
• Climate-Resilient Healthcare Facilities : “Designing climate-resilient healthcare facilities prepares medical centers to withstand extreme weather events and ensure continuous patient care.”
• Nutrition in Aging : “Emphasizing balanced nutrition among the elderly population supports healthy aging, preventing malnutrition-related health complications.”
• Medication Adherence Strategies : “Implementing medication adherence strategies, such as reminder systems and simplified regimens, improves treatment outcomes and reduces hospitalizations.”
• Crisis Intervention : “Effective crisis intervention strategies in mental health care prevent escalations, promote de-escalation techniques, and improve patient safety.”
• Healthcare Waste Recycling : “Promoting healthcare waste recycling initiatives reduces landfill waste, conserves resources, and minimizes the environmental impact of medical facilities.”
• Healthcare Financial Accessibility : “Strategies to enhance healthcare financial accessibility, such as sliding scale fees and insurance coverage expansion, ensure equitable care for all.”
• Palliative Care : “Prioritizing palliative care services improves patients’ quality of life by addressing pain management, symptom relief, and emotional support.”
• Healthcare and Artificial Intelligence : “Exploring the integration of artificial intelligence in diagnostics and treatment planning enhances medical accuracy and reduces human error.”
• Personalized Medicine : “Advancements in personalized medicine tailor treatments based on individual genetics and characteristics, leading to more precise and effective healthcare.”
• Patient Advocacy : “Empowering patients through education and advocacy training enables them to navigate the healthcare system and actively participate in their treatment decisions.”
• Healthcare Waste Reduction : “Promoting the reduction of healthcare waste through sustainable practices and responsible disposal methods minimizes environmental and health risks.”
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine : “Examining the efficacy and safety of complementary and alternative medicine approaches provides insights into their potential role in enhancing overall health and well-being.”

Thesis Statement Examples for Physical Health

Discover 10 unique good thesis statement examples that delve into physical health, from the impact of fitness technology on exercise motivation to the importance of nutrition education in preventing chronic illnesses. Explore these examples shedding light on the pivotal role of physical well-being in disease prevention and overall quality of life.

• Fitness Technology’s Influence : “The integration of fitness technology like wearable devices enhances physical health by fostering exercise adherence, tracking progress, and promoting active lifestyles.”
• Nutrition Education’s Role : “Incorporating comprehensive nutrition education in schools equips students with essential dietary knowledge, reducing the risk of nutrition-related health issues.”
• Active Lifestyle Promotion : “Public spaces and urban planning strategies that encourage physical activity contribute to community health and well-being, reducing sedentary behavior.”
• Sports Injuries Prevention : “Strategic implementation of sports injury prevention programs and adequate athlete conditioning minimizes the incidence of sports-related injuries, preserving physical well-being.”
• Physical Health in Workplace : “Prioritizing ergonomic design and promoting workplace physical activity positively impact employees’ physical health, reducing musculoskeletal issues and stress-related ailments.”
• Childhood Obesity Mitigation : “School-based interventions, including physical education and health education, play a pivotal role in mitigating childhood obesity and promoting lifelong physical health.”
• Outdoor Activity and Wellness : “Unstructured outdoor play, especially in natural settings, fosters children’s physical health, cognitive development, and emotional well-being.”
• Senior Nutrition and Mobility : “Tailored nutrition plans and physical activity interventions for seniors support physical health, mobility, and independence during the aging process.”
• Health Benefits of Active Commuting : “Promotion of active commuting modes such as walking and cycling improves cardiovascular health, reduces pollution, and enhances overall well-being.”
• Physical Health’s Longevity Impact : “Sustaining physical health through regular exercise, balanced nutrition, and preventive measures positively influences longevity, ensuring a higher quality of life.”

Thesis Statement Examples for Health Protocols

Explore 10 thesis statement examples that highlight the significance of health protocols, encompassing infection control in medical settings to the ethical guidelines for telemedicine practices. These examples underscore the pivotal role of health protocols in ensuring patient safety, maintaining effective healthcare practices, and preventing the spread of illnesses across various contexts.  You should also take a look at our  thesis statement for report .

• Infection Control and Patient Safety : “Rigorous infection control protocols in healthcare settings are paramount to patient safety, curbing healthcare-associated infections and maintaining quality care standards.”
• Evidence-Based Treatment Guidelines : “Adhering to evidence-based treatment guidelines enhances medical decision-making, improves patient outcomes, and promotes standardized, effective healthcare practices.”
• Ethics in Telemedicine : “Establishing ethical guidelines for telemedicine practices is crucial to ensure patient confidentiality, quality of care, and responsible remote medical consultations.”
• Emergency Response Preparedness : “Effective emergency response protocols in healthcare facilities ensure timely and coordinated actions, optimizing patient care, and minimizing potential harm.”
• Clinical Trial Integrity : “Stringent adherence to health protocols in clinical trials preserves data integrity, ensures participant safety, and upholds ethical principles in medical research.”
• Safety in Daycare Settings : “Implementing robust infection prevention protocols in daycare settings is vital to curb disease transmission, safeguarding the health of children and staff.”
• Privacy and E-Health : “Upholding stringent patient privacy protocols in electronic health records is paramount for data security, fostering trust, and maintaining confidentiality.”
• Hand Hygiene and Infection Prevention : “Promoting proper hand hygiene protocols among healthcare providers significantly reduces infection transmission risks, protecting both patients and medical personnel.”
• Food Safety in Restaurants : “Strict adherence to comprehensive food safety protocols within the restaurant industry is essential to prevent foodborne illnesses and ensure public health.”
• Pandemic Preparedness and Response : “Developing robust pandemic preparedness protocols, encompassing risk assessment and response strategies, is essential to effectively manage disease outbreaks and protect public health.”

Thesis Statement Examples on Health Benefits

Uncover 10 illuminating thesis statement examples exploring the diverse spectrum of health benefits, from the positive impact of green spaces on mental well-being to the advantages of mindfulness practices in stress reduction. Delve into these examples that underscore the profound influence of health-promoting activities on overall physical, mental, and emotional well-being.

• Nature’s Impact on Mental Health : “The presence of green spaces in urban environments positively influences mental health by reducing stress, enhancing mood, and fostering relaxation.”
• Mindfulness for Stress Reduction : “Incorporating mindfulness practices into daily routines promotes mental clarity, reduces stress, and improves overall emotional well-being.”
• Social Interaction’s Role : “Engaging in regular social interactions and fostering strong social connections contributes to mental well-being, combating feelings of loneliness and isolation.”
• Physical Activity’s Cognitive Benefits : “Participation in regular physical activity enhances cognitive function, memory retention, and overall brain health, promoting lifelong mental well-being.”
• Positive Effects of Laughter : “Laughter’s physiological and psychological benefits, including stress reduction and improved mood, have a direct impact on overall mental well-being.”
• Nutrition’s Impact on Mood : “Balanced nutrition and consumption of mood-enhancing nutrients play a pivotal role in regulating mood and promoting positive mental health.”
• Creative Expression and Emotional Well-Being : “Engaging in creative activities, such as art and music, provides an outlet for emotional expression and fosters psychological well-being.”
• Cultural Engagement’s Influence : “Participating in cultural and artistic activities enriches emotional well-being, promoting a sense of identity, belonging, and purpose.”
• Volunteering and Mental Health : “Volunteering contributes to improved mental well-being by fostering a sense of purpose, social connection, and positive self-esteem.”
• Emotional Benefits of Pet Ownership : “The companionship of pets provides emotional support, reduces stress, and positively impacts overall mental well-being.”

Thesis Statement Examples on Mental Health

Explore 10 thought-provoking thesis statement examples delving into various facets of mental health, from addressing stigma surrounding mental illnesses to advocating for increased mental health support in schools. These examples shed light on the importance of understanding, promoting, and prioritizing mental health to achieve holistic well-being.

• Stigma Reduction for Mental Health : “Challenging societal stigma surrounding mental health encourages open dialogue, fostering acceptance, and creating a supportive environment for individuals seeking help.”
• Mental Health Education in Schools : “Incorporating comprehensive mental health education in school curricula equips students with emotional coping skills, destigmatizes mental health discussions, and supports overall well-being.”
• Mental Health Awareness Campaigns : “Strategically designed mental health awareness campaigns raise public consciousness, reduce stigma, and promote early intervention and access to support.”
• Workplace Mental Health Initiatives : “Implementing workplace mental health programs, including stress management and emotional support, enhances employee well-being and job satisfaction.”
• Digital Mental Health Interventions : “Leveraging digital platforms for mental health interventions, such as therapy apps and online support groups, increases accessibility and reduces barriers to seeking help.”
• Impact of Social Media on Mental Health : “Examining the influence of social media on mental health highlights both positive and negative effects, guiding responsible usage and promoting well-being.”
• Mental Health Disparities : “Addressing mental health disparities among different demographics through culturally sensitive care and accessible services is crucial for equitable well-being.”
• Trauma-Informed Care : “Adopting trauma-informed care approaches in mental health settings acknowledges the impact of past trauma, ensuring respectful and effective treatment.”
• Positive Psychology Interventions : “Incorporating positive psychology interventions, such as gratitude practices and resilience training, enhances mental well-being and emotional resilience.”
• Mental Health Support for First Responders : “Recognizing the unique mental health challenges faced by first responders and providing tailored support services is essential for maintaining their well-being.”

Thesis Statement Examples on Covid-19

Explore 10 illuminating thesis statement examples focusing on various aspects of the Covid-19 pandemic, from the impact on mental health to the role of public health measures. Delve into these examples that highlight the interdisciplinary nature of addressing the pandemic’s challenges and implications on global health.

• Mental Health Crisis Amid Covid-19 : “The Covid-19 pandemic’s psychological toll underscores the urgency of implementing mental health support services and destigmatizing seeking help.”
• Role of Public Health Measures : “Analyzing the effectiveness of public health measures, including lockdowns and vaccination campaigns, in curbing the spread of Covid-19 highlights their pivotal role in pandemic control.”
• Equitable Access to Vaccines : “Ensuring equitable access to Covid-19 vaccines globally is vital to achieving widespread immunity, preventing new variants, and ending the pandemic.”
• Online Education’s Impact : “Exploring the challenges and opportunities of online education during the Covid-19 pandemic provides insights into its effects on students’ academic progress and mental well-being.”
• Economic Implications and Mental Health : “Investigating the economic consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic on mental health highlights the need for comprehensive social support systems and mental health resources.”
• Crisis Communication Strategies : “Evaluating effective crisis communication strategies during the Covid-19 pandemic underscores the importance of transparent information dissemination, fostering public trust.”
• Long-Term Health Effects : “Understanding the potential long-term health effects of Covid-19 on recovered individuals guides healthcare planning and underscores the importance of ongoing monitoring.”
• Digital Health Solutions : “Leveraging digital health solutions, such as telemedicine and contact tracing apps, plays a pivotal role in tracking and managing Covid-19 transmission.”
• Resilience Amid Adversity : “Exploring individual and community resilience strategies during the Covid-19 pandemic sheds light on coping mechanisms and adaptive behaviors in times of crisis.”
• Global Cooperation in Pandemic Response : “Assessing global cooperation and collaboration in pandemic response highlights the significance of international solidarity and coordination in managing global health crises.”

Nursing Thesis Statement Examples

Explore 10 insightful thesis statement examples that delve into the dynamic realm of nursing, from advocating for improved nurse-patient communication to addressing challenges in healthcare staffing. These examples emphasize the critical role of nursing professionals in patient care, healthcare systems, and the continuous pursuit of excellence in the field.

• Nurse-Patient Communication Enhancement : “Elevating nurse-patient communication through effective communication training programs improves patient satisfaction, treatment adherence, and overall healthcare outcomes.”
• Nursing Leadership Impact : “Empowering nursing leadership in healthcare institutions fosters improved patient care, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the cultivation of a positive work environment.”
• Challenges in Nursing Shortages : “Addressing nursing shortages through recruitment strategies, retention programs, and educational support enhances patient safety and healthcare system stability.”
• Evidence-Based Nursing Practices : “Promoting evidence-based nursing practices enhances patient care quality, ensuring that interventions are rooted in current research and best practices.”
• Nursing Role in Preventive Care : “Harnessing the nursing profession’s expertise in preventive care and patient education reduces disease burden and healthcare costs, emphasizing a proactive approach.”
• Nursing Advocacy and Patient Rights : “Nurse advocacy for patients’ rights and informed decision-making ensures ethical treatment, patient autonomy, and respectful healthcare experiences.”
• Nursing Ethics and Dilemmas : “Navigating ethical dilemmas in nursing, such as end-of-life care decisions, highlights the importance of ethical frameworks and interdisciplinary collaboration.”
• Telehealth Nursing Adaptation : “Adapting nursing practices to telehealth platforms requires specialized training and protocols to ensure safe, effective, and patient-centered remote care.”
• Nurse Educators’ Impact : “Nurse educators play a pivotal role in shaping the future of nursing by providing comprehensive education, fostering critical thinking, and promoting continuous learning.”
• Mental Health Nursing Expertise : “The specialized skills of mental health nurses in assessment, intervention, and patient support contribute significantly to addressing the growing mental health crisis.”

Thesis Statement Examples for Health and Wellness

Delve into 10 thesis statement examples that explore the interconnectedness of health and wellness, ranging from the integration of holistic well-being practices in healthcare to the significance of self-care in preventing burnout. These examples highlight the importance of fostering balance and proactive health measures for individuals and communities.

• Holistic Health Integration : “Incorporating holistic health practices, such as mindfulness and nutrition, within conventional healthcare models supports comprehensive well-being and disease prevention.”
• Self-Care’s Impact on Burnout : “Prioritizing self-care among healthcare professionals reduces burnout, enhances job satisfaction, and ensures high-quality patient care delivery.”
• Community Wellness Initiatives : “Community wellness programs that address physical, mental, and social well-being contribute to healthier populations and reduced healthcare burdens.”
• Wellness in Aging Populations : “Tailored wellness programs for the elderly population encompass physical activity, cognitive stimulation, and social engagement, promoting healthier aging.”
• Corporate Wellness Benefits : “Implementing corporate wellness programs enhances employee health, morale, and productivity, translating into lower healthcare costs and higher job satisfaction.”
• Nutrition’s Role in Wellness : “Prioritizing balanced nutrition through education and accessible food options plays a pivotal role in overall wellness and chronic disease prevention.”
• Mental and Emotional Well-Being : “Fostering mental and emotional well-being through therapy, support networks, and stress management positively impacts overall health and life satisfaction.”
• Wellness Tourism’s Rise : “Exploring the growth of wellness tourism underscores the demand for travel experiences that prioritize rejuvenation, relaxation, and holistic well-being.”
• Digital Health for Wellness : “Leveraging digital health platforms for wellness, such as wellness apps and wearable devices, empowers individuals to monitor and enhance their well-being.”
• Equitable Access to Wellness : “Promoting equitable access to wellness resources and facilities ensures that all individuals, regardless of socioeconomic status, can prioritize their health and well-being.”

What is a good thesis statement about mental health?

A thesis statement about mental health is a concise and clear declaration that encapsulates the main point or argument you’re making in your essay or research paper related to mental health. It serves as a roadmap for your readers, guiding them through the content and focus of your work. Crafting a strong thesis statement about mental health involves careful consideration of the topic and a clear understanding of the points you’ll discuss. Here’s how you can create a good thesis statement about mental health:

• Choose a Specific Focus : Mental health is a broad topic. Determine the specific aspect of mental health you want to explore, whether it’s the impact of stigma, the importance of access to treatment, the role of mental health in overall well-being, or another angle.
• Make a Debatable Assertion : A thesis statement should present an argument or perspective that can be debated or discussed. Avoid statements that are overly broad or universally accepted.
• Be Clear and Concise : Keep your thesis statement concise while conveying your main idea. It’s usually a single sentence that provides insight into the content of your paper.
• Provide Direction : Your thesis statement should indicate the direction your paper will take. It’s like a roadmap that tells your readers what to expect.
• Make it Strong : Strong thesis statements are specific, assertive, and supported by evidence. Don’t shy away from taking a clear stance on the topic.
• Revise and Refine : As you draft your paper, your understanding of the topic might evolve. Your thesis statement may need revision to accurately reflect your arguments.

How do you write a Health Thesis Statement? – Step by Step Guide

Crafting a strong health thesis statement requires a systematic approach. Follow these steps to create an effective health thesis statement:

• Choose a Health Topic : Select a specific health-related topic that interests you and aligns with your assignment or research objective.
• Narrow Down the Focus : Refine the topic to a specific aspect. Avoid overly broad statements; instead, zoom in on a particular issue.
• Identify Your Stance : Determine your perspective on the topic. Are you advocating for a particular solution, analyzing causes and effects, or comparing different viewpoints?
• Formulate a Debatable Assertion : Develop a clear and arguable statement that captures the essence of your position on the topic.
• Consider Counterarguments : Anticipate counterarguments and incorporate them into your thesis statement. This adds depth and acknowledges opposing views.
• Be Concise and Specific : Keep your thesis statement succinct while conveying the main point. Avoid vague language or generalities.
• Test for Clarity : Share your thesis statement with someone else to ensure it’s clear and understandable to an audience unfamiliar with the topic.
• Refine and Revise : Your thesis statement is not set in stone. As you research and write, you might find it necessary to revise and refine it to accurately reflect your evolving arguments.

Tips for Writing a Thesis Statement on Health Topics

Writing a thesis statement on health topics requires precision and careful consideration. Here are some tips to help you craft an effective thesis statement:

• Be Specific : Address a specific aspect of health rather than a broad topic. This allows for a more focused and insightful thesis statement.
• Take a Stance : Your thesis statement should present a clear perspective or argument. Avoid vague statements that don’t express a stance.
• Avoid Absolute Statements : Be cautious of using words like “always” or “never.” Instead, use language that acknowledges complexity and nuance.
• Incorporate Keywords : Include keywords that indicate the subject of your research, such as “nutrition,” “mental health,” “public health,” or other relevant terms.
• Preview Supporting Points : Your thesis statement can preview the main points or arguments you’ll discuss in your paper, providing readers with a roadmap.
• Revise as Necessary : Your thesis statement may evolve as you research and write. Don’t hesitate to revise it to accurately reflect your findings.
• Stay Focused : Ensure that your thesis statement remains directly relevant to your topic throughout your writing.

Remember that your thesis statement is the foundation of your paper. It guides your research and writing process, helping you stay on track and deliver a coherent argument.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

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Home > College of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences > Departments > Sport and Exercise Psychology > Sport and Exercise Psychology Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Sport and Exercise Psychology Graduate Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2024 2024.

A Randomized Need-Supportive Intervention with U.S. Youth Hockey Coaches , Diane Benish

Theses/Dissertations from 2023 2023

Living Your Best Life: The Mindful Pursuit of Student-Athlete Thriving , Andrew Augustus

Working with Community Partners in WV: Learning How to Frame Health Equity in Physical Activity Interventions , Karly Marie Casanave-Phillips

How do college student-athletes’ understanding and expectations of mindfulness and self-compassion change through an intervention? , Blake Costalupes

“Building the Roots”: A Delphi Study Examining the Aims of a Multicultural Competency Graduate Course in Sport and Exercise Psychology , Matthew Paul Gonzalez

Exploring the Conceptualizations and Utilizations of Learning Theories in Sport Settings , Kevin R. Lou

Drivers of Change in Mindfulness- and Acceptance-Based Interventions with Athletes: Investigating the Influence of Dosage, Readiness, and Attitudes , Thomas O. Minkler

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Short-Term International Sport for Development and Peace Programs: A Retrospective Analysis and Critique Informed by Stakeholders’ Perspectives in a Two-Year Follow-Up , Adam Hansell

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

'Deporte y Cambio Social': Women's Empowerment SDP Program in Mexico , Sofia Espana Perez

A Qualitative Study of College Athletes’ Experiences of the COVID-19 Pandemic , Carra Johnson

Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Student-Athletes: A Descriptive Study of Practitioners and their Perspectives , William C. Way III

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

A Phenomenological Photovoice Exploration of Female Exercisers’ Experiences of their Body in Fitness Center Environments , Katherine E. Fairhurst

Exploring the Relationship Between Hardiness and Performance in Collegiate Baseball Players , Kevin R. Lou

Using the social ecological model to build a path analysis model of physical activity in a sample of active US college students , Jonathan J. Stewart

"Yo, I Like Your Walk-Up Song": Music Integration in Professional Baseball Gamedays , Seth Swary

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Stigma, Attitudes, and Intentions to Seek Mental Health Services in College Student-Athletes , Robert C. Hilliard M.S.

Supporting The Injured Athlete: Coaches’ Perspectives On Providing Social Support , Stefanee Opal Maurice

Being Mindful of Perfectionism and Performance Among Athletes in a Judged Sport , Erika D. Van Dyke

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Competitive Aggressiveness, Anger, and the Experience of Provocation in Collegiate Athletes , Michael E. Berrebi

Functional Movement Screen Composite Scores for Collegiate Field Club Sport Athletes at One University , Daniel Camillone

Exploring the Use of Sport as a Platform for Health Promotion with Youth in Africa: A Scoping Review. , Adam H. Hansell

Use of Four Predictive Screening Variables for Determination of Sacroiliac Joint Dysfunction in Adolescent Soccer Athletes , Brian Hanson

Coaching life skills through sport: An application of the teaching personal and social responsibility model to youth sport in eSwatini , Zenzi Huysmans

Psychosocial Development of Junior Hockey Players , Alexander John Sturges

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Players' Responses to and Primary Caregivers' Perceptions of Authoritarian and Authoritative Coaching in the Inner-City , Renee Brown

Examining the Impact of a Short-Term Psychological Skills Training Program on Dancers' Coping Skills, Pain Appraisals, and Injuries , Leigh A. Bryant

Changes in Athletes' Anxiety, Anger, and Impulsiveness following Concussion , Megan Byrd

Development of Ethics Education Guidelines for Undergraduate Athletic Training Education Programs , Kaitlynn Cullen

Using a Multi-Omic Approach to Investigate a Diet Intervention in Young Adults at Risk of Disease , Oluremi Ariel Famodu

Approaches to Supervision in Sport Psychology and their Influences on Initial Supervisees' Professional Development , Janaina Lima Fogaca

High School Coaches' Experiences with Openly Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Athletes , Meghan K. Halbrook

#Physical Activity: Influencing Parent Behavior Change Through Social Media , Adam Keath

The Effects of an Exercise and Kinesiotape Intervention on Forward HeadRounded Shoulder Posture and Scapular Dyskinesis , Lucas Klawiter

Student-Athletes' Experiences with Racial Microaggressions in Sport: A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis , Sae-Mi Lee

The Effects of a Six Week Lumbopelvic Control and Balance Training Program in High School Basketball Players , Margaret Long

Thrombospondin-1 and Cd47 Mediate Peripheral Microvascular Dysfunction Following Pulmonary Exposure to Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes , W. Kyle Mandler

The Investigation of Motor Primitives During Human Reaching Movements and the Quantification of Post-Stroke Motor Impairment , Erienne Virginia Olesh

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Effect of Lower Extremity Asymmetries on Low Back and Lower Extremity Pain with Pregnancy , Erica Casto

Do Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviors, and Nutrition Affect Healthy Weight in Middle School Students in an Appalachian Community? Children's Health Opportunities Involving Coordinated Efforts in Schools (CHOICES) Project , Kibum Cho

How Far is Too Far? Understanding Identity and Overconformity in Collegiate Wrestlers , Ashley M. Coker-Cranney

An Examination of Collegiate Athletes', Undergraduate Sport Science Majors', and Athlete Majors' Intent to Pursue Collegiate Coaching as a Career , Lauren Deckelbaum

A preliminary exploration of the application of self-compassion within the context of sport injury , Zenzi Huysmans

Psychosocial Predictors of Resilience in a Military Sample , Anna-Marie C. Jaeschke

Evaluating the Efficacy of Various Modalities to Improve Arterial Stiffness , Corey Moore

The Influence Over Time of Abdominal Strength Changes on Gluteus Maximus Strength , Taylor M. Opperhauser

Use of a Functional Movement Screening Tool to Determine Injury Risk in Collegiate Acrobatics and Tumbling Athletes , Sara E. Spencer

Adherence to Sport Rehabilitation , Kjersti A. Traaen

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Surgery and Rehabilitation Treatment Options for Ulnar Collateral Ligament Injuries of the Elbow for Baseball Athletes: A Systematic Review , Amanda M. Damm

What elite men's collegiate tennis coaches look for in recruits and how they assess preferred player characteristics , Brandyn H. Fisher

The Influences of Participation in an Elite Paralympic Military Program on the Self-Identity of Active Duty Service Members with Acquired Disabilities , Lindsay M. Hammond

The Influence of Physical Activity on International Students' Cross-Cultural Adjustment: A Qualitative Longitudinal Study , Shuang Li

Becoming a Mindful Sport Psychology Consultant: Defining, Developing, and Integrating Mindfulness into Practice , Michelle M. McAlarnen

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Certified Athletic Trainers' Abilities to Identify and Refer Athletes with Psychological Symptoms , Marc L. Cormier

Usage of Evidence Based Medicine Resources in Clinically Practicing Athletic Trainers , Kenneth G. Faldetta

Division I College Student-Athlete Career Situation and Attitudes toward Career Counseling , Adrian J. Ferrera

An Evaluation of State Employees' Preferences for Worksite-based Physical Activity, Nutrition, and Stress Management Programs , Peter Kadushin

The use of joint mobilization on mechanical instability deficits for a lateral ankle sprain: A Systematic Review , Kathleen M. Kerecman

The Effect of a Six Week Functional Training Program on Performance Outcomes in Softball , Zachary M. Mohondro

Sport Psychology "App"lication: NCAA Coaches' Preferences for a Mental Training Mobile App , Raymond F. Prior

"It's not just your dad and it's not just your coach..." The dual-role relationship in female tennis players , Olivier N. Schmid

Stoking the Flames of Wellness: An Exploration of Factors that Influence West Virginia Firefighters' Health Behaviors , Chelsea B. Wooding

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

The Influence of Gender on the Peer Leadership-Cohesion Relationship , Michael E. Berrebi

Stressors and Coping Behaviors of Female Peer Leaders Participating in College Club Sports , Leigh A. Bryant

An Exploration of Master's Degree Field Study and Teacher and Student Behavior in P.E , William J. Davis

An Exploratory Investigation of Baseball Coaches' Attitudes and Experiences With Sport Psychology , Jesse D. Michel

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Using Concept Mapping to Identify Action Steps for Physical Activity Promotion in Cancer Treatment , Sean J. Fitzpatrick

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

At-Risk Student-Athletes and Academic Achievement: Experiences of Successful and Unsuccessful First Year Collegiate Football Players , Samantha J. Monda

A Survey of Bariatric Surgical Patients' Experiences with Behavioral and Psychological Services , Jessica C. Peacock

A tailored wellness intervention for college students using internet-based technology , Alessandro Quartiroli

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The effects of a walking intervention on self-efficacy for coping with cancer and quality of life among cancer patients during treatment , Sean J. Fitzpatrick

Validity and reliability of accelerometers for examining vertical jump performance , Ryan M. Ruben

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

The evaluation of a nutrition education and fitness program with a contest component among college students using the RE-AIM framework , Michelle L. Bartlett

An individualized multimodal mental skills intervention for college athletes undergoing injury rehabilitation , Jamie L. Shapiro

The role of emotional intelligence on coach-athlete relationships and motivational climate , Eric E. Steege

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

Effectiveness of an educational intervention on the attitudes toward sport psychology of athletic training students , Damien Clement

Impact of a physical activity intervention for weight loss: A qualitative analysis of participant perceptions and expectations , Jessica Anne Creasy

Leadership and organizational culture transformation in professional sport , Joe Frontiera

Motivation in sport: Bridging historical and contemporary theory through a qualitative approach , Daniel J. Leidl

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Impact of a tailored intervention on coaches' attitudes and use of sport psychology services , Rebecca Zakrajsek

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

Does physical disability truly create impairment in adjustment to college life? , Jennifer R. Hurst

The transtheoretical model and psychological skills training: Application and implications with elite female athletes , Linda Ann Keeler

Theses/Dissertations from 2005 2005

The role of apoptosis in muscle remodeling , Parco Ming-fai Siu

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Home > USC Columbia > Public Health, Arnold School of > SPH_EXERCISE_SCIENCE > Exercise Science Theses and Dissertations

Exercise Science Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Leveraging Church Environments to Promote Rural Physical Activity and Healthy Eating , Kelsey Rothera Day

The Role of Environmental Context in Supporting Children’s 24- Hour Movement Behaviors; A Positive Deviance Perspective , Roddrick Dugger

Effects of Caffeine on Measures of Clinical Outcome and Recovery Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Adolescents , Jacob Michael Eade

Sleep, Physical Activity, and Sedentary Time in the First Year Postpartum , Erin Elizabeth Kishman

Mechanisms of Social Stress Susceptibility and Resilience in Female Rats , Brittany Sara Pate

Predictors of Driving Performance Post-Stroke , Halle Elise Prine

A Randomized, Placebo Controlled, Double-Blind, Crossover Study to Evaluate the Effects of Two Novel Hydration Beverage Formulas on Rehydration in Healthy Adults , Nathaniel David Rhoades

Effect of Action Selection Demands on the Execution of Goal-Directed Reaches , James Garrison Riedy

An Examination of Inter-Limb Functional Asymmetry After a Fatiguing Bout of Exercise in High Level Soccer Players , Nestor Urrea

Causes and Consequences of the Risk of Generalizability Biases in Health Behavioral Interventions , Lauren von Klinggraeff

Exercise and Mental Health Over the Course of a Semester , Jamie Alexis Whitney

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Molecular Architecture of Cardiometabolic Responses to Regular Exercise , Jacob L. Barber

Relationships Among Sleep, Physical Activity, and Weight Status in Children and Adolescents , Agnes Bucko

Self Reported Cardiovascular Health and Health Behaviors in Women Veterans , Seth Byland

Sports Nutrition- and Strength and Conditioning-based Interventions to Bolster Health and Human Performance in Male and Female Tactical Personnel , Harry Paul Cintineo

Psychophysiological Biomarkers of Concussion Recovery , Adam Todd Harrison

The Effects of Exercise Training on Cholesterol Efflux Capacity in the HERITAGE Family Study , Joshua Adam Hawkins

Physical Activity and Stress Between American Students and Asian International Students at the University of South Carolina , Hao Lei

Effects of Positive Social Comparative Feedback During Practice on Motor Sequence Learning, Performance Expectancies, and Resting State Connectivity , Allison Foster Lewis

Using a Multi-Direction Reaching Approach to Investigate Fitts’ Law and the Effect of Attentional Focus on Motor Learning , Charles R. Smith

Impact of a Novel Marine Algae Supplement on Inflammatory and Immune Response After High-Intensity Exercise , Caroline Sara Vincenty

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Clinical Determinants of VO 2 max Response to Endurance Training: HERITAGE Family Study , Emanuel Ayala

The Influence of ADHD on Concussion in NCAA College Athletes , Brett Steven Gunn

The Relationship of Structured Environments With Children’s Body Composition and Obesogenic Behaviors , Ethan T. Hunt

Racial Disparities in Gestational Weight Gain, Body Mass Index, And Physical Activity During Pregnancy and After Delivery , Marcey Acacia Jiles

Strengthening the Evidence-Base of Youth Nutrition Programs: A Three Part Approach , Rebecca Kyryliuk

Multiple Processes Predict Motor Learning and Impairments After a Stroke , Christopher Michael Perry

Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior During and After Pregnancy and Postpartum Weight Retention , Kaitlyn Taylor Ramey

The Influence of Sport Participation on Physical Activity in Youth , Emily R. Shull

Examination of Energy Needs and Female Athlete Triad Components in Competitive Cheerleaders , Allison Smith

Performance of the Wrist-worn Actigraph GT3X + in Measuring Physical Activity in Older Women , Michal Talley Smith

Effects of Basketball Exercise Simulation Test (BEST) On Landing Mechanics in Active Females , Madison Treece

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The Association of Exercise Training Modalities with Circulating Branched Chain Amino Acid and Ketone Body levels in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes , Ryan Andrew Flynn

Examination of Daily Steps in People With Parkinson’s Disease & Stroke: Two Steps Forward , Reed Handlery

Examination of Emergency Medical Services Activations for Sport- Related Injuries , Rebecca Marie Hirschhorn

Sex-Based Differences in Concussion Outcomes Among Adolescents and Young Adults , Jacob James Michael Kay

Piloting a Smartphone-Based Sedentary Behavior Reduction Intervention for Adults With Overweight or Obesity: Take a STAND 4 Health , Chelsea Larsen

Integrating Survivors of Stroke Into Cardiac Rehabilitation , Elizabeth Wherley Regan

Lipoprotein Discordance: Associations With Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, and Response to Exercise , Jonathan Joseph Pulama Kupaianaha Ruiz-Ramie

Characterizing Patterns of Adherence to Physical Activity Goals in Behavioral Weight Control , Melissa Lee Stansbury

Mental Health Prevalence and Biofeedback Intervention for Student- Athletes , Samantha Rose Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Leveraging For-Cause Physical Activity Events for Physical Activity Promotion: An Investigation Using Self-Determination Theory , John A. Bernhart

Effect of TRB3 on Skeletal Muscle Mass Regulation and Exercise-Induced Adaptation , Ran Hee Choi

The Role of AMPK in the Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Proteostasis During Cancer Cachexia , Dennis K. Fix

Identification of Factors Contributing to Musculoskeletal Injuries in Military Basic Trainees , Amy Fraley Hand

Effects of Spinal Manipulation on Brain Activation in Individuals with Chronic Low Back Pain , Max K. Jordon

The Effect of Patient Financial Liability on Physical Therapy Utilization and Patient Reported Outcomes for Patients With Low Back Pain: An Instrumental Variable Analysis , Adam D. Lutz

Physical Activity of Preschoolers with Developmental Disabilities and Delays , Michaela A. Schenkelberg

Reproducibility and The Effects of Exercise on The Endurance Index , Michael Dean Smith, JR.

Differential Cholinergic Modulation of Prelimbic and Thalamic Input to the Basolateral Amygdala , Sarah Catherine Tryon

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Effects of Exercise Training on Cardiovascular-related Circulating MicroRNAs , Jacob Luther Barber

Neighborhood Socioeconomic Environment and Its Influence on Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Physical Activity in Youth , Morgan N. Clennin

Calibration of an Accelerometer for Measurement of Very Light Intensity Physical Activity in Children , Joseph S. Gorab

The Effects Of Exercise Mode And Intensity On Energy Expenditure During And After Exercise In Resistance Trained Males , George Lewis Grieve

Enhancing Dancing: Examining The Potency Of A Combined Action Observation And Brain Stimulation Intervention , Melissa B. Kolar

The Effects Of Modifiable Lifestyle Behaviors On Lipoprotein Particle Concentration And Size , Ryan R. Porter

Cortical Damage and Disconnection Contribute to Post-Stroke Sensorimotor Impairment , Shafagh Yazdani

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Patterns Of Participation And Performance In Youth Baseball Players , Amanda Arnold

The Effect of Energy-Matched Exercise Intensity on Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Motor Learning , Jessica F. Baird

The Role of Exercise Dose on Ghrelin Concentration in Postmenopausal Women , Kimberly Bowyer

Children’s Obesogenic Behaviors During Summer Versus School , Keith Brazendale

The Effects of a Game Simulation on Muscle Activation and Knee Kinematics in Females , Geoffrey Collins

The Regulation of Glycoprotein130 Dependent Inflammatory Cytokines one Basal and Mechanical Stimuli Induced Protein Synthesis in Myotubes and Skeletal Muscles , Song Gao

Muscle Inflammatory Signaling Regulates Eccentric Contraction-Induced Protein Synthesis during Cancer Cachexia , Justin Perry Hardee

The Addition Of A Concurrent Bimanual Task Influences Postural Sway And Walking Speed Performance And Prioritization Across All Ages , Derek Matthew Liuzzo

Maternal Physical Activity and Cardiorespiratory Fitness During Pregnancy and its Relation to Infant Size , Samantha M. McDonald

Identifying Associations between Religious Commitment and Preventive Health Behaviors in a Southeastern Rural County , Nathan A. Peters

The Association Of Changes In Cardiorespiratory Fitness With Changes In Cardiometabolic Risk Factors , Leanna Marie Ross

The Nutrition Assistance Landscape in Afterschool Programs: Understanding the Gap between Research, Policy, and Practice , Falon Elizabet Tilley

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Effects Of Exercise On Sleep Parameters Among Older Women , Charity B. Breneman

Exploring Children’s Physical Activity Levels Through Structure and Measurement , Jessica L. Chandler

Comparison of the Effects of Energy Flux on Metabolic Conditions and Satiety in Young Adults , Molly Madison DeMello

Role Of Altered Gut Microbiota In Tumor Development, Mucus Production And Inflammation In APC MIN/+ Mouse Model , Kamaljeet Kaur

Exploratory Analysis Of PTSD Severity And Objective Measures Of Physical Activity Among Combat Veterans , Danny O. Sauceda

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Healthy Eating and Physical Activity Environmental and Policy Assessment – Measurement Issues and Implications , Rahma Jamea Yousef Ajja

Metabotropic Receptor Modulation of Kainate Receptors in the Hippocampus , C'iana Patrice Cooper

The Recovery of Gut Barrier Function With Selenium Rich Diet in Acute DSS-Induced Colitis , Sarah Depaepe

The Role of Ovarian Function in the Progression of Cachexia in the APC MIN/+ Mouse , Kimbell Louise Hetzler

Factors Influencing Level of Implementation of Physical Activity Interventions in Youth-Serving Organizations , Yuen Yan Lau

Correlations Between White Matter Integrity, Structural Connectivity, And Upper and Lower Extremity Motor Function in Individuals With Chronic Stroke , Denise M. Peters

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, Body Fatness Effect on Submaximal Systolic Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Prognosis among Young Adults , Vivek Kumar Prasad

Adiponectin and Selenium Rich Diet can act as a Complimentary Medicine in the Treatment of Intestinal and Chronic Inflammation Induced Colon Cancer , Arpit Saxena

Novel Drug 2-benzoyl-3-phenyl 6,7-dichloroquinoxaline 1,4-dioxide Induces Colon Cancer Cell Apoptosis Through HIF-1α Pathway , Alexander-Jacques Theodore Sougiannis

Patterns of Sedentary Behavior and Association with Health Risks Among African American Adults , Tatiana Y. Warren-Jones

Patient and Provider Perceptions of Weight Gain, Physical Activity, and Nutrition in Pregnancy , Kara M. Whitaker

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Effects of Exercise Training on Cognitive Reserve and Cognitive Function in Healthy Older Women , Katie Marie Becofsky

The Effects of Arthritis Foundation’s “Walk With Ease” Program on Cognitive Function , Ryan S. Falck

Weight-Gain and Energy Balance , Benjamin Thomas Gordon

ROLE OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION ON LIVER FUNCTION DURING CACHEXIA PROGRESSION IN THE APC MIN/+ MOUSE MODEL , Aditi Narsale

Longitudinal Evaluations of Objectively Measured Physical Activity: Capturing the Full Spectrum of Duration and Intensity , Amanda E. Paluch

The Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Mass and Mitochondrial Biogenesis by gp130/STAT3 Signaling during Cancer Cachexia , Melissa Puppa

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

The Mechanisms of Posterior Shoulder Tightness and Effectiveness of Manual Therapy , Lane Brooks Bailey

Optimal Cooperation In Joint Action Tasks , Scott Michael Blanchette

Measuring Organizational Member Involvement In Physical Activity Coalitions Across the United States , Daniel Benjamin Bornstein

Outsmarting the Brain: Augmenting Motor Training with Non-invasive Brain Stimulation in Order to Facilitate Plasticity-Dependent, Functional Improvement within the Motor Cortex , Raymond Joseph Butts

The Association of Physical Fitness With Psychological Health Outcomes In Soldiers During Army Basic Combat Training , Shannon K. Crowley

An Investigation into the Influence of Dietary Saturated Fat and Quercetin Supplementation on Adiposity, Macrophage Behavior, Inflammation, and Non-Alcoholic Fatty-Liver Disease , Reilly Enos

The Effect of Radiation on Myofiber Properties in Mouse Skeletal Muscle , Dennis K. Fix

Exploring the Role of Culture and Race In Stroke Rehabilitation Disparities , Jennifaye Verdina Greene

Classroom Exercise Breaks and Educational Outcomes in Elementary School Students , Erin Kaye Howie

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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Good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness with prompts [+ outline], dr. wilson mn.

• August 1, 2022
• Essay Topics and Ideas , Nursing

There are plenty of good argumentative essay topics on health and fitness to choose from. You can write about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle, or the importance of staying fit and active.

You can also argue for or against certain health and fitness practices, such as eating organic foods or using supplements. Whatever you choose to write about, make sure you back up your claims with evidence and research.

What You'll Learn

Argumentative Essay Topics On Health And Fitness

Personal Reflection on the Scriptural Basis for Physical Fitness & Wellness Practices

Essay prompt: Often, when people speak about physical fitness and wellness, they do it from the point of view of science and medicine in which physical fitness and wellness practices are supposed to improve our health outcomes.

Improving Fitness Practices And the Personal And Realistic Physical Fitness Plan

Essay prompt: The strategies to identify practical ways to enhance my fitness practices include personal training, outcome measurements, and wearable technology. Personal training is a strong trend that is

Do Fitness Trackers Improve Health?

Essay prompt: Fitness trackers are wearable devices that monitor physical activity, communicate with the smartphone, and pass information to it. These wearable devices monitor calories consumed and received by a person, as well as physical activity indicators, and are designed to help people move more and eat right.

How did you apply what you learned in your workouts within and outside of class and what were the outcomes? How will you continue to apply this knowledge in the future?

As you continue,  thestudycorp.com  has the top and most qualified writers to help with any of your assignments. All you need to do is  place an order  with us

Improving Health Related Fitness: Aerobic Conditioning Program

Essay prompt: The Aerobic condition program seeks to improve health-related fitness for freshmen. Aerobic exercising or “with oxygen” offers freshmen cardiovascular conditioning. The program aligns with the American heart association (AHA) minimum 30 minutes of cardiovascular exercise 5 to 7 days a week.

Field Observation Gender, Race & Fitness Written Paper & Presentation

Essay prompt: Students will visit a fitness centre not located on campus. Field notes will be taken noting the time and day of the visit and the approximate fee paid to use the facility.

Importance of Goal-Setting for Nutritional Clients And the Steps in the Goal-Setting Process

Essay prompt: It is important to set fitness goals before trying to achieve health goals because they help understand why such an initiative is essential. Better and practical results are always achieved when one has a specific, realistic goal instead of setting out without a plan.

Discuss the importance of goal-setting for nutritional clients

Argumentative Research Paper Topics On Health And Fitness with Prompts

The Role of Group Exercise Instructor

Ensuring Firefighters Maintain Proper Health Fitness During And After Training

Essay prompt: The article follows the status of the recruits’ essential health and physical fitness to fire academy training. The article demonstrates the changes that take place during training and the early probation period.

Evolutionary Biology Use In Future Work In Psychology

Elements of the Marketing Environments

The Main Problem with Anaerobic Training

Essay prompt: When it comes to matters concerning fitness, aerobics has always taken Centre stage. Tracing its name from the term ‘aerobic’ to mean oxygen, aerobics is a fitness regime that basically uses oxygen to burn body fat.

Effectiveness of Exercise-based Prediction in Determining Cardiorespiratory Fitness (CRF)

Essay prompt: The article’s main purpose is to explore the effectiveness of exercise-based prediction in determining cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). In such a case, it would be possible to assess their capability in classifying individuals. Argumentative Essay Topics On Health And Fitness

Injured Children During Exercise or Sports

Essay prompt: As much as exercise is important, fitness trainers also hold the same influence as they serve as the guide towards a more appropriate pattern of workout and diet for their clients.

Problems And Solutions Concerning Meeting Advancing Health Information Requirements

Essay prompt: Currently, hospital setups exhibit new Health Information Technology (HIT) innovations that help in monitoring healthcare and fitness improvement. Besides, this HIT improves health outcomes and ensures efficiency in workflow among others.

Find out more on 260+ Ethical Paper Topics – Types | Guide | Topics

Improving College Student Fitness Routine

Essay prompt: It is a well-known fact that people need to exercise to prevent being afflicted with diseases, especially those that are caused by an unhealthy lifestyles.

Physical Education Unit Plan: Fitness for Health And social awareness

SWOT Analysis of Physical Fitness Facility

Essay prompt: The Pure Barre franchise is a boutique gym line of studios that has branches across North America- the US and Canada.

The Benefits of Physical Activity for Physical & Mental Health

Essay prompt: Numerous studies have explored the benefits of physical activity to the physical and mental well-being of an individual. A literature review on the subject suggests that there is a positive relationship between physical activity, and physical and mental health.

Analysis Of Fitness And Health Claims In The Future

Essay prompt: How will you approach your analysis of fitness and health claims in the future? How will this help you in your future training endeavours?

Classroom-Based Physical Activity, Cognition, And Academic Achievement

Essay prompt: Evidence suggests that there is an observable association between cardiovascular fitness, cognitive function, and physical activity during early childhood and adolescence. The above variables are linked to the academic performance of an individual.

How the Covid-19 Regulations have Affected Students at the Gym

Essay prompt: The COVID-19 Pandemic has subjected the world to a life-threatening situation, judging by the mortality and morbidity rates. More than 6.2 million people have died of COVID-19, and over 505 million cases have been reported worldwide as of 2022 (de Abreu et al., 2022).

Argumentative Research Paper Topics

There is no shortage of ideas when it comes to writing an argumentative research paper . The key is to find a topic that is interesting to you and that you can make a strong case for. Here are some potential topics to get you started:

• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• Should the voting age be lowered?
• Should there be stricter gun control laws?
• Should the death penalty be abolished?
• Should abortion be legal?
• Should same-sex marriage be legal?
• Should marijuana be legalized?
• Are humans causing climate change?
• Is the welfare system effective?
• Do schools need to do more to prevent bullying?

Whether you’re a diehard sports fan or someone who doesn’t really follow any particular teams, there’s no denying that sports can be a great source of debate. From which sport is the most exciting to watch to whether certain players or teams are truly the best in their respective leagues, there are plenty of topics to choose from when it comes to sports debates.

To help you get started, we’ve compiled a list of some potential sports debate topics. Whether you’re looking for something lighthearted or something a little more serious, we’re sure you’ll find something on this list that gets your blood pumping.

So without further ado, here are 20 sports debate topics to get you started:

• Which sport is the most exciting to watch?
• Are certain players or teams overrated?
• Who are the best players in each sport?
• Who are the biggest busts in each sport?
• What are the best and worst moments in each sport?
• Are there too many teams in each league? Not enough?
• What changes would you make to each sport?
• Which teams are due for a championship

Sports Persuasive Speech Topics

When it comes to giving a persuasive speech, there are many different topics that you can choose from. However, one topic that always seems to be popular is sports. Sports persuasive speech topics can be about anything related to sports, from the benefits of playing a particular sport to the dangers of not playing any sport at all.

• Some good sports persuasive speech topics include:
• The benefits of playing team sports
• The importance of staying active and participating in physical activity
• The dangers of using performance-enhancing drugs in sports
• The negative effects of not playing any sport at all
• Why children should be encouraged to play sports
• How adults can benefit from playing sports

Informative Speech Topics about Sports

When it comes to choosing a topic for an informative speech, there are many directions you could go. You could choose to give a speech about a particular sport, or about the history of sports, or about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports.

If you’re a fan of sports, then giving an informative speech about sports could be a great way to share your love of the game with others. There are so many different aspects to sports that you could focus on, from the rules of the game to the training and conditioning that athletes undergo. You could even give a speech about some of the great moments in sports history.

If you’re not a big sports fan, don’t worry – there are plenty of other topics you could choose for your informative speech. You could focus on the history of a particular sport, or on the evolution of sports over time. You could even choose to give a speech about some of the great athletes who have made their mark on the world of sports. No matter what angle you choose, there’s sure to be an informative speech topic about sports that will interest you and your audience

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• Published: 21 May 2024

The effect of physical fitness on psychological health: evidence from Chinese university students

• Shuzhen Ma   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0009-9325-4539 1 , 2 ,
• Yanqi Xu 3 ,
• Simao Xu 4 &
• Zhicheng Guo 5  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1365 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Despite frequent discussions on the link between physical and mental health, the specific impact of physical fitness on mental well-being is yet to be fully established.

This study, carried out between January 2022 and August 2023, involved 4,484 Chinese University students from eight universities located in various regions of China. It aimed to examine the association between physical fitness on psychological well-being. Descriptive statistics, t-tests, and logistic regression were used to analyze the association between physical fitness indicators (e.g., Body Mass Index (BMI), vital capacity, and endurance running) and mental health, assessed using Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90). All procedures were ethically approved, and participants consented to take part in.

Our analysis revealed that BMI, vital capacity, and endurance running scores significantly influence mental health indicators. Specifically, a 1-point increase in BMI increases the likelihood of an abnormal psychological state by 10.9%, while a similar increase in vital capacity and endurance running decreases the risk by 2.1% and 4.1%, respectively. In contrast, reaction time, lower limb explosiveness, flexibility, and muscle strength showed no significant effects on psychological states ( p  > 0.05).

Improvements in BMI, vital capacity, and endurance running capabilities are associated with better mental health outcomes, highlighting their potential importance in enhancing overall well-being.

Peer Review reports

In China, while University students were traditionally perceived as being ‘blessed by fortune’ and less prone to mental distress or disorders, the rapid expansion of universities and universities during significant socio-economic transitions has brought unprecedented attention to mental health issues among this demographic in recent decades [ 1 , 2 ]. Both male and female university students commonly experience psychological challenges stemming from environmental changes, academic pressures, emotional setbacks, and health issues [ 3 ]. Mental disorders during this period can lead to significant adverse outcomes, including university dropout, academic underachievement, strained relationships, and diminished emotional well-being, ultimately compromising physical health and future career prospects [ 4 ]. The Symptom Checklist-90 (SCL-90) is frequently employed in China for assessing the mental health status of university students [ 5 ]. According to Ren (2009), the SCL-90 was utilized in 63.8% of the published articles addressing mental health among university students [ 6 ].

Wang introduced the SCL-90 to China in 1984 [ 7 ]. Since its translation by Wang from English to Chinese, the scale has gained widespread usage in China [ 8 ]. It comprises 90 self-report items, with each question utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). The SCL-90 effectively identifies individuals with existing psychiatric symptoms, screens for potential symptoms, determines their type and severity, and highlights the urgency for personalized intervention based on higher total scores [ 9 ].

Given that the World Health Organization (WHO) regards mental and physical dimensions as fundamental components of overall health and well-being [ 10 ], a robust correlation has been identified between mental and physical health [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Dr. Kishore, in an article published in the Bulletin of the WTO, notably asserted that “true physical health cannot exist without mental health” [ 15 ]. Ohrnberger (2017) discovered robust cross-effects between physical and mental health, even when adjusting for confounding variables [ 16 ]. In prior research, several cross-sectional studies have identified mental health as a significant correlate of physical health [ 17 , 18 , 19 ], however, there is a lack of studies investigating the dynamic association between the two [ 16 ].

Physical health, encompassing cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength endurance, flexibility, and body composition, serves as a critical indicator of health [ 20 , 21 ]. The Ministry of Education of China released the National Physical Health Standards for Students (revised in 2014, NPHSS) to assess the physical health status of young individuals, including university students, thus reflecting their overall physical fitness level. These standards are evaluated annually, with fitness measures assessed according to the 2014 revised Chinese National Student Physical Fitness Standard (CNSPFS), covering various aspects such as aerobic capacity, upper body strength, flexibility, body mass index (BMI), abdominal strength, and trunk strength [ 21 ]. The national standards aid educators in establishing the desired objectives for students to accomplish by the conclusion of their academic endeavors [ 22 ]. Since its initial introduction, the NPHSS has been instrumental in shaping physical education policies in China. Studies have demonstrated that structured physical fitness programs, aligned with these standards, not only enhance physical health but also contribute to academic performance and psychological resilience among students. Furthermore, longitudinal data suggest that continuous engagement with NPHSS-guided activities significantly improves health outcomes over time [ 23 ].

Our study employs the 2014 revised NPHSS to assess the physical fitness level of Chinese university students, alongside the use of the SCL-90 as a screening tool for evaluating their mental health status. We analyze the discrepancy in average scores of the sports quality index between students with regular and abnormal mental health statuses and examine the impact of sports quality index scores on students’ psychological well-being using a binary logistic regression model. To provide some suggestions on how to improve the mental health status of students with abnormal mental health status in university through some physical exercises.

Participants

Between January 2022 and August 2023, a cross-sectional study was conducted in three regions of China—North and Northeast, Northwest, and Southwest—focusing on the psychological and physical health of university students. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangxi Normal University and involved eight universities. Within each of the four academic levels at every university, 150 students were selected, totaling 4800 participants. Students were recruited on a voluntary basis from various departments within each university. A random sampling technique was applied across the different majors to ensure a representative sample, reflecting the diversity of academic disciplines. Recruitment was facilitated through university instructors in physical education and mental health, and participants were offered academic credit as an incentive, a practice approved by the ethics committee for its educational value. Recruitment and data collection were carried out from January 2022 to August 2023. Recruitment was initiated in January 2022 and completed by April 2022. Each university conducted its recruitment independently, allowing for data collection to proceed until August 2023. The participants were primarily first through fourth-year undergraduate students, typically aged 18 to 22. After excluding participants with incomplete physical fitness tests or questionnaires, data from the remaining participants were analyzed. Specifically, if a participant left any item blank or provided evidently non-serious responses (such as marking the same answer across multiple items without considering the content), we considered the data incomplete or the responses erroneous, thus excluding them from our analysis. To address the ethical consideration of incentivizing participation with academic credit, it is important to note that this practice was carefully reviewed and approved by the ethics committee. The incentive was deemed appropriate given its direct relevance to the educational outcomes of the students involved in the study. Moreover, the use of academic credit as an incentive aligns with the educational goals of the participants, enhancing their engagement in activities that contribute to their academic and personal development.

The research involved the evaluation of participants through a combination of physical fitness assessments and questionnaire surveys. The physical fitness evaluations adhered to the criteria outlined in the NPHSS provided by the Ministry of Education of China. These standards encompass various parameters such as BMI, lung capacity, 50-meter sprint, sit-and-reach flexibility, standing long jump, pull-ups (for men) or 1-minute sit-ups (for women), and either a 1000-meter run (for men) or an 800-meter run (for women). The physical fitness assessment greatly benefits students by assisting them in achieving higher academic credits and preparing them for the workforce with improved physical conditions.

The Symptom SCL-90 is a widely recognized tool in psychiatric assessment [ 24 ]. Its reliability has been confirmed by previous studies [ 25 ]. The scale comprises nine subscale dimensions: Somatization, Obsessive-Compulsive, Interpersonal-Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic-Anxiety, Paranoid Ideation, and Psychoticism [ 9 ]. In this study, teachers from eight universities utilized mobile phones to distribute the questionnaire to their students, who were instructed to complete it accurately. The questionnaire exhibited a 100% response rate and a 94% effectiveness rate, demonstrating its utility in capturing relevant data.

Variable table

This study integrates a thorough assessment of physical fitness encompassing seven primary dimensions. Due to inherent differences in physical characteristics between genders, variations in indicator selection are observed. The overall physical quality test comprises seven aspects: BMI, vital capacity, 50m run, standing long jump, sitting forward bend, 1000m run (male)/800m run (female), and pull-up (male)/one-minute sit-up (female). The implications of these seven indicators are delineated in Table  1 below. The ratings of ‘Excellent’, ‘Good’, ‘Pass’, and ‘Failure’ in this study are determined based on the specific scoring criteria set by the NPHSS, which adjust scoring thresholds for different physical indicators according to gender.

The SCL-90 scale comprises 90 items divided into 10 distinct factors. Each factor and its corresponding items are as follows:

Somatization (items 1, 4, 12, 27, 40, 42, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56, and 58, totaling 12 items): Reflects distress arising from perceptions of bodily dysfunction.

Obsessive-compulsive (items 3, 9, 10, 28, 38, 45, 46, 51, 55, and 65, totaling 10 items): Indicates an inclination towards repetitive thoughts and compulsive behaviors.

Interpersonal Sensitivity (items 6, 21, 34, 36, 37, 41, 61, 69, and 73, totaling 9 items): Measures feelings of inadequacy and inferiority, particularly in comparison to others.

Depression (items 5, 14, 15, 20, 22, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 54, 71, and 79, totaling 13 items): Assesses symptoms associated with mood disturbance, including melancholy, hopelessness, and the lack of interest in life.

Anxiety (items 2, 17, 23, 33, 39, 57, 72, 78, 80, and 86, totaling 10 items): Evaluates general signs of anxiety such as nervousness, tension, and tremulousness.

Hostility (items 11, 24, 63, 67, 74, and 81, totaling 6 items): Concerns feelings of anger and irritability.

Phobic Anxiety (items 13, 25, 47, 50, 70, 75, and 82, totaling 7 items): Represents persistent and irrational fears about specific objects, people, or situations.

Paranoid Ideation (items 8, 18, 43, 68, 76, and 83, totaling 6 items): Involves thoughts or beliefs of being harmed by others.

Psychoticism (items 7, 16, 35, 62, 77, 84, 85, 87, 88, and 90, totaling 10 items): Encompasses a range of symptoms suggestive of psychosis, including isolation and withdrawal.

Other (items 19, 44, 59, 60, 64, 66, and 89, totaling 7 items): Items that do not neatly fall into the above categories.

Each item employs a 5-level scoring system with the following instructions: None (1 point), Very mild (2 points), Moderate (3 points), Severe (4 points), and very severe (5 points). Factor scores are computed by summing the scores of each item within the factor and dividing by the number of items within that factor. A score of 1–2 indicates a normal result, while a score greater than 2 indicates an abnormal result.

Equity, diversity and inclusion

This research targeted university students across China, with recruitment strategies meticulously designed to accommodate the accessibility requirements, geographical diversity, educational attainment, and socioeconomic statuses of participants. To achieve a balanced and diverse sample, recruitment efforts spanned multiple provinces, deliberately including individuals of varying genders and ethnic backgrounds. The composition of the author team reflects a commitment to diversity, evidenced by a gender balance and a wide array of research disciplines represented.

Data analysis

This study conducted descriptive statistics analysis on the total score of Sport Quality test and SCL-90 scale test results of the total sample, respectively; And according to gender differences, descriptive statistics analysis was also conducted for the total score of Sport Quality test and SCL-90 scale test results. This study uses statistical software SPSS for Independent sample t-test and logistic regression analysis. Specifically, independent sample t test was used to compare differences between psychological state among seven Sport Quality indicators. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the impacts of scores of sport quality indicators on students’ psychological state. In the logistic regression analysis, this study used the 10 factors (somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism and others) in the SCL-90 scale as the dependent variables and the scores of the seven aspects (BMI, vital capacity, reaction rate, lower limb explosive force, flexibility, endurance running and muscle strength) of physical testing as the independent variables for regression analysis. The dependent variable is divided into two categories: normal (record as 1) and abnormal (record as 2), this study uses the binary logistic regression model to explore the impacts of scores of sport quality indicators on students’ psychological state. Making adjustments in logistic regression involves several crucial steps, including variable selection, model diagnostics, and validation to ensure robustness and relevance. The variable selection method of the manual selection based on theoretical understanding was used in the current study. Variables with a high p-value (above a threshold, typically 0.05) are considered insignificant and can be excluded. This study uses tests and plots to check for the adequacy of the model fit.

In the physical fitness assessments, adjustments were made to account for potential confounders such as weather conditions and venue characteristics. These variables were selected due to their potential impact on the physical performance outcomes measured in the study. By controlling for these environmental and situational variables during the testing phase, we aimed to ensure that the data on sport quality indicators accurately reflect the students’ physical capabilities, minimizing any external influences that could affect the outcomes. In this study, our initial target was to include 4,800 university students. However, a total of 4,484 students participated in the physical and psychological assessments, leading to a participation rate of 9%. The primary reasons for non-participation included absenteeism on the scheduled days of testing and incomplete survey responses. We estimated the required sample size using G*Power software, based on an effect size of 0.138 derived from previous studies [ 27 ]. The analysis indicated that a minimum sample size of 1832 was necessary. Our actual sample size of 4484 significantly exceeds this threshold, confirming the statistical robustness of our findings.

Descriptive statistics of total score of sport quality test results

In 2023, a total of 4,484 university students in China participated in this study, comprising 3,565 males and 919 females, who underwent physical and psychological testing. The results of the sports quality test are presented in Table  2 . It shows that only five students achieved an ‘excellent’ total score, representing a mere 0.1% of participants. Additionally, 268 students scored ‘good,’ accounting for 6.0% of the total; 3,731 students received a ‘pass,’ making up 83.2% and representing the largest proportion; and 480 students were categorized as ‘fail,’ comprising 10.7% of the total.

Descriptive statistics of SCL-90 scale test results

Table  3 displays the frequency distribution of SCL-90 scale test results, indicating that a higher number of students exhibited normal psychological outcomes compared to those with abnormal results, representing 8.7% of the total sample. Among the students, 8.5% of males and 9.5% of females showed abnormal psychological test outcomes. The predominant dimensions observed in the overall sample were obsessive-compulsive disorder (13.4%), interpersonal sensitivity (9.3%), and depression (8.3%), with somatization presenting the lowest incidence at 4.6%. For males, the primary issues were obsessive-compulsive disorder (13.0%), interpersonal sensitivity (9.3%), and depression (7.8%), with somatization at 4.5%. Among females, the main dimensions identified were obsessive-compulsive disorder (14.8%), interpersonal sensitivity (9.5%), and depression (10.3%), with somatization at 5.0%.

Differences of sport quality indicators between normal and abnormal state of psychological test ( N  = 4484)

Table  4 displays the differences in sport quality indicators between students with normal and abnormal psychological test states. Across the overall sample, as well as separately within the male and female groups, the mean BMI was significantly lower in those with a normal psychological state compared to those with an abnormal state ( p  < 0.01). Additionally, the mean scores for vital capacity and endurance running were significantly higher in the normal psychological state than in the abnormal state ( p  < 0.01). However, no significant differences were observed in the sport quality indicators of reaction rate, lower limb explosive force, flexibility, and muscle strength between the two groups ( p  > 0.05).

Logistic regression analysis

In order to explore the impact of physical fitness on psychological health of university students from a quantitative perspective. This study used the 10 factors (somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism and others) in the SCL-90 scale as the dependent variables and the scores of the seven aspects (BMI, vital capacity, reaction rate, lower limb explosive force, flexibility, endurance running and muscle strength) of physical testing as the independent variables for regression analysis. In this study, because the dependent variables (overall psychological state, somatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, psychoticism and others) are divided into two categories: normal (record as 1) and abnormal (record as 2), this study uses the binary logistic regression models to explore the impacts of scores of sport quality indicators (BMI, vital capacity, reaction rate, lower limb explosive force, flexibility, endurance running and muscle strength) on students’ psychological state. The results are shown in Table  5 , 6 and 7 .

Firstly, in binary logistic regression, the overall psychological state is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  5 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ psychological state in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity, and endurance running. From Table  5 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ psychological state being abnormal increases by 10.9%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s psychological state being abnormal decreases by 2.1%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s psychological state being abnormal decreases by 4.1%.

Next, in binary logistic regression, the factor of somatization is taken as the dependent variable. From Table  5 , it is observed that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ somatization in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  5 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ somatization being abnormal increases by 8.8%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s somatization being abnormal decreases by 1.8%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s somatization being abnormal decreases by 2.7%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of obsessive-compulsive is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  5 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ obsessive-compulsive in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity, and endurance running. From Table  5 , it can be further seen that for every 1-point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ obsessive-compulsive being abnormal increases by 7.8%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s obsessive-compulsive being abnormal decreases by 2.0%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s obsessive-compulsive being abnormal decreases by 3.0%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of interpersonal sensitivity is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  5 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ interpersonal sensitivity in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity, and endurance running. From Table  5 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ interpersonal sensitivity being abnormal increases by 9.2%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s interpersonal sensitivity being abnormal decreases by 1.6%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s interpersonal sensitivity being abnormal decreases by 3.1%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of depression is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  6 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other five independent variables BMI ( p  > 0.05), reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are two factors that affect students’ depression in the overall sample, namely, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  6 , it can be further seen that when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s depression being abnormal decreases by 5.6%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s depression being abnormal decreases by 16.5%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of anxiety is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  6 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01), lower limb explosive force ( p  < 0.05) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other three independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are four factors that affect students’ anxiety in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity, lower limb explosive force and endurance running. From Table  6 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ anxiety being abnormal increases by 8.3%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s anxiety being abnormal decreases by 1.9%; when the lower limb explosive force score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s anxiety being abnormal increases by 2.0%;when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s anxiety being abnormal decreases by 1.7%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of hostility is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  6 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ hostility in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  6 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ hostility being abnormal increases by 8.8%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s hostility being abnormal decreases by 1.5%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s hostility being abnormal decreases by 2.3%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of phobic anxiety is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  6 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other five independent variables vital capacity ( p  > 0.05), reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are two factors that affect students’ phobic anxiety in the overall sample, namely, BMI and endurance running. From Table  6 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ phobic anxiety being abnormal increases by 9.5%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s phobic anxiety being abnormal decreases by 1.7%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of paranoid ideation is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  7 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ paranoid ideation in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  7 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ paranoid ideation being abnormal increases by 10.4%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s paranoid ideation being abnormal decreases by 1.4%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s paranoid ideation being abnormal decreases by 1.9%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of psychoticism is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  7 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ psychoticism in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  7 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ psychoticism being abnormal increases by 11.0%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s psychoticism being abnormal decreases by 1.9%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s psychoticism being abnormal decreases by 2.0%.

In the binary logistic regression, the factor of Others is taken as the dependent variable. It can be seen from Table  7 that the regression coefficients of the independent variables, BMI ( p  < 0.01), vital capacity ( p  < 0.01) and endurance running ( p  < 0.01) were significant, while the regression coefficients of the other four independent variables reaction rate ( p  > 0.05), lower limb explosive force ( p  > 0.05), flexibility ( p  > 0.05) and muscle strength ( p  > 0.05) were not significant. From this, it can be concluded that there are three factors that affect students’ Others in the overall sample, namely, BMI, vital capacity and endurance running. From Table  7 , it can be further seen that for every 1 point increase in BMI score, the risk of students’ Others being abnormal increases by 8.3%; when the vital capacity score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s Others being abnormal decreases by 1.6%; when the endurance running score increases by 1 point, the risk of a student’s Others being abnormal decreases by 2.7%.

This study reveals a potential correlation between physical fitness and mental health, highlighting the beneficial effects of lowering BMI, enhancing lung capacity, and engaging in endurance running on various aspects of mental well-being, such as somatization, obsessive tendencies, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychosis. These findings offer valuable insights into strategies for enhancing overall health and well-being.

In our study, we found that for every one-point increase in BMI, students face an 8.8% higher risk of abnormal somatization, a 7.8% higher risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder, a 9.2% higher risk of abnormal interpersonal sensitivity, an 8.3% higher risk of abnormal anxiety, an 8.8% higher risk of abnormal hostility, a 9.5% higher risk of abnormal phobic anxiety, a 10.4% higher risk of abnormal paranoid ideation, and an 11.0% higher risk of abnormal psychoticism. Extensive documentation exists on the physical health implications of obesity, indicating a consistent association between elevated BMI and heightened risks of chronic diseases and mortality [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Nevertheless, a growing body of research examining the psychological effects of obesity produces inconsistent results. Most studies indicate an inverse correlation between body weight and psychological well-being [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. However, some studies suggest a positive association instead [ 35 ], while others find either a neutral or insignificant correlation [ 36 ]. In our study, we provided a more precise depiction of the association of BMI with individuals’ mental well-being. Engaging in regular exercise and making dietary changes to lower BMI could potentially alleviate somatic symptoms linked to psychological distress. Those with lower BMI typically report fewer physical complaints and demonstrate enhanced coping mechanisms for stressors.

Our research revealed that for every one-point increase in lung capacity, the risk of abnormal somatization decreases by 1.8%, the risk of abnormal obsessive-compulsive disorder decreases by 2.0%, the risk of abnormal interpersonal sensitivity decreases by 1.6%, the risk of abnormal depression decreases by 5.6%, the risk of abnormal anxiety decreases by 1.9%, the risk of abnormal hostility decreases by 1.5%, the risk of abnormal paranoid ideation decreases by 1.4%, and the risk of abnormal psychoticism decreases by 1.9%. Increasing evidence in current research suggests a close association between obstructive pulmonary diseases such as asthma, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and psychological health issues like depression and anxiety [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Previous research conducted among adult clinical and general practice populations has revealed elevated rates of anxiety and mood disorders, particularly major depression [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Community-based studies have confirmed and expanded upon the general validity of the association between asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and mental disorders [ 39 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. Our study aligns with previous research but provides a more nuanced examination of the association between lung capacity and psychological well-being.

Our study indicates that for every one-point increase in endurance running, the risk of abnormal somatization decreases by 2.7%, the risk of abnormal obsessive-compulsive disorder decreases by 3.0%, the risk of abnormal interpersonal sensitivity decreases by 3.1%, the risk of abnormal depression decreases by 16.5%, the risk of abnormal anxiety decreases by 1.7%, the risk of abnormal hostility decreases by 2.3%, the risk of abnormal phobic anxiety decreases by 1.7%, the risk of abnormal paranoid ideation decreases by 1.9%, and the risk of abnormal psychoticism decreases by 2.0%. Additionally, we found that for every point increase in lower limb explosive force, there is a 2.0% increase in the risk of abnormal anxiety among students, indicating an adverse effect on mental health. There is considerable evidence substantiating the link between physical activity and different mental health results throughout all stages of life [ 55 , 56 , 57 ]. Long-term running interventions frequently enhance mental health metrics, particularly depression indicators, among individuals with psychosis [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. Some prior research suggests that running enhances mood, especially when conducted outdoors, across various intensities, except for an intensity significantly above the lactate threshold [ 67 , 68 , 69 ]. Our study supplements previous research by emphasizing the impact of endurance running scores on psychological resilience and validating the significant role of endurance running in various psychological indicators, with particular effectiveness observed in depression indicators.

The study delves into the complex association between physical fitness and mental health, revealing a potential correlation between these two domains. It demonstrates the substantial impact of interventions aimed at lowering BMI, enhancing lung capacity, and engaging in endurance running on various facets of mental well-being, including somatization, obsessive tendencies, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychosis. These findings underscore the pivotal role of physical activity in promoting mental health. This potential correlation between physical fitness and mental health can be elucidated through various underlying mechanisms [ 70 ]. Firstly, interventions targeting BMI reduction through regular exercise and dietary adjustments show promise in alleviating somatic symptoms associated with psychological distress. These effects may be attributed to exercise-induced physiological changes, such as improved cardiovascular health and hormonal regulation, which positively impact mood and emotional well-being. Similarly, enhancements in lung capacity and engagement in endurance running have been associated with reduced obsessive-compulsive tendencies, possibly mediated by neurotransmitter modulation in the brain. Furthermore, the release of endorphins and serotonin during exercise may further contribute to the amelioration of depressive and anxious symptoms, thereby enhancing mental well-being. Moreover, endurance running has been shown to facilitate emotional regulation and empathy by fostering social bonding and communication skills, thereby enhancing interpersonal sensitivity. Physical activity also serves as a constructive outlet for managing stress and aggression, leading to decreased hostility and improved emotional well-being. Additionally, interventions aimed at enhancing lung capacity and engaging in endurance running may mitigate symptoms of phobic-anxiety disorders by promoting relaxation and stress relief. Furthermore, strategies targeting BMI reduction and regular physical activity maintenance can contribute to reduced paranoid ideation by bolstering self-esteem and self-efficacy.

In summary, these findings offer valuable insights into strategies for enhancing overall health and well-being, emphasizing the importance of integrating physical activity into mental health management approaches. By understanding the potential correlation between physical fitness and mental health and implementing appropriate interventions, individuals can take proactive steps towards improving their mental well-being and achieving a better quality of life.

Limitations

While our study offers valuable insights into the correlation between physical fitness and mental health, it is not without limitations. The cross-sectional design limits our ability to determine causality, and selection bias may arise since participants likely have higher physical activity levels than the general population, potentially skewing mental health outcomes positively. Additionally, the use of self-reported mental health measures might introduce reporting bias, affecting the accuracy of associations. The generalizability of our findings could also be influenced by the demographic and geographic characteristics of our sample. Furthermore, this study did not employ multilevel modeling, despite the hierarchical nature of the data, due to complexity and sample size constraints, which might limit the added value of this approach for our specific research questions. Addressing these biases and limitations in future longitudinal studies, and considering multilevel models, could strengthen the validity of our findings and enable a more comprehensive interpretation of interactions across different levels of data. Future research involving diverse populations across various settings is essential to validate and expand our conclusions on a global scale.

In summary, lowering BMI, increasing lung capacity, and improving endurance running have shown promising benefits for various dimensions of mental health. Incorporating regular physical activity into lifestyle interventions may serve as an effective strategy for promoting holistic well-being and reducing the burden of mental health disorders. Further research is warranted to explore the mechanisms underlying these associations and to develop targeted interventions for improving mental health outcomes through physical fitness interventions.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Ma, S., Xu, Y., Xu, S. et al. The effect of physical fitness on psychological health: evidence from Chinese university students. BMC Public Health 24 , 1365 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18841-y

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BRIEF RESEARCH REPORT article

Physical fitness and exercise during the covid-19 pandemic: a qualitative enquiry.

• 1 Freelance Researcher and Activist, Jaipur, India
• 2 Department of Psychology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
• 3 Amity Institute of Behavioural and Allied Sciences (AIBAS), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, India

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought this fast-moving world to a standstill. The impact of this pandemic is massive, and the only strategy to curb the rapid spread of the disease is to follow social distancing. The imposed lockdown, resulting in the closure of business activities, public places, fitness and activity centers, and overall social life, has hampered many aspects of the lives of people including routine fitness activities of fitness freaks, which has resulted in various psychological issues and serious fitness and health concerns. In the present paper, the authors aimed at understanding the unique experiences of fitness freaks during the period of lockdown due to COVID-19. The paper also intended to explore the ways in which alternate exercises and fitness activities at home helped them deal with psychological issues and physical health consequences. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 22 adults who were regularly working out in the gym before the COVID-19 pandemic but stayed at home during the nationwide lockdown. The analysis revealed that during the initial phase of lockdown, the participants had a negative situational perception and a lack of motivation for fitness exercise. They also showed psychological health concerns and overdependence on social media in spending their free time. However, there was a gradual increase in positive self-perception and motivation to overcome their dependence on gym and fitness equipment and to continue fitness exercises at home. Participants also tended to play music as a tool while working out. The regular fitness workout at home during the lockdown greatly helped them to overcome psychological issues and fitness concerns.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic is a massive global health crisis ( Bavel et al., 2020 ) and rapidly spreading pandemic ( Bentlage et al., 2020 ) of recent times. As compared to the earlier pandemics the world has witnessed, the current COVID-19 pandemic is now on the top of the list in terms of worldwide coverage. This is the first time the whole world is affected simultaneously and struck strongly in a very short span of time. Initially, the death rate due to COVID-19 was around 2%, which has now increased to around 4–6% ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2020 ). The statistics does not look so severe, but the total number of cases and the rate at which these cases are increasing day by day make the situation alarming. Exponential growth in COVID-19 cases has led to the isolation of billions of people and worldwide lockdown. COVID-19 has affected the life of nearly each person around the world. The difference between personal or professional lives has narrowed due to work-from-home instructions, and people’s lives are revolving around these two due to the lockdown. People have also been pondering over a vital concern at home, i.e., the importance of their health and fitness.

Although imposing lockdown or quarantine for the population has been one of the widely used measures across the world to stop the rapid spread of COVID-19, it has severe consequences too. Recent multinational investigations have shown the negative effect of COVID-19 restrictions on social participation, life satisfaction ( Ammar et al., 2020b ), mental well-being, psychosocial and emotional disorders as well as on sleep quality ( Xiao et al., 2020 ), and employment status ( Ammar et al., 2020d ). Announcement of a sudden lockdown of all services and activities, except few essential services, by the authorities has resulted in a radical change in the lifestyle of affected people ( Jiménez-Pavón et al., 2020 ) and has severely impaired their mental health, which has been manifested in the form of increased anxiety, stress, and depression ( Chtourou et al., 2020 ). The sudden changes in people’s lifestyle include, but are not limited to, physical activities and exercise. Ammar et al. (2020a) have reported that COVID-19 home confinement has resulted in a decrease in all levels of physical activities and about 28% increase in daily sitting time as well as increase in unhealthy pattern of food consumption. Similar results are also reported by other researchers ( Ammar et al., 2020c ; de Oliveira Neto et al., 2020 ) as well. Although these abrupt changes have influenced every individual, many people who were regularly following their fitness activities in gyms, or in the ground, or other places before the lockdown have been affected intensely. Closure of fitness centers and public parks has forced people to stay at home, which has disturbed their daily routines and hampered their fitness activities. While compulsion to stay at home for a long period of time poses a challenge to the continuity of physical fitness, the experience of hampered physical activities, restricted social communication, uncertainty, and helplessness leads to the emergence of psychological and physical health issues ( Ammar et al., 2020a , c ). Varshney et al. (2020) have found that psychological problems are occurring in adults while adjusting to the current lifestyle in accordance to the fear of contracting the COVID-19 disease. However, effective coping strategies, psychological resources, and regular physical exercise can be helpful in dealing with such health-related problems during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Chtourou et al., 2020 ).

It is important to note that physical activities (PA) and exercise not only maintain physical and psychological health but also help our body to respond to the negative consequences of several diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and respiratory diseases ( Owen et al., 2010 ; Lavie et al., 2019 ; Jiménez-Pavón et al., 2020 ). In a recent review of 31 published studies, Bentlage et al. (2020) concluded that physical inactivity due to current pandemic restrictions is a major public health issue that is a prominent risk factor for decreased life expectancy and many physical health problems ( Jurak et al., 2020 ). Exercise is shown to keep other physical functions (respiratory, circulatory, muscular, nervous, and skeletal systems) intact and supports other systems (endocrine, digestive, immune, or renal systems) that are important in fighting any known or unknown threat to our body ( Lavie et al., 2019 ; Jiménez-Pavón et al., 2020 ).

Regular physical activity, while taking other precautions, is also considered effective in dealing with the health outcomes of the COVID-19 pandemic ( Chen et al., 2020 ). Researchers from the University of Virginia Health System ( Yan and Spaulding, 2020 ) suggests that regular exercise might significantly reduce the risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome, which is one of the main causes of death in COVID-19 patients. Exercise and physical activities have important functions for individuals’ psychological well-being as well ( Stathi et al., 2002 ; Lehnert et al., 2012 ). There is sufficient literature to show that exercise can play a vital role in the promotion of positive mental health and well-being (e.g., Mazyarkin et al., 2019 ). However, when health promotion activities such as sports and regular gym exercises are not available in this pandemic situation, it is very difficult for individuals to meet the general WHO guidelines (150 min moderate to mild PA or 75 min intensive PA per week or combination of both) (cf. Bentlage et al., 2020 ). Amidst this pandemic-related restriction (home confinements and closed gyms, parks, and fitness centers), how people cope up and find ways to continue their physical fitness remains an important question.

Rationale for the Present Research

Since the onset of this disease, people have been confined to their homes, which has not only resulted in various psychological health issues but also challenged their physical fitness and health ( Ammar et al., 2020a , b , c , d ; Chtourou et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). Although this pandemic situation has led to the unexpected cessation of almost all the outside routine activities of all the individuals, it has profoundly hampered the physical activities of fitness freaks (those who regularly go to the gym for their physical fitness), as gyms and other such places have been shut down due to the lockdown. However, studies addressing the issues of fitness freaks, who used to spend a significant amount of time for regular workout in order to maintain their physical fitness, health, and appearance, seem to have found no place so far in the literature in relation to the current pandemic situation. Supposedly, the unique experiences of such people, their health issues, and the ways in which they have dealt with these issues during the COVID-19 pandemic have remained underexplored.

Also, it is well-known that the COVID-19 pandemic has made it difficult for people to adequately maintain their normal physical activity patterns at home ( Ammar et al., 2020a ). There are plenty of studies that have addressed the impact of COVID-19 on physical activities of the general public ( Ammar et al., 2020a , b , c , d ; Chtourou et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ), demonstrated the significant decrease in physical activities and exercise patterns, and illustrated its ill effects on physical and mental health status. There is also a growing body of literature that suggests strategies to encourage people to be involved in home-based exercises and fitness activities ( Ammar et al., 2020a , b , c , d ; Chtourou et al., 2020 ; de Oliveira Neto et al., 2020 ). However, all these studies were conducted in the earlier phase of the pandemic. There is a lack of studies investigating the way in which people have dealt with the problems arising from the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown/home confinement. In fact, it would be interesting to explore how and to what extent people were able to follow and benefited from the workout at home advices. Therefore, the present research aims at understanding people’s unique experiences during the period of lockdown due to COVID-19 and exploring the ways in which regular exercise engagements helped them deal with the psychological and physical consequences of home confinement.

In order to gain a rich and extensive understanding of experiences into people’s lives during this pandemic and their efforts to maintain a healthy lifestyle, a qualitative approach was adopted for the study. We used Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to delve into the participants’ perceptions and to provide a close picture of the participants’ unique experiences during the lockdown period.

Participants

A homogeneous sample of 22 participants was selected for this study. The criterion-based purposive sampling technique was used to identify and select the participants. We first contacted the gym owners/trainers and sought their consent to help us in the conduction of this study. Upon consent, we requested them to provide us with the details of their regular gym members who continuously go to the gym and do fitness exercises for at least 6 months prior to the imposed lockdown. Once the list was generated, the prospective participants were then connected by phone, were explained the purpose of the study, and were requested for their consent to participate. Those who consented for their inclusion in the study were then asked some questions based on the pre-decided inclusion and exclusion criteria for the study. On the basis of this information, those participants who met the inclusion criteria (i.e., those who were continuing fitness workout in their home or hostels and were following strict home confinement measures during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown) were further contacted and requested to provide an appointment for a telephone interview.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria for the Participants

The participants meeting the following criteria were included in the study:

• Individuals aged 18 years or older.

• Individuals with no known history of physical and/or psychological illness.

• Individuals who were doing regular gym workout for the last 6 months or more for at least 45 min daily before COVID-19.

• Individuals who were completely dependent on gym exercise for their physical fitness.

However, individuals meeting the following criteria were not included in the study:

• Individuals who were irregular or occasional gym visitors.

• Individuals who were practicing other physical exercises besides gym workout.

• Individuals with any physical and/or psychological conditions or individuals on any kind of medication.

Table 1 presents the demographic and exercise characteristics of the participants included in this study.

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants.

The purpose, importance, and relevance of the study were explained to the participants, and informed consent was obtained for their participation. All the participants were assured of the confidentiality of their responses and identity. Upon consent, the participants were requested to share their convenient time for a telephone interview. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted to explore the exclusive experiences of the participants with regard to their physical fitness during the lockdown. An interview schedule composed of non-directive, open-ended questions was prepared. There was no fixed order of questions; they were modified and re-modified as per the flow of the conversation with each participant. Some of the main questions prepared for the semi-structured interviews included “What is your perception of this situation we are currently living in?,” “What is your lockdown experience?,” “How frequently you used to go to gym for exercise before the lockdown was imposed?,” “How do you manage exercise at home?,” “What is your exercise schedule now?,” “What changes did you perceive in yourself during this lockdown?,” “How are you coping with this lockdown?,” “Did you experience any psychological issue during this period of time?,” “How do physical exercises help in combating the crisis you are facing?,” “What background aid do you use while exercising at home?,” “What is the need to use such aids while exercising?,” “How does fatigue impact you when you exercise during the lockdown?,” “What is the importance of proper sleep in following a regular schedule of exercise during this lockdown?,” “Do you miss your gym mates?,” “Do you feel you share an identity with your fellow gym mates?,” etc. Additional probing questions were also added as the need occurred during the individual interviews. In addition questions were also asked t o understand the differences between their pre and during COVID-19 lockdown fitness exercise patterns (see Table 2 ). All the interviews were conducted in the native language of the participants in Hindi and English. With due permission from the participants, the interviews were recorded. The interview time duration range was between 20 and 30 min. All the interviews conducted in Hindi were transcribed and then translated in English by the researchers. The translated interviews were then proofread by a native English speaker for correctness and consistency.

Table 2. Pre- and during COVID fitness exercise information of the participants.

Analysis and Results

All the recorded interviews were transcribed. These transcripts were then analyzed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) framework to identify the participants’ experiences of lockdown, their alternative choice to continue their fitness routine, and its impact on their health. A stepwise progression method was used to analyze the data. At first, the researchers read the transcripts many times to get a deeper understanding of the experiences as described by the participants. In order to gain as close an understanding of the data as possible, the researchers listened to the audio recordings of the participants while reading the transcribed data.

In the following step, the attempts were made to transform the transcripts into a conceptual framework that was deeply connected to the participant’s original verbatim in order to identify emergent themes (see Table 3 ).

Table 3. Major themes and subthemes that emerged from the interviews indicating participants’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic.

After identifying the emerging themes, the transcripts were read again so as to cluster these emergent themes together according to their similarities at the basic level. In this process, some themes emerged as the broad themes under which subthemes were incorporated. The major themes and subthemes that emerged in the analysis are presented in Table 3 .

Table 3 presents six major themes describing the experiences of participants with regard to the COVID-19 pandemic and their efforts to maintain a healthy lifestyle. The following section discusses each of these themes and its subthemes along with the relevant excerpts from participants’ experiences.

Psychological Health Issues

Almost every participant reported facing psychological health issues linked to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown. Participants experienced frustration, anxiety, fear, and stress. For example, participant 11 reported,

“I am experiencing frustration daily for spending my 24 by 7 time at home, looking at same faces and am not allowed to go anywhere. Anxiety of work and its upcoming scenarios tickle my mind a lot. What if I have to do my job virtually for a lifetime? ………….Like that. And especially experiencing a fear of losing my ever charming personality, the economic status of family, no wages or less wages, fewer opportunities in future, job shift, health care of my family.”

The closure due to the pandemic has created a state of uncertainty about an individual’s own future as well as about the future of the family and community, which in turn is being reflected in terms of psychological states of frustration, anxiety, fear, and stress.

Individuals stuck at their homes without a clearly defined routine and work are not able to prioritize their work schedules, resulting in the experience of unexplained laziness and fatigue. Participant 7, for example, reports that

“Physical fatigue has reduced as there is no physical load or fixed working hours, but the mental fatigue and mental pressure has increased manifolds. Worries have increased. Spare time is more than what was required and due to this lethargy has increased. Frustration level is going up.”

The monotonous and closed life cycle of one confined to one’s own home has also resulted in extreme disturbances of one’s sleep cycle. For example, Participant 5 reports,

“Sleep a lot, a lot!! Just imagine I have been sleeping 10 to 12 hours after the lockdown. My sleep pattern was set earlier due to office, but it is disturbed now in the absence of a routine. I have virtual meetings now also, but if the meeting is to start at 10, I would get up at 9.40, wash my face and attend the meeting. After that I feel like taking a nap again. I sleep for 8 hours wake up and exercise in the morning, but I have the liberty to be flexible with my time. seriously I am craving for gyms to open, my trainer to keep a check on me, scold me, I really want complete sleep and a routine.”

It is therefore evident from these examples that the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the experience of psychological problems characterized by frustration, anxiety, fear, and stress. The sleep–wake cycle is interrupted, leading to a state of laziness and mental fatigue.

Lack of Motivation for Fitness

The closure of gyms and other fitness activity centers, including sports stadiums, morning walk parks, etc., and the heightened psychological health issues have resulted in the lack of fitness motivation. For example, participant 1 reports,

“See, ultimately due to the shutdown of gym during this pandemic, my rhythm has been disturbed, you are getting it? I have had a tight schedule always due to my profession but each evening I used to hit the gym daily…………. I mean, that zeal is gone, ……….now also I am getting time in the evening but then also I am unable to ask myself to work out because that gym environment is gone, the gym people as you would see other fellows at gym, that would motivate you, their body gives you an inspiration that how he or she is that fit, they motivate you, here I share an identity with them, I find those people as source of my motivation to physical exercise, those people give you so much morale and now that is lost totally, I literally crave for that.”

The motivation for fitness is not only internal but also external. People are motivated when they observe others doing fitness activities. Gym mates and their physique work as motivating factors for individuals to engage in a regular and routine gym activity. Participant 10 said in frustration that,

“Almost all gone, ………….the motivation is the most ruined thing today, ……….talking about my workout, I have been hitting the gym since I was 22………, Imagine how much that space motivated me, I miss that, my pals there……., not because we are friends or something, see gym doesn’t provide you an environment to make pals or something as people change their gyms and many a thing but, they give you a lot of competition, you become jealous of their appearance and later that workout that space becomes your habit, I miss that, say like anything, but still I am trying.”

It is evident from the above statement that a lack of motivation for fitness was due to the home confinement and lack of presence of others. The presence of others engaged in a similar activity not only creates a sense of shared identity but also is a source of healthy competition and thus motivation.

Change of Perception

As the days progressed, individuals learned to respond to the pandemic in a more constructive and positive manner. Their perception for the situation remained the same (negative), but their perception toward themselves started to change. They started believing that even though they could not change the situation, they could do the same for their own self to deal with the situation. Participant 2, for example, commented on the situation and said,

“Ah! Talking about the situation we are living in, it is so unprecedented, anything can happen anytime, though I am less stressed as compared to the date the lockdown was announced, I perceive this whole situation is so terrible, worst… what is this happening, you just tell me, wake up in fear and sleep in fear. I wonder when this is going to end.”

However, upon asking about her/his own self, s/he added

“You know this COVID has done only one thing right, that is, you know giving me immense time to work on myself, which otherwise I always overlooked. Though I went to gym for my physique only but never gave time to my thoughts, skills, etc. So when talking about changes in myself or perception of self, I would say changes come under three categories in me- first physical, that is appearance, personal, like I will quote enjoying every bit of time. Who knows I am next. I now celebrate life, and finally social changes in myself, as I have got time to work on my communication skills, talking on virtual platforms and sense of oneness or say unity, as I am locked down in hostel and we guys do every deed and task on our own without family, standing together.”

Similarly participant 22 summarized the situation as

“(Laughing), Seriously! The Virus is making a joke on us, truly this is the worst of situations I can ever imagine, I am so negative about the situation we are in, I am in… everyone in….you know how stressful it is for me to know that I am unable to practise. You know as a clinician how hard it is to be like this. Though I am still a student but think likewise, harsh situation madam, extra precautions for everything, negative, too much negative. This time would be a memorable time for generations; sorry my tone has become louder I am kind of in agony, all credits to this so called CORONA.”

S/he, however, further commented that

“my experience throughout the past few months in this Corona Era is so negative but myself-perception or I would say how I am taking myself now from earlier has meaningfully changed now. You know, I am someone who is giving time to myself, exploring my hobbies, giving time to leisure, learning kitchen skills, learning new dishes, becoming a chef besides being a dentist you know. So, for me, myself, I am so positive with regards to myself.”

It is therefore evident that increased experiences with an initial unfamiliar situation initiate the coping mechanisms within an individual, which is reflected in the changed perception of their own self, and reappraisal of the situation in a more positive manner.

Shifting Focus on Substitutes of Gym Workout and Equipment

With the positive change in perception, individuals started to think about their normal routine and tried to find ways to substitute their normal activities. They started trying to shift their exercises from gym to other available places and using alternatives to gym equipment for their fitness activities. The statement of participant 20 indicated how shifting from gym-based exercises to yoga practices was an effective alternative for coping with the habitual compulsion for gym exercises.

“Since I get a pace back again for my physical fitness in this lockdown, I have made a shift to yoga, especially the power yoga in the morning time. I prefer doing meditation as well. Earlier I never used to practise the same but now I have seen videos of some asanas good for health, I am following them and practising them. It’s a shift for peace I guess. I tried something new and found my gym addiction could be controlled or moderated by taking out time for yoga and meditation even after COVID.”

Similarly, participant 17 reported her/his shift to high-intensity workouts at home.

“See, as you might know not everyone has exercise equipment at home which we used to have in gym. So, I prefer those exercises which require less or zero weights say jumping jacks, skipping.”

After resuming motivation, in order to stay physically active and fit, participants actively engaged in the process of finding alternatives to their routine physical exercise equipment. Participant 14 reported shifting to alternatives to heavy weights

“I personally was too much dependent on equipment to exercise in the gym. Now there is no option left because even online, the 5 and 10 kg weights are out of stock, And, nearby stores are either closed or you can’t go out. So, for me it was tough but I searched the internet, the social media, talked to fitness experts and used some ‘JUGAAD’ at home. So, they are using buckets, big water bottles and skipping ropes. I had 10 kg iron rods of water pipeline spare at my home, I am using that and these are helpful and I guess need of the hour.”

Social Media Dependence

One of the major shifts in the individuals’ lives during this pandemic was the increased social media dependence. As a result of social distancing, people were spending more time online to virtually connect with others and stream entertainment. In the backdrop, the COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in the time spent on social media that helped people kill time. Participant 12 reported the benefits as well as the drawbacks of this social media dependence.

“Social-media is a mixed feeling platform. I mean at one hand it keeps me updated with the happening around; the facilities promised by the government; and… it keeps me connected with the world. But on the other, it irritates me a lot, a lot of misinformation creates a worry in you. So yes, there is a dual objective of this social media.”

However, participant 4 viewed this increased dependence on social media as an effective strategy to break the silence and to overcome the monotonous days.

“Our life has given us so much time ……., I mean I have so much spare time but besides that, I have a monotonous schedule every day, so social media keeps me busy, for example, web series suggestion and reviews, movies suggestion and reviews, video games, etc. Also, on the one hand, I do not get bored as one day I am learning some planting technique at home through media, the other day something to cook, some family or friend sharing his/her recipe, hobby ideas, craft ideas, writing, etc. Physical workout schedule helps me a lot. I am doing one thing useful at a time, and that keeps me busy.”

Similarly, participant 3 reported that

“Definitely social media has impacted my sitting schedule as I am just sitting for a long span of time, say while eating or talking to family. I am sitting scrolling YouTube, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, one post after the other. It has become my habit now. I feel like I will only watch a single video or only this news but I end up spending 1 to 2 hours scrolling and watching. Seriously, it’s a habit now, but I am glad that workout is something I do in my schedule, which is so productive, and I really feel good about myself because of the physical fitness.”

However, participant 21 pointed out the experience of lack of emotional attachment, sympathy, and support resulting from the content consistently served by social media.

“Social media is full of content which reveal crime stories, life matters, relationships, suicides, etc. at a large scale. So many movie clips, videos, web series show a lot of crime, aggression or say anything on that. So, I feel now-a-days emotionally detached to any relationship, friendship or even to my family. If I receive their call, I would say yes okay fine, no further interest in how they are dealing or what they are experiencing. And if they ask I would say, so what, I am not a kid anymore. I lead my life you lead yours, definitely social media is making me someone I never used to be. In fact, my sister has become the same, though she is living with the family under the same roof. Earlier I was so sensitive to any suicide or crime. If I heard of that I would cry or be sad. I used to feel the pain of the victim. Now, I hear a story for real and I am like, yeah part of life, or you pay for deeds like that. No sympathy left I guess, so detached.”

However, what was more important was that social media was seen to be helping individuals in maintaining their daily fitness routines by providing them alternative fitness tools and techniques, the virtual company of other fitness freaks, and by helping them back, influencing others and getting influenced by others. Participant 6 reported that

“Social media has lots of side effects, but a good effect of it now-a-days for a gym freak like me is that social media provides videos of trainers, and other freaks working out at home or hostels. I can know now virtually how to maintain a schedule. They are sharing their experience, they are influencing me a lot, I am trying my best, and workout is helping me a lot.”

Favorable Attitude Toward Music as a Tool

Many participants also reported the use of music as an aid while exercising. Participant 7 reported that

“I have two schedules of exercise. If working out in the morning, I prefer soothing music, like that of birds chirping, or instrumental jazz. And if I am exercising in evening, I want to listen to EDM, that is electronic dance music, I have made a playlist of computerised music and listen to that in evening. I prefer music because it takes you to another world, which is needed the most now (exclaimed!) It creates an environment like that of a gym in my head, or say, I imagine I am in the gym, as I cut off all the surrounding voices.”

Similarly, participant 9 reported that

“I just love to have old-country music while I am exercising. It is a kind of genre of songs, the old country one, and sometimes I love random numbers of songs. It is needed because you can say it lets me focus, helps me to calm down. Also, when I am locked at home, it actually provides me a world free of distractions, just my own world, where there is no corona. Music is ultimate fun. If there is no music available I will not workout, because workout makes me happy and I really want to exercise effectively and enjoy it too.”

It is, therefore, evident that music is an important supporting tool that helps individuals relax and enjoy their original routine even when they are working out at home. Music is a powerful tool that recreates the same environment that participants used to have during their gym exercise times.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought major upheaval in the life of every individual across the globe. It has hampered the day-to-day activities of almost all individuals including those who depend on gyms for their physical fitness routine. The present study was conducted with individuals for whom going to the gym was a routine activity so as to explore their experiences in terms of their perceptions of the pandemic situation and their ways of coping with COVID-19-induced uncertainties and health issues.

The findings of this study not only are consistent with a range of studies that have reported psychological health issues due to the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown ( Hawryluck et al., 2004 ; Ammar et al., 2020a , b , c , d ; Chtourou et al., 2020 ; de Oliveira Neto et al., 2020 ; Shigemura et al., 2020 ; Varshney et al., 2020 ) but also go beyond those to suggest that, with time, individuals learn to adopt to situations in healthy and positive ways. Participants reported experiencing a significant change in their sleeping pattern, unexplained laziness, and mental fatigue, and having a general feeling of fear, anxiety, stress, and frustration due to home confinement, which impacted their motivation to find alternate ways to continue fitness exercises.

Other factors found responsible for the lack of fitness motivation were the absence of gym partners and the lack of gym environment, which were also considered as potential sources of gym motivation in earlier studies ( Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989 ; Sonstroem and Harlow, 1994 ; McAuley et al., 2000 ; Fox, 2003 ; Tamur, 2014 ). It is important to note that, being a social entity, people like the company of others and feel connected to each other. This feeling of connectedness is found to be associated with various psychological constructs such as persistence, motivation, self-esteem, self-efficacy, and physical as well as psychological health ( Scully et al., 1998 ; Proctor et al., 2011 ; Haslam et al., 2015 ; Begun et al., 2018 ). The absence of this feeling of connectedness that people were used to experiencing in a gym environment probably was one of the reasons for the lack of motivation for home exercise.

The findings of the study also indicated that although the participants’ perception of the pandemic situation was negative initially, their self-perception gradually improved toward a positive one, as they realized that they had enough time to look after themselves. Rauthmann et al. (2015) reported that environment and behavior, if different from the usual, lead to a negative situational perception. However, with an increase in time available to devote to oneself, perceptions change in a positive direction ( Karagiannidis et al., 2015 ). Such a change in perception is likely to promote the process of self-approval and find effective ways to deal with the current situation.

In the present study, a shift from the gym workout and fitness equipment toward substitutes is clearly visible during the latter part of the lockdown. After the initial confusion and passive wait for things to normalize, participants accepted the reality and started thinking about alternatives to exercises related to heavy gym equipment. Some of the alternatives listed by them included switching to yoga and meditation ( National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, 2020 ), high-intensity workout at home, and lifting heavy buckets, big water bottles, and skipping. All these alternative arrangements not only helped individuals maintain their daily exercise routine but also contributed to their physical and mental health ( Jiménez-Pavón et al., 2020 ; Nicol et al., 2020 ). In fact, the American College of Sports Medicine had recommended 150–300 min of aerobic exercise per week and two sessions per week of moderate-intensity muscle strength exercises for people to be physically active during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Joy, 2020 ).

The mixed impact of social media usage and listening to music during exercise was also observed in this study. Results clearly indicate that participants found social media to be an effective medium to keep themselves up to date about the pandemic situation and to overcome the monotony of home confinement. Apart from this, participants also experienced a lack of emotional attachment, as face-to-face interaction during the said period was missing. This encouraged participants to use social media to get connected to people as well as to witness their regular activities, which they were missing otherwise. Several studies in the past have argued that social support boosts motivation for training and can increase up to 35% more adherence to a physical exercise program ( Rhodes et al., 2001 ) and that it can be an additional strategy to make exercise events more interactive and less dissociated from afferent body responses (heart rate, breathing), which in turn results in more positive training experience ( Kravitz and Furst, 1991 ; Pridgeon and Grogan, 2012 ).

Social media was also used as a platform to know about virtual fitness techniques and opportunities for online training for physical exercise. Ammar et al. (2020d) demonstrated 15% higher use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) during the COVID-19 confinement duration, which indicates higher use of social media and app use for home-based fitness activities ( Tate et al., 2015 ; Ammar et al., 2020a ).

Furthermore, participants also found that listening to music was an effective aid to keep themselves engaged as they exercised. This also supports the finding that music helps people to continue their fitness workout for a significantly longer period of time ( Thakare et al., 2017 ). A series of studies have shown that music creates an ergogenic effect during physical and cognitive performance and is linked to heightened motivation and engagement and lower levels of stress, anxiety, and depression ( Chtourou et al., 2015 ). In their recent meta-analytic review Terry et al. (2020) have concluded that listening to music during physical activity boosts positive affective valence and results in improved physical engagement and enhanced physiological responses. It is therefore clearly evident that listening to music while doing physical exercise during the current pandemic has enabled people to focus on the exercise without any distraction from the home setting and has enabled them to create their own world, where there is no COVID-19.

To conclude, the findings of the study indicate that the perceptions and social media habits of fitness freaks, who were hitting gyms for a regular workout before the lockdown, were greatly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. They also experienced psychological health issues during the initial phase of the pandemic. However, they gradually changed their dependence on gym-based workout and switched to alternative exercises that helped them greatly to restore their mental and physical health.

Implications and Future Suggestions

The present study shows that despite the initial experience of anxiety and fear and the lack of motivation to engage in physical exercise at home, fitness freaks were able to shift to home exercises and were greatly supported by social media uses and listening to music. One could argue that this study only included fitness freaks who find it difficult to detach themselves from physical activities for a long time, and this was probably the reason for their shift to home-based exercises. However, there is no doubt that the findings of this study have demonstrated that if performed regularly, physical exercise has the potential to mitigate the ill physical as well as psychological effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of this study, therefore, could be extended to the common public to also persuade them to engage in physical fitness exercises, which would result not only in a better physical health but also in an enhanced psychological health and well-being. The findings of this study strengthen the recommendations made by researchers and organizations (for details see Chtourou et al., 2020 ; World Health Organization [WHO], 2020 ) to engage in home-based exercises (including, but not limited to, aerobic activities, balance and flexibility exercises, and muscular strength and endurance training) for about 150–180 min per week; to use social media, music, and/or similar techniques to increase adherence to physical exercises; and to practice dancing and yoga to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression, and even improve the quality of sleep ( Chennaoui et al., 2015 ; Chtourou et al., 2015 ). It is also noted that one should start physical exercise and its alternatives in a progressive manner and must adhere to his/her fitness levels for choosing the amount and intensity of these exercises.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.

Ethics Statement

All procedures followed in this study were in accordance with the APA’s ethical standards and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1964 and its later amendments. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

HK, TS, and YA conceptualized the study. HK and TS prepared study protocols. HK collected data, conducted initial data analysis, and wrote the first draft. TS, SM, and YA finalized data analysis, reviewed, and commented on the draft manuscript. HK, TS, SM, and YA contributed to the preparation of the final draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : COVID-19, physical fitness, exercise, lockdown, gym workout

Citation: Kaur H, Singh T, Arya YK and Mittal S (2020) Physical Fitness and Exercise During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Qualitative Enquiry. Front. Psychol. 11:590172. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590172

Received: 31 July 2020; Accepted: 06 October 2020; Published: 29 October 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Kaur, Singh, Arya and Mittal. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Tushar Singh, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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