history of management essay

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2 The History of Management

Learning Objectives

The purpose of this chapter is to:

• 1) Give you an overview of the evolution of management thought and theory.
• 2) Provide an understanding of management in the context of the modern-day world in which we reside.

The History of Management

The concept of management has been around for thousands of years. According to Pindur, Rogers, and Kim (1995), elemental approaches to management go back at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, a time in which records of business dealings were first recorded by Middle Eastern priests. Socrates, around 400 BC, stated that management was a competency distinctly separate from possessing technical skills and knowledge (Higgins, 1991). The Romans, famous for their legions of warriors led by Centurions, provided accountability through the hierarchy of authority. The Roman Catholic Church was organized along the lines of specific territories, a chain of command, and job descriptions. During the Middle Ages, a 1,000 year period roughly from 476 AD through 1450 AD, guilds, a collection of artisans and merchants provided goods, made by hand, ranging from bread to armor and swords for the Crusades. A hierarchy of control and power, similar to that of the Catholic Church, existed in which authority rested with the masters and trickled down to the journeymen and apprentices. These craftsmen were, in essence, small businesses producing products with varying degrees of quality, low rates of productivity, and little need for managerial control beyond that of the owner or master artisan.

The Industrial Revolution, a time from the late 1700s through the 1800s, was a period of great upheaval and massive change in the way people lived and worked. Before this time, most people made their living farming or working and resided in rural communities. With the invention of the steam engine, numerous innovations occurred, including the automated movement of coal from underground mines, powering factories that now mass-produced goods previously made by hand, and railroad locomotives that could move products and materials across nations in a timely and efficient manner. Factories needed workers who, in turn, required direction and organization. As these facilities became more substantial and productive, the need for managing and coordination became an essential factor. Think of Henry Ford, the man who developed a moving assembly line to produce his automobiles. In the early 1900s, cars were put together by craftsmen who would modify components to fit their product. With the advent of standardized parts in 1908, followed by Ford’s revolutionary assembly line introduced in 1913, the time required to build a Model T fell from days to just a few hours (Klaess, 2020). From a managerial standpoint, skilled craftsmen were no longer necessary to build automobiles. The use of lower-cost labor and the increased production yielded by moving production lines called for the need to guide and manage these massive operations (Wilson, 2015). To take advantage of new technologies, a different approach to organizational structure and management was required.

The Scientific Era – Measuring Human Capital

With the emergence of new technologies came demands for increased productivity and efficiency. The desire to understand how to best conduct business centered on the idea of work processes. That is, managers wanted to study how the work was performed and the impact on productivity. The idea was to optimize the way the work was done. One of the chief architects of measuring human output was Frederick Taylor. Taylor felt that increasing efficiency and reducing costs were the primary objectives of management. Taylor’s theories centered on a formula that calculated the number of units produced in a specific time frame (DiFranceso and Berman, 2000). Taylor conducted time studies to determine how many units could be produced by a worker in so many minutes. He used a stopwatch, weight measurement scale, and tape measure to compute how far materials moved and how many steps workers undertook in the completion of their tasks (Wren and Bedeian, 2009). Examine the image below – one can imagine Frederick Taylor standing nearby, measuring just how many steps were required by each worker to hoist a sheet of metal from the pile, walk it to the machine, perform the task, and repeat, countless times a day.   Beyond Taylor, other management theorists including Frank and Lilian Gilbreth, Harrington Emerson, and others expanded the concept of management reasoning with the goal of efficiency and consistency, all in the name of optimizing output . It made little difference whether the organization manufactured automobiles, mined coal, or made steel, the most efficient use of labor to maximize productivity was the goal.

The necessity to manage not just worker output but to link the entire organization toward a common objective began to emerge. Management, out of necessity, had to organize multiple complex processes for increasingly large industries. Henri Fayol, a Frenchman, is credited with developing the management concepts of planning, organizing, coordination, command, and control (Fayol, 1949), which were the precursors of today’s four basic management principles of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

Employees and the Organization

With the increased demand for production brought about by scientific measurement, conflict between labor and management was inevitable. The personnel department, forerunner of today’s human resources department, emerged as a method to slow down the demand for unions, initiate training programs to reduce employee turnover, and to acknowledge workers’ needs beyond the factory floor. The idea that to increase productivity, management should factor the needs of their employees by developing work that was interesting and rewarding burst on the scene (Nixon, 2003) and began to be part of management thinking. Numerous management theorists were starting to consider the human factor. Two giants credited with moving management thought in the direction of understanding worker needs were Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. McGregor’s Theory X factor was management’s assumption that workers disliked work, were lazy, lacked self-motivation, and therefore had to be persuaded by threats, punishment, or intimidation to exert the appropriate effort. His Theory Y factor was the opposite. McGregor felt that it was management’s job to develop work that gave the employees a feeling of self-actualization and worth. He argued that with more enlightened management practices, including providing clear goals to the employees and giving them the freedom to achieve those goals, the organization’s objectives and those of the employees could simultaneously be achieved (Koplelman, Prottas, & Davis, 2008).

Frederick Herzberg added considerably to management thinking on employee behavior with his theory of worker motivation. Herzberg contended that most management driven motivational efforts, including increased wages, better benefits, and more vacation time, ultimately failed because while they may reduce certain factors of job dissatisfaction (the things workers disliked about their jobs), they did not increase job satisfaction. Herzberg felt that these were two distinctly different management problems. Job satisfaction flowed from a sense of achievement, the work itself, a feeling of accomplishment, a chance for growth, and additional responsibility (Herzberg, 1968). One enduring outcome of Herzberg’s work was the idea that management could have a positive influence on employee job satisfaction, which, in turn, helped to achieve the organization’s goals and objectives.

The concept behind McGregor, Herzberg, and a host of other management theorists was to achieve managerial effectiveness by utilizing people more effectively. Previous management theories regarding employee motivation (thought to be directly correlated to increased productivity) emphasized control, specialized jobs, and gave little thought to employees’ intrinsic needs. Insights that considered the human factor by utilizing theories from psychology now became part of management thinking. Organizational changes suggested by management thinkers who saw a direct connection between improved work design, self-actualization, and challenging work began to take hold in more enlightened management theory.

The Modern Era

Koontz and O’Donnell (1955) defined management as “the function of getting things done through others (p. 3). One commanding figure stood above all others and is considered the father of modern management (Edersheim, (2007). That individual was Peter Drucker. Drucker, an author, educator, and management consultant is widely credited with developing the concept of Managing By Objective or MBO (Wren & Bedeian, 2009). Management by Objective is the process of defining specific objectives necessary to achieve the organization’s goals. The beauty of the MBO concept was that it provided employees a clear view of their organization’s objectives and defined their individual responsibilities. For example, let’s examine a company’s sales department. One of the firm’s organizational goals might be to grow sales (sometimes referred to as revenue) by 5% the next fiscal year. The first step, in consultation with the appropriate people in the sales department, would be to determine if that 5% goal is realistic and attainable. If so, the 5% sales growth objective is shared with the entire sales department and individuals are assigned specific targets. Let’s assume this is a regional firm that has seven sales representatives. Each sales rep is charged with a specific goal that, when combined with their colleagues, rolls up to the 5% sales increase. The role of management is now to support, monitor, and evaluate performance. Should a problem arise, it is management’s responsibility to take corrective action. If the 5% sales objective is met or exceeded, rewards can be shared. This MBO cycle applies to every department within an organization, large or small, and never-ending.

The MBO Process

Drucker’s contributions to modern management thinking went far beyond the MBO concept. Throughout his long life, Drucker argued that the singular role of business was to create a customer and that marketing and innovation were its two essential functions. Consider the Apple iPhone. From that single innovation came thousands of jobs in manufacturing plants, iPhone sales in stores around the globe, and profits returned to Apple, enabling them to continue the innovation process. Another lasting Drucker observation was that too many businesses failed to ask the question “what business are we in?” (Drucker, 2008, p. 103). On more than one occasion, a company has faltered, even gone out of business, after failing to recognize that their industry was changing or trying to expand into new markets beyond their core competency. Consider the fate of Blockbuster, Kodak, Blackberry, or Yahoo.

Management theories continued to evolve with additional concepts being put forth by other innovative thinkers. Henry Mintzberg is remembered for blowing holes in the idea that managers were iconic individuals lounging in their offices, sitting back and contemplating big-picture ideas. Mintzberg observed that management was hard work. Managers were on the move attending meetings, managing crises, and interacting with internal and external contacts. Further, depending on the exact nature of their role, managers fulfilled multiple duties including that of spokesperson, leader, resource allocator, and negotiator (Mintzberg, 1973). In the 1970s, Tom Peters and Robert Waterman traveled the globe exploring the current best management practices of the time. Their book, In Search of Excellence, spelled out what worked in terms of managing organizations. Perhaps the most relevant finding was their assertion that culture counts. They found that the best managed companies had a culture that promoted transparency, openly shared information, and effectively managed communication up and down the organizational hierarchy (Allison, 2014). The well managed companies Peterson and Waterman found were built in large part on the earlier managerial ideas of McGregor and Herzberg. Top-notch organizations succeeded by providing meaningful work and positive affirmation of their employees’ worth.

Others made lasting contributions to modern management thinking. Steven Covey’s The Seven Habits of Highly Successful People , Peter Senge’s The Fifth Discipline , and Jim Collins and Jerry Porras’s Built to Last are among a pantheon of bestselling books on management principles. Among the iconic thinkers of this era was Michael Porter. Porter, a professor at the Harvard Business School, is widely credited with taking the concept of strategic reasoning to another level. Porter tackled the question of how organizations could effectively compete and achieve a long-term competitive advantage. He contended that there were just three ways a firm could gain such advantage: 1) a cost-based leadership – become the lowest cost producer, 2) valued-added leadership – offer a differentiated product or service for which a customer is willing to pay a premium price, and 3) focus – compete in a niche market with laser-like fixation (Dess & Davis, 1984). Name a company that fits these profiles: How about Walmart for low-cost leadership. For value-added leadership, many think of Apple. Focus leadership is a bit more challenging. What about Whole Foods before being acquired by Amazon? Porter’s thinking on competition and competitive advantage has become timeless principles of strategic management still used today. Perhaps Porter’s most significant contribution to modern management thinking is the connection between a firm’s choice of strategy and its financial performance. Should an organization fail to select and properly execute one of the three basic strategies, it faces the grave danger of being stuck in the middle – its prices are too high to compete based on price or its products lack features unique enough to entice customers to pay a premium price. Consider the fate of Sears and Roebuck, J.C. Penny, K-Mart, and Radio Shack, organizations that failed to navigate the evolving nature of their businesses.

The 21st Century

Managers in the 21st century must confront challenges their counterparts of even a few years ago could hardly imagine. The ever-growing wave of technology, the impact of artificial intelligence, the evolving nature of globalization, and the push-pull tug of war between the firm’s stakeholder and shareholder interests are chief among the demands today’s managers will face.

          Much has been written about the exponential growth of technology. It has been reported that today’s iPhone has more than 100,000 times the computing power of the computer that helped land a man on the moon (Kendall, 2019). Management today has to grapple with the explosion of data now available to facilitate business decisions. Data analytics, the examination of data sets, provides information to help managers better understand customer behavior, customer wants and needs, personalize the delivery of marketing messages, and track visits to online web sites. Developing an understanding of how to use data analytics without getting bogged down will be a significant challenge for the 21st century manager. Collecting, organizing, utilizing data in a logical, timely, and cost-effective manner is creating an entirely new paradigm of managerial competence.  In addition to data analytics, cybersecurity, drones, and virtual reality are new, exciting technologies and offer unprecedented change to the way business is conducted. Each of these opportunities requires a new degree of managerial competence which, in turn, creates opportunities for the modern-day manager.

Artificial Intelligence

Will robots replace workers? To be sure, this has already happened to some degree in many industries. However, while some jobs will be lost to AI, a host of others will emerge, requiring a new level of management expertise. AI has the ability to eliminate mundane tasks and free managers to focus on the crux of their job. Human skills such as empathy, teaching and coaching employees, focusing on people development and freeing time for creative thinking will become increasingly important as AI continues to develop as a critically important tool for today’s manager.

Globalization

Globalization has been defined as the interdependence of the world’s economies and has been on a steady march forward since the end of World War II. As markets mature, more countries are moving from the emerging ranks and fostering a growing middle class of consumers. This rising new class has the purchasing power to acquire goods and services previously unattainable, and companies around the globe have expanded outside their national borders to meet those demands. Managing in the era of globalization brought a new set of challenges. Adapting to new cultures, navigating the puzzle of different laws, tariffs, import/export regulations, human resource issues, logistics, marketing messages, supply chain management, currency, foreign investment, and government intervention are among the demands facing the 21st century global manager. Despite these enormous challenges, trade among the world’s nations has grown at an unprecedented rate. World trade jumped from around 20% of world GDP in 1960 to almost 60% in 2017.

Trade as a Percent of Global GDP

Despite its stupendous growth, globalization has its share of critics. Chief among them is that globalization has heightened the disparity between the haves and the have-nots in society. Opponents of globalization argue that in many cases, jobs have been lost to developing nations with lower prevailing wage rates. Additionally, inequality has worsened with the wealthiest consuming a disproportionate percent of the world’s resources (Collins, 2015). Proponents counter that on the macro level, globalization creates more jobs than are lost, more people are lifted out of poverty, and expansion globally enables companies to become more competitive on the world stage.

Since the election of Donald Trump as President of the United States in 2016 and Great Britain’s decision to exit the European Union, the concept of nationalism has manifested in many nations around the globe. Traditional obstacles to expanding outside one’s home country plus a host of new difficulties such as unplanned trade barriers, blocked acquisitions, and heightened scrutiny from regulators have added to the burdens of managing in the 21st century. The stage has been set for a new generation of managers with the skills to deal with this new, complex business environment. In the 20th century, the old command and control model of management may have worked. However, today, with technology, artificial intelligence, globalization, nationalism, and multiple other hurdles, organizations will continue the move toward a flatter, more agile organizational structure run by managers with the appropriate 21st century skills.

Stakeholder versus Shareholder

What is a stakeholder in a business, and what is a shareholder? The difference is important. Banton (2020) noted that shareholders, by owning even a single share of stock, has a stake in the company. The shareholder first view was put forth by the economist Milton Friedman (1962) who stated that “There is one and only one social responsibility of business – to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it engages in open and free competition, without deception or fraud” (p. 133). In other words, maximize profits so long as the pursuit of profit is done so legally and ethically. An alternate view is that a stakeholder has a clear interest in how the company performs, and this interest may stem from reasons other than the increase in the value of their share(s) of stock. Edward Freeman (1999), a philosopher and academic advanced his stakeholder theory contending that the idea was the success of an organization relied on its ability to manage a complex web of relationships with several different stakeholders. These stakeholders could be an employee, a customer, an investor, a supplier, the community in which the firm operates, and the government that collects taxes and stipulates the rules and regulations by which the company must operate. Which theory is correct? According to Emiliani (2001), businesses in the United States typically followed the shareholder model, while in other countries, firms tend to follow the stakeholder model. Events in the past decade have created a shift toward the shareholder model in the United States. The financial crisis of 2008/2009, global warming, the debate between globalization and nationalism, the push for green energy, a spate of natural disasters, and the world-wide impact of health crises such as AIDS, Ebola, the SARS virus and the Coronavirus have fostered a move toward a redefinition of the purpose of a corporation. In the coming decades, those companies that thrive and grow will be the ones that invest in their people, society, and the communities in which they operate. The managers of the 21st century must build on the work of those that proceeded them. Managers in the 21st century would do well if they heeded the words famously used by Isaac Newton who said “If I have seen a little further, it is because I stand on the shoulders of giants” (Harel, 2012).

Critical Thinking Questions

In what way has the role of manager changed in the past twenty years?

With the historical perspective of management in mind, reflect on changes you foresee in the manager’s role in the next 20 years?

Reflect on some of the significant issues you have witnessed in the past few years.  Among thoughts to consider are global warming, green energy, global health crisis, globalization, nationalism, national debt, or an issue of your choosing.  What role do you see business and management playing in effectively dealing with that specific issue?

How to Answer the Critical Thinking Questions

For each of these answers you should provide three elements.

• General Answer.  Give a general response to what the question is asking, or make your argument to what the question is asking.
• Outside Resource.  Provide a quotation from a source outside of this textbook.  This can be an academic article, news story, or popular press.  This should be something that supports your argument.  Use the sandwich technique explained below and cite your source in APA in text and then a list of full text citations at the end of the homework assignment of all three sources used.
• Personal Story.  Provide a personal story that illustrates the point as well.  This should be a personal experience you had, and not a hypothetical.  Talk about a time from your personal, professional, family, or school life.   Use the sandwich technique for this as well, which is explained below.

Use the sandwich technique:

For the outside resource and the personal story you should use the sandwich technique.  Good writing is not just about how to include these materials, but about how to make them flow into what you are saying and really support your argument.  The sandwich technique allows us to do that.  It goes like this:

Step 1:  Provide a sentence that sets up your outside resource by answering who, what, when, or where this source is referring to.

Step 2:  Provide the quoted material or story.

Step 3:  Tell the reader why this is relevant to the argument you are making.

Allison, S. (2014). An essential book for founders and CEOs: In Search of Excellence. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottallison/2014/01/27/an-essential-book-for-founders-and-ceos-in-search-of-excellence/#5a48e7da6c11

Banton, C. (2020). Shareholder vs. stakeholder: An overview. Investopedia. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/08/difference-between-a-shareholder-and-a-stakeholder.asp

Collins, M. (2015). The pros and cons of globalization. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/mikecollins/2015/05/06/the-pros-and-cons-of-globalization/#609d7a53ccce

Dess, G.G., & Davis, P.S. (1984). Generic strategies as determinants of strategic group membership and organizational performance. The Academy of Management , (27)3, 467-488.

Difrancesco, J.M. & Berman, S.J. (2000). Human productivity: The new American frontier. National Productivity Review. Summer 2000. 29-36.

Drucker, P. F. (2008 ) Management – Revised Edition . New York: Collins Business.

Edersheim, E. (2007). The Definitive Drucker. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Emiliani, M.L. (2001). A mathematical logic approach to the shareholder vs stakeholder debate. Management Decision . (39)8, 618-622.

Fayol, H. (1949). General and Industrial Management . London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons (translated by Constance Storrs).

Freeman, E.R. 91999). Divergent stakeholder theory. The Academy of Management Review , (24)2, pp. 213-236.

Friedman, M, (1962). Capitalism and Freedom , Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Harel, D. (2012). Standing on the shoulders of a giant. ICALP (International Colloquium on Automation). 16-22. Retrieved from http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~/dharel/papers/Standing%20on%20Shoulders.pdf

Herzberg, F. (1968). One more time: How do you motivate employees ? Harvard Business Review, January-February. pp 53-62.

Higgins, J.M. (1991). The Management Challenge: An Introduction to Management . New York: Macmillan

Kendall, G. (2019). Your mobile phone vs. Apollo 11’s guidance computer. Real Clear Science. Retrieved from https://www.realclearscience.com/articles/2019/07/02/your_mobile_phone_vs_apollo_11s_guidance_computer_111026.html

Klaess, J. (2020). The history and future of the assembly line . Tulip . Retrieved from https://tulip.co/blog/manufacturing/assembly-line-history-future/

Koontz, H., & O’Donnell, C. (1955). Principles of Management: An Analysis of Managerial Functions . New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kopelman, R.E., Prottas, D.J., & Davis, A.l. (2008). Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Y: Toward a construct-valid measure. Journal of Managerial Issues , (XX02, 255-271.

Mintzberg, H. (1973). The Nature of Managerial Work. In S. Crainer (Ed.).  The Ultimate Business Library (pp. 174). West Sussex, UK: Capstone Publishing.

Nixon, L. (2003). Management theories – An historical perspective.  Business Date, (11)4, 5-7.

Pindur, W., Rogers, S.E., & Kim, P.S. (1995). The history of management: a global perspective. Journal of Management History , (1) 1, 59-77.

Wilson J.M. (2015). Ford’s development and use of the assembly line, 1908-1927. In Bowden and Lamond (Eds.), Management History. It’s Global Past and Present (71-92). Charlotte, NC: Information Age, Publishing, Inc.

Wren, D.A., & Bedeian, A.G. (2009). The Evolution of Management Thought. Hoboken, NJ. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ

The Four Functions of Management Copyright © 2020 by Dr. Robert Lloyd and Dr. Wayne Aho is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Module 1: Introduction to Organizational Behavior

History of management theory, learning outcomes.

• Describe the history of management theory

So what is management theory? First, let’s break down the term. Theories help us understand our experiences by using research and observable facts. Management is the act of supervising and directing people, tasks, and things [1] . So, simply put, management theory is a collection of understandings and findings that help managers best support their teams and goals.

The Importance of Management Theories

Management theories help organizations to focus, communicate, and evolve. Using management theory in the workplace allows leadership to focus on their main goals. When a management style or theory is implemented, it automatically streamlines the top priorities for the organization. Management theory also allows us to better communicate with people we work with which in turn allows us to work more efficiently. By understanding management theory, basic assumptions about management styles and goals can be assumed and can save time during daily interactions and meetings within an organization.

Theories can only reach so far, and management theories are no exception. There is no such thing as a one-size-fits-all management theory. What may work for one organization may not be relevant for another. Therefore, when one theory does not fit a particular situation, it is important to explore the option of developing a new theory that would lead in a new, more applicable direction. While some theories can stand the test of time, other theories may grow to be irrelevant and new theories will develop in their place.

The Evolution of Management Theory

While the next section will get into the nitty-gritty behind the history of different types of management theory, it is important to have a basic understanding as to why management theory was such an important and ground-breaking idea. The Industrial Revolution is at the center of management theory. From the late 1700s through the early 1900s, the Industrial Revolution brought extraordinary change to the workplace and forever transformed the way companies operate.

While productivity goals can be set easily, managing a team to meet productivity goals was not so simple. For the first time, managers had to find new and innovative ways to motivate a sizable number of employees to perform. Since this was a new concept, research, observations, experiments, and trial and error were all used to find new and better ways to manage employees. The Industrial Revolution gave birth to a variety of management theories and concepts, many of which are still relevant and essential in today’s workforce. In addition, many management theories have developed since the end of the Industrial Revolution as society continues to evolve. Each management theory plays a role in modern management theory and how it is implemented.

PRactice Question

Let’s take a look at some key management theories, explore their history and reasoning, and learn about the masterminds behind them.

• Taylor, F. W. (1914). The Principles of Scientific Management . Harper. ↵
• History of Management Theory. Authored by : Freedom Learning Group. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Management History

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Management History by David D. Van Fleet LAST REVIEWED: 29 June 2015 LAST MODIFIED: 29 June 2015 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0008

Although management and attempts to improve it are as old as civilization, the systematic study of management is only just more than one hundred years old. “Management history” refers primarily to the history of management thought as it has developed during that time, although some work covers the practice of management all the way back to Antiquity. Because the events, organizations, economic and social conditions, and even interested scholars are frequently the same, management history overlaps to some extent with related history fields, most notably business history, economic history, and accounting history. Management history utilizes the tools and methods of traditional historical analysis as well as drawing insights from business disciplines and the social sciences. This article includes, first, initial coverage of source material (introductory works, reference sources, and journals), and then presents reasons why history is important and provides a rough chronological presentation of major works for those interested in learning more about management history, from the early practice of management to the evolution of management thought as it has developed during the past one-hundred-plus years.

Some early management books are available online so that students and other scholars can read them in the original form, including Taylor 2010 (cited under Scientific Management and Frederick Taylor ), Sheldon 1924 (cited under Organization Theory ), and Gilbreth 2010 (cited under Other Contributors to Scientific Management ). Many early articles on management may be found in Miner 1995 and Bedeian 2011 . Wren and Bedeian 2008 is the most important management history book, and it is the one most widely used as a primary source in courses on management history. George 1972 , though an older work, is sometimes also recommended.

Bedeian, Arthur G., ed. The Evolution of Management Thought: Critical Perspectives on Business and Management . 4 vols. London: Routledge, 2011.

More than one hundred articles covering more than a century of management literature; a must-read for any serious student of management history.

George, Claude S., Jr. The History of Management Thought . 2d ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1972.

A short, older overview of the development of management thinking that is still useful for the author’s insights.

Miner, John B., ed. Administrative and Management Theory . Aldershot, UK: Dartmouth, 1995.

Numerous articles spanning more than seventy-five years are collected here. Readers get an intimate feel for the evolution of management theory through reading these original articles.

Wren, Daniel A., and Arthur G. Bedeian. The Evolution of Management Thought . 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2008.

A highly readable summary of major milestones in the development of management thought. Presented within the context of the times, the stories of major figures in the field are told.

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The History of Management Theories

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JEROME ADZAH

Dr. Vishal Thakur

Management Thought and Contemporary Management Theory

Billy Brocato, Ph.D.

Scott Vitkovic

To come closer to the most comprehensive and universal definition of the term ‘management’ in the framework of the Organizational Management Theory (OMT), the author has reviewed the primary research literature, identified the historical contributions of the leading classical and neoclassical theorists, researched and analyzed, in a descriptive and qualitative manner, their original writings that contributed to the development of the OMT Classical and Neoclassical Perspectives and that gave rise to the various modern OMTs, and considered their impact on the formation and evolution of the OMT. Thereafter, the author synthesized a new OMT model which he termed “The Barnard Transitional Model”. Such technique, similar to the Gestalt Form, permits empirical analyses of any organizational management, treating it as a whole, and its parts as variables within the system, in an order to evaluate its functions during a specific period of time. This new theory, now called ‘The Barnard Transitional Model’, aims to contribute toward our understanding of management by becoming a universal phenomenon pertinent both to our Modern OMT now and to the Universal Theory of Organization in the future.

Isyaku Hassan

This paper seeks to examine the management theoretical perspectives and their applications in Abubakar Rimi Television (ARTV) Kano. Management is a very important activity in the continuous sustenance of every organization. This is because through proper planning, organization and coordination, the achievement of the organizational objectives can be efficiently and effectively realized. Management theories are equally important, as they provide a comprehensive roadmap for organizations to follow in order to accomplish their goals with limited resources. Mass media organizations are no exception. This is because the mass media engage in various activities before getting their news, information and entertainment across to the audience. This paper discusses the concepts of management, theories of management, mass media management, issues, and specificities, as well as the applications of the management theories with regard to the management of ARTV Kano. The paper recommends that the adoption of a single management theory in ARTV management may not be effective and sufficient. As such, the station should adopt a multi-dimensional approach to management theories.

Oluseyi Adeniji , Emmanuel Ojo Ademola

Social issues has dominated our environment with one element incorporated into each other leading to a need for effective managerial approach in addressing the concept of thinking, ethics and corporate social responsibility based on its dynamism. Management according to Masser (1979) has been around as long as there has been a desire for deciding on a subject of interest. Approach to subjects of social interest with different schools of thought and theories were reviewed and the significant positive role corporate social responsibility played and will play where critically evaluated. Some of the challenges in resolving social issues were also discussed using adequate references. In this paper we introduce the reader to the evolving concept of management thinking, ethics and CSR in relation to social issues from early 1900s till date with critical analysis of the significant advantages the concepts have on the society, government and the organisations involved. This paper aim to create awareness to researchers, academicians, stakeholders (government, companies and society) of the significant role robust management policies and CSR of organisations have on social issues and the measures to take in improving them. Keywords: Social issues, Management, Thinking, Ethics, Corporate Social Responsibility

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hardy narang

Henry Semwanga

The main hypothesis of this paper is that though newer and contemporary administrative theories keep coming up they cannot claim superiority over previous ones nor negate their relevance in explaining management phenomena. Therefore, academics, theorists and management practitioners ought to appreciate how vestiges of the past can coexist with contemporary approaches to administration to help them manage from a point of knowledge (Lunenburg & Irby, 2013). The study was descriptive and qualitative in nature and relied primarily on reviewing secondary information sources such as journal articles, books, conference paper, and internet data and analyzing to draw comparisons. The paper examined the characteristics of some classical, neo-classical and contemporary management theories with and highlighted their enduring contributions to contemporary management practice.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, the history of management: a global perspective.

Journal of Management History (Archive)

ISSN : 1355-252X

Article publication date: 1 March 1995

Contemporary management theory is not a single theory. By its very nature, management is a complex process and a multidisciplinary field of study. Contemporary management is a synthesis of the classical, behavioural, quantitative and modern management movements. One of the keys to successful management is the ability to understand and apply modern management principles and techniques effectively. Studying fundamental concepts provides a foundation that effective managers of the future need in terms of understanding techniques, organizational cultures and theories. Awareness and willingness of management to incorporate a variety of management theories and tools as the organization constantly changes are keys to gaining and maintaining competitive advantage over others.

• Development
• Management styles
• Management theory

Pindur, W. , Rogers, S.E. and Suk Kim, P. (1995), "The history of management: a global perspective", Journal of Management History (Archive) , Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 59-77. https://doi.org/10.1108/13552529510082831

Copyright © 1995, MCB UP Limited

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3.2: The Early Origins of Management

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Learning Objectives

• Be able to describe management in the ancient world.

Table 3.1 traces the development of management thought from the ancient world until the 19th century’s Industrial Revolution.

Sumer, located in what is today southern Iraq and the first urban-based civilization, contained the genesis of management. Sumer had a flourishing merchant culture in which goods such as grains, livestock, perfumes, and pottery were sold to customers. Rather than bartering (using one good or service, not money, to pay for another good or service), the ancient Sumerians used ancient clay coins to pay. The sizes and shapes of coins represented different amounts of currency and signaled the types of goods for which they could be exchanged. 3

What made this level of trade and economic activity possible? The introduction of writing made it possible for merchants to keep track of various trades. And the development of a basic form of coins allowed for increased trade because a person wanting to obtain a good or service no longer had to find another person who wanted exactly the good or service he produced. Coordinating the activities of those who provided goods and those who wanted to purchase them often required coordination, one of the main functions of a manager.

Source: Adapted from George (1972) and Wren & Bedeian (2009)

Table 3.1(Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Two additional contributions to the early development of management came from the Middle East. The idea of written laws and commands comes from the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1810 BC–1750 BC). 4 The Code of Hammurabi was a listing of 282 laws that regulated a wide variety of behaviors, including business dealings, personal behavior, interpersonal relations, and punishments. Law 104 was one of the first instances of accounting and of the need for formal rules for managers and owners. The code also set wages for doctors, bricklayers, stonemasons, boatmen, herdsmen, and other labors. The code did not, however, include the concept of incentive wages because it set wages at a fixed amount. The idea of incentives would come from another, much later, Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar (605 BC–c. 562 BC), 5 who gave incentives to cloth weavers for production. Weavers were paid in food, and the more cloth they produced, the more food they were given.

The ancient Egyptians made great strides in the building of the great pyramids. The ancient Egyptians were exceptional builders of canals, irrigation projects, and the pyramids, royal tombs whose size and complexity exceeded what the Greeks and Romans 6 were able to build in later centuries. Although we are still uncertain about exactly how the pyramids were constructed, we have some idea that the process required a great number and wide range of slave laborers to construct them. Each laborer would have a different task. Some of the laborers were stonecutters; others were required to push and pull gigantic blocks of stone; still others were required to grease the stones to reduce friction. In this process, we see the management principals of division of labor, coordination, and specialization. These groups of workers were supervised by one individual. In figuring out how best to handle the huge numbers of workers engaged in pyramid building, the ancient Egyptians also pioneered the concept of span of control, that is, the number of workers that a manager controls directly. Anticipating research on this issue in the far, far distant future, Egyptians found the ideal number of workers per supervisor to be ten. In addition, there were various overseers, who had the responsibility to compel workers to produce.

In Asia, the Chinese began to develop the idea of bureaucracy. Bureaucracy has roots in the early dynasties but only became fully developed during the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) .7 The idea was to train scholars in Confucian teachings and use those teachings to make decisions. Unlike modern bureaucracies, this system was not formal but relied upon the discretion of the scholars themselves. Another important development was the idea of meritocracy because selection for and then promotion within a bureaucracy was based on a test of Confucian teaching.

The Greeks (800 BC–400 BC) and Romans (500 BC–476 AD) added a number of important steps in the development of management. Although neither empire was commercially oriented, both Greeks and the Romans undertook a wide range of industrial projects, such as roads and aqueducts, and established various guilds and societies that encouraged trade. The Greeks continued to develop the idea of division of labor based on Plato’s recognition of human diversity. The great Greek philosopher Socrates stressed the development of managerial skills such as creating an atmosphere of information sharing and analysis. The Romans’ contribution to management was standardization. Because the Romans needed to administer a vast empire, they needed standardization of measures, weights, and coins. Romans also saw the birth of the corporation, in that many Roman companies sold stocks to the public.

Both Greece and Rome saw the continued pestilence of slavery, but due to economic changes that made slavery financially unfeasible, workers were gaining some degree of freedom. They still had masters who determined at what jobs they could work and how those jobs should be done. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, there was a decline in European trade. Scholars refer to this time as the Dark or Middle Ages (500 AD–1000 AD), due its location between the classical world of the Greeks and Romans and the world of the Renaissance. While there was little trade or economic development in Europe during this period, trade flourished in the Muslim and Chinese worlds. Various travelers, such as 13th-century Italian merchant and explorer Marco Polo, provided readers with tales and goods from those booming societies.

Concept Check

• What were the contributions of the following groups to modern management: Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, and Romans?

3. George, Claude S. (1972). History of Management Thought. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs New Jersey.

4. Wren, D. A., & Bedeian, A. G. 2009. The evolution of management thought. (6th ed.), New York: Wiley.

5. Wren, D. A., & Bedeian, A. G. 2009. The evolution of management thought. (6th ed.), New York: Wiley.

6. Wren, D. A., & Bedeian, A. G. 2009. The evolution of management thought. (6th ed.), New York: Wiley.

7. Fairbank, J.K. (1991). China: a New History . Harvard University Press. Cambridge.

History of Management Thought

Genesis and Development from Ancient Origins to the Present Day

• © 2021
• Vadim I. Marshev   ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1808-2054 0

Faculty of Economics, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia

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• Introduces the specific problems of historical management research
• Helps study methods and be able to apply them to find sources of management ideas
• Describes the management ideas in specific regions of the world and in specific historical conditions
• Identifies the factors and causes of the genesis, formation, change and development of views on the management of social processes in specific historical conditions

Part of the book series: Contributions to Management Science (MANAGEMENT SC.)

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Table of contents (8 chapters)

Front matter, issues of historical and managerial research.

Vadim I. Marshev

Genesis and Development of World Management Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the XIX Century

The origins of management thought: from fifth millennium b.c. to the fifth century, world management thought in the fifth to nineteenth centuries, the emergence and formation of management thought in russia (ninth to eighteenth centuries), management thought in russia in 1800–1917, new and newest history of management thought, western schools of management of the twentieth century, development of the scientific basis of management in the ussr and in russia in twentieth century, actual problems and concepts of management, back matter.

• Management development
• Philosophies of management
• Evolution of management principles
• Managerial thought in Byzantium
• Instrumental concepts of management
• Management development in Russia
• Chinese management principles
• Theory of organizational development

About this book

This book describes the millennia-long process of the genesis, formation, struggle, and change of views on the management of social organizations in various countries around the world; in other words, it characterizes the worldwide evolution of the History of Management Thought (HMT) - ideas, concepts, theories, paradigms, and scientific schools - from Antiquity to the present.

This book presents both the origins of management thought dating back to the 5th millennium BC and the latest management concepts of the early 21st century. In particular, it traces the origins and sources of management thought, reflected in the works of thinkers and statesmen of the Ancient World (Egypt, Western Asia, China, India, Greece, and Rome), the era of feudalism, and the Middle Ages (Byzantium, Western Europe, and England), the era of inception capitalism (Western Europe and the USA), as well as the new and recent history of management thought of the 20th and 21st centuries. In addition, for the first time in History of Management literature, it presents the history of Russian management thought from the 9th century to modern concepts and scientific schools.

Authors and Affiliations

About the author.

Vadim I. Marshev is the Distinguished Professor of the Moscow University and a Professor at the Faculty of Economics of Moscow State University (Russia). His research and teaching expertise span across Organization Theory, General Management of Organization, Strategic Management, History of Management Thought, Change Management, Scenario-based Management, Family Business Management, Sport Management.

Prof. Marshev is also a renowned consultant in the fields of general management, restructuring, and strategy development. He is a member of the National Association of Independent Directors (Russia) and the Russian Institute of Corporate Directors. On the academic side, he is a member of the Editorial Board of the Journal "Management Sciences" (Russia) and a Member of the Academy of Management (Management History division and Organization and Management Theory division).

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : History of Management Thought

Book Subtitle : Genesis and Development from Ancient Origins to the Present Day

Authors : Vadim I. Marshev

Translated by : Oleg Geraschenko

Series Title : Contributions to Management Science

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62337-1

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : Moscow State University Lomonosov 2021

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-62336-4 Published: 14 January 2021

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-62339-5 Published: 14 January 2022

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-62337-1 Published: 13 January 2021

Series ISSN : 1431-1941

Series E-ISSN : 2197-716X

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XV, 710

Number of Illustrations : 5 b/w illustrations, 6 illustrations in colour

Additional Information : Translated from the Russian original: Marshev V. I.(2005) History of Management Thought, ISBN 5-16-00215-2 © Faculty of Economics Moscow State University, 2005 © Design. INFRA M, 2005

Topics : Management Education , Philosophy of the Social Sciences , Cultural History , Management , Human Resource Management

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History Of Management Essays

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Management History and Its Key Milestones Essay

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Attempts to create a formal approach to studying the working process were made at the end of the nineteenth century, and most of the major advancements in management theory were made in the course of the twentieth century. Scientific management theory was the first school that used a formalized approach to leadership and, despite many limitations, provided a good starting point for the development. The behavioral theory emphasized the importance of understanding psychology for successful management. The quantitative school used science and mathematics for efficient planning. New ways to look at organizations and approach leadership problems were provided by the systems theory and contingency paradigm.

Management theories consist of rules and methods that can be applied to effectively run an organization. Studying the evolution of different schools of thought helps better understand the principles and approaches that provide a theoretical framework for leadership. Management theories started to develop in the late nineteenth century and saw major advancement in the twentieth century. This paper discusses the five key milestones in the history of management: scientific, behavioral, quantitative, systems, and contingency theories.

One of the first major advancements in management theory was made at the beginning of the twentieth century with the creation of the scientific management theory. This approach was formulated by Frederic Winslow Taylor in 1909 (Khorasani & Almasifard 2017). At that time, there were not any structured theories of leadership, and business owners used common sense and personal understanding while running their companies. Taylor and his colleagues were the first who employed the scientific approach to studying the work process. Taylor’s management theory is focused on the productivity of employees and the efficiency of an organization. Tayler suggested that an employer should assign fixed, well-defined roles to each worker, monitor the work process and use financial rewards as a form of motivation. It was also emphasized that hierarchy should be based on merit (Khorasani & Almasifard, 2017). The main limitation of this paradigm is that it evaluates workers solely by productivity and does not take into account initiative and innovation.

The establishment of the behavioral theory was another milestone in the history of management. The advancements and growing public interest in the field of psychology in the first half of the twentieth century led to attempts to apply the understanding of basic behavioral principles to business. The work of Abraham Maslow in studying human needs and motivation made a substantial contribution to the development of this approach. Unlike the scientific management theory that used monitory rewards as the only form of motivation, the behavioral paradigm suggested that managers should understand the human aspect of employees to achieve objectives (Khorasani & Almasifard 2017). This school was the first to emphasize the importance of worker satisfaction and working conditions. Behaviorists encouraged businesses to treat workers as valuable assets, taking into account human needs. At the same time, critics of behavioristic methods outlined that the theorists based their conclusions on simplistic interpretations of psychology without providing sufficient evidence (Khorasani & Almasifard 2017). Thus, the behavioral theory played a big role historically by turning attention to employees, but it was limited by the lack of scientific evidence and oversimplification of human psychology.

The collective work of many scientists during the Second World War and the creation of the computer led to a new advancement in management. The quantitative school uses a structured scientific approach and mathematical modeling to handle complex management problems. George Dantzig, who suggested using advanced mathematics and quantitative techniques in planning, is considered the father of this approach. The main problem of this method is the fact that it is often impossible to create a model that would take into account all variables involved in a complex process. In addition to that, quantitative techniques take a significant amount of time to use, which results in delays in work (Khorasani & Almasifard 2017). This approach to management can be effective in some areas, especially in science, but there are setbacks that limit its application.

Another milestone in the evolution of management is the establishment of the systems theory in the 1960s. American economist Herbert Alexander Simon is the father of this school. The creation of this new approach was made possible by the emergence of new interdisciplinary methods that could be applied to business. Systems management theory treats an organization as a complex system of interconnected parts, each of which has its function. Opposite to the proceeding schools of management that teach that there might be only one right solution for a problem, the systems theory states that goals can be achieved in many ways. This paradigm allows to describe processes in an organization and to develop mechanisms to achieve objectives. The shortcomings of the approach come with the fact that the nature of the relationships between different entities is sometimes hard to define (Khorasani & Almasifard 2017). Despite some limitations, this systematic approach can be effective in many situations, and it is still used now.

The contingency paradigm was the next important step in the evolution of modern management. This approach is based on contingency modeling of leadership that was introduced by Fred Fiedler in 1967. The importance of this theory lies in the fact that it provided an innovative way of looking at old problems. The contingency approach is based on the idea that the effectiveness of leadership depends on the application of management in a specific situation and requires flexibility and adjustability. A high level of complexity and the necessity for a substantial amount of analysis, together with the reactive nature of this methodology, are the main limitations of contingency theory (Otley, 2016). In spite of the sophistication inherent to this way to manage an organization, this approach remains widely used because of its effectiveness in dealing with complex problems.

Looking at the evolution of management theories provides multiple insights that help understand the subject. Various schools focus on different aspects of leadership and develop tools that can be applied to solve problems and increase the efficiency of an organization. Although all of the paradigms that have been discussed in this paper have some limitations, understanding their central principles allows us to successfully use them to achieve goals.

Khorasani, S. & Almasifard, M. (2017). Evolution of management theory within 20 century: A systemic overview of paradigm shifts in management. International Review of Management and Marketing , 7(3), 134-137. Web.

Otley, D. (2016). The contingency theory of management accounting and control: 1980–2014. Management Accounting Research , 31 , 45-62.

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IvyPanda. (2021, September 9). Management History and Its Key Milestones. https://ivypanda.com/essays/management-history-and-its-key-milestones/

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IvyPanda . "Management History and Its Key Milestones." September 9, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/management-history-and-its-key-milestones/.

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The Management Century

• Walter Kiechel

If you want to pinpoint a place and time that the first glints of the Management Century appeared on the horizon, you could do worse than Chicago, May 1886. There, to the recently formed American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Henry R. Towne, a cofounder of the Yale Lock Manufacturing Company, delivered an address titled “The […]

Reprint: R1211C

In 1886, addressing the nascent American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Henry R. Towne proposed that “the management of works” be considered a modern art—thereby heralding the Management Century, when management as we know it came into being and shaped the world in which we work.

Kiechel, a past editorial director of Harvard Business Publishing, elucidates the three eras that punctuate this period: the years leading up to World War II, during which scientific exactitude gave wings to a new managerial elite; the early postwar decades, managerialism’s apogee of self-confidence and a time when wartime principles of strategy were adapted, sometimes ruthlessly, to the running of companies; and the 1980s to the present, years that saw fast-moving changes, disequilibrium, and a servitude to market forces but also ushered in globalism, unprecedented innovation, and heightened expectations about how workers are to be treated. Along the way he examines the contributions of thinkers such as Frederick Taylor, Elton Mayo, Peter Drucker, and Michael Porter.

What lies ahead? Perhaps the biggest challenge facing the 21st-century company, Kiechel posits, is to truly free the spark of human imagination from the organization’s tidal pull toward the status quo. There’s almost always a better way, he concludes—and management will continue to seek it.

If you want to pinpoint a place and time that the first glints of the Management Century appeared on the horizon, you could do worse than Chicago, May 1886. There, to the recently formed American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Henry R. Towne, a cofounder of the Yale Lock Manufacturing Company, delivered an address titled “The Engineer as an Economist.”

• WK Walter Kiechel III is the former Editorial Director of Harvard Business Publishing, former Managing Editor at Fortune magazine, and author of The Lords of Strategy: The Secret Intellectual History of the New Corporate World . He is based in New York City.

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Type 2 Diabetes: Case Study Of A 65 Year Old Male Suffers From Long Term Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Published 20 Jun 2024

My patient, a 65-year-old male suffers from long term Type 2 diabetes mellitus. He currently has no symptoms and no recent triggering events suggesting that his diabetes are controlled for now. The patient explained how certain food types containing high levels of sugar increases his blood glucose and causes hyperglycaemia.

Upon triggering hyperglycaemia, the patient generates many symptoms such as:

• Thirst - Nocturia
• Tiredness - Polyuria

The patient was first diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus at the age of 40. Diagnosis was first made after a blood glucose test was done while fasting the night before. The patient experienced many symptoms before his diagnosis such as dizzy spells, polyuria and felt very lethargic. Due to this long term illness, the patient now suffers from many complications such as:

• poor wound healing,
• nephropathy
• retinopathy

The patient’s development of chronic kidney disease and loss of sight was previously due to poorly controlled diabetes. Recently the patient also was referred to hospital as he suffered from a diabetic foot ulcer and had a cast for many months due to impaired wound healing. This had a major impact as the patient struggled to walk.

Drug History:

At first when the patient was diagnosed, he was initially prescribed Metformin.

• Metformin: The first line of medication given to Type 2 diabetes patients. It decreases blood sugar levels by increasing peripheral usage of glucose to help the body handle insulin better. The patient was advised to take 500mg once daily of this medication preferably with breakfast.1

Metformin was no longer suitable for the patient as other complications arose form this. He is now prescribed Gliclazide and Linigliptin.

• Gliclazide: It is a sulfonylurea2 drug that increases the amount of insulin that your body makes.3 It is mainly effective when only residual pancreatic beta cell activity present2. Gliclazide occasionally causes hypoglycaemia so it is always advised for the patient to carry some sugar related products with them3. The patient takes one tablet once daily after breakfast.
• Linigliptin: This drug is usually taken if metformin is inappropriate to take for the patient. It inhibits dipeptidylpeptidase-4 to increase insulin secretion and lower glucagon secretion. The patient takes this once daily (5mg).4

Read also: Struggling with your assignments? Get expert case study help and ace your projects effortlessly.

Social History:

The patient has never smoked and stopped drinking alcohol many years ago.

Family History:

Many of the patient’s family members had a history of diabetes mellitus. The patients mother and father and wife suffered from Type 2 Diabetes mellitus.

Main Complaint:

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic condition caused by insulin resistance. This occurs when the body fails to use insulin effectively and pancreatic insulin production becomes deficient. There are many risk factors associated with Type 2 diabetes such as obesity, high blood pressure, lack of exercise and disturbance in blood lipid levels.5 Due to these factors the risk of cardiovascular conditions can also increase. There are many cardinal signs associated with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. These symptoms are polyuria (particularly at night), excessive thirst, very lethargic, poor wound healing when there are cuts and wound on skin and blurred vision. 6

Diagnosis and Testing:

Diagnosis is based on thorough history taking by an experienced clinician. This should include assessing glycemic control, patient’s recent blood glucose and levels of frequency hypoglycaemic episodes. The patient should also be asked about their medications type, dosage and times of administration.10 There are many investigations that can be done for diabetes diagnosis such as blood glucose test and refer the patient to the GP to check their urine.7

Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus:

NICE guidelines states the type of responsibility and support that should be provided for an adult with Type 2 diabetes at the age of 18 years onwards. These are,8

• Ensure that an individually care plan is set up for all adults with Type 2 diabetes
• Offer a structured group education programme e.g. DESMOND (Diabetes Education for Self- Management for Ongoing and Newly Diagnosed)
• Ensure that the person or members of the family know how to contact the diabetes team
• Provide information on government disability benefits (if needed)
• Manage lifestyle issues such as diet and exercise
• Screen for complications such as retinopathy to minimise the risks
• Provide up-to-date information on diabetes support groups

Dental Management: Dental clinicians need to consider certain factors before initiating dental treatment to prevent the risk of a medical emergency. One of the medical emergencies that can happen with Type 2 diabetes is hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar). Hypoglycaemia is treated in many ways:11

• Treat with a sugary snack and test your blood sugar after 10-15 mins if patient is conscious
• Put patient in recovery position and don’t put anything in their mouth. Give a glucagon injection middle third off the thigh if patient is unconscious or very drowsy

Patients undergoing major surgical treatment may require an adjustment to their insulin dosage or medications. 1

Oral Manifestations: Diabetic dental patients can be at threat for dental disease. High blood glucose levels can have an impact on periodontal health as it is a risk factor for periodontitis. There are many oral complications associated with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus. These are:9

• Burning sensation
• Gingivitis periodontitis
• Dental caries
• Bacterial, viral And fungal infections
• Periapical Abscess

It is very important to regularly monitor blood glucose levels to prevent these risks.

• NICE Guidelines (2018 ) Metformin Hydrochloride - Indication and Dose, Available at: https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/metformin-hydrochloride.html (Accessed: 12th February 2019)
• NICE Guidelines (2018 ) Gliclazide , Available at: https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/gliclazide.html (Accessed: 12th February 2019 ).
• NHS (2016) Gliclazide , Available at: https://beta.nhs.uk/medicines/gliclazide/(Accessed: 10th February 2019 ).
• NICE Guidelines (2018) Lingliptin - Indication and Dose , Available at: https://bnf.nice.org.uk/drug/linagliptin.html (Accessed: 13th February 2019 ).
• NICE Guidelines (May 2017 ) Type 2 diabetes in adults: management, Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28/chapter/Introduction (Accessed: 13th February 2019 ).
• NHS (2016) Type 2 Diabetes - Symptoms , Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/type-2-diabetes/symptoms/ (Accessed: 13th February 2019 ).
• NHS (2016) Type 2 Diabetes - Getting Diagnosed , Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/type-2-diabetes/getting-diagnosed/ (Accessed: 13th February 2019 ).
• NICE Guidelines, CKS (2017) Diabetes - Type 2 Scenario: Managment - adults , Available at: https://cks.nice.org.uk/diabetes-type-2#!scenario (Accessed: 13th February 2019 ).
• Marwat M., Begum S. () Dental Managment of a Diabetic Patient , Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/mamoonkhan3/dental-management-of-a-diabetic-patient (Accessed: 14th February 2019 ).
• Rajesh V., Lalla, Joseph A., D’Ambrosio. (October 2001 ) 'Dentistry & Medicine ', Dental managment considerations for the patient with diabetes mellitus , 132(), pp. 1425-1431 [Online]. Available at: https://www.ugr.es/~jagil/lalla_diabetes.pdf(Accessed: 14th February 2019 ).
• NHS (2016 ) Low blood sugar (hypoglycaemia) , Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/low-blood-sugar-hypoglycaemia/ (Accessed: 14th February 2019 ).

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UGC NET 2024 Question Papers 1 and 2, Subject Wise PDF 18th June Papers

UGC NET 2024 Question Papers 1 and 2 has been available in below article. Candidate can download the UGC NET 2024 Subject Wise Paper 1 & 2 PDF of 18th June offline exam.

Table of Contents

The UGC NET Examination was conducted on June 18, 2024, in two shifts. The exam consists of two papers: Paper 1, which assesses general teaching and research aptitude in areas such as reasoning ability, comprehension, and general awareness, and Paper 2, which is subject-specific, evaluating the candidate’s expertise in their chosen field.

The UGC NET 2024 Question Papers has been available in PDF format for various subjects. These question papers are valuable preparation tools, offering insights into the exam pattern, question types, and difficulty levels. They enable candidates to practice effectively, manage their time, and identify areas that require further study, thereby enhancing their chances of success in the exam.

Also Check: Why UGC NET 2024 June Exam Cancelled?

Download UGC NET 2024 Question Papers Subject wise

The direct Link to download the UGC NET 2024 Question Papers Subject wise has been provide below. Candidate will be able to download the UGC NET Paper 1 and Paper 2 Subject wise through the provided table once updated as per schedule.

Also Read : KAR TET Hall Ticket Download Link 2024

UGC NET 2024 Question Papers 1 and 2

The UGC NET exam is structured with two papers: Paper 1 and Paper 2. Each paper plays a distinct role in assessing your eligibility for lectureship positions in Indian universities. Here’s a comprehensive overview of both these papers:

Want to See How You Did on the UGC NET? Download the detailed answer key directly to your email within a week. Click here for instant access! Click here !

Paper 1: Teaching and Research Aptitude

• Focus: This paper gauges your understanding of core teaching methodologies, research aptitude, communication skills, and critical thinking abilities.
• Number of Questions: 50
• Marks: 100 (2 marks for each correct answer)
• Teaching Aptitude
• Research Aptitude
• Comprehension
• Communication Skills
• Reasoning (Logical and Analytical)
• Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Education
• Environment and Ecology

Paper 2: Subject-Specific Paper

• Focus: Paper 2 dives deep into your subject expertise. The specific content and question format will vary depending on the subject you choose for the UGC NET exam.
• Number of Questions: 100
• Marks: 200 (2 marks for each correct answer)

How to Download UGC NET 2024 Question Papers

To aid in efficient preparation, UGC NET 2024 question papers for both Paper 1 and Paper 2 will be made available subject-wise in PDF format. This accessibility allows candidates to download and practice as per their convenience. Candidates can follow these steps to download the question papers:

• Visit the Official Website : The official UGC NET website will have links to the question papers.
• Select the Year and Paper : Choose the year (2024) and the specific paper (Paper 1 or Paper 2).
• Choose the Subject : For Paper 2, select the relevant subject from the list provided.
• Download the PDF : Click on the download link to get the question paper in PDF format.

Tips for Effective Preparation Using UGC NET 2024 Question Papers

Candidates appearing for the UGC NET 2024 evening shift on 18 June 2024 can benefit significantly from practicing with the question papers from the morning shift of the same day. Here are some tailored tips for effective preparation using these specific question papers:

• Identify Patterns : Look for patterns in the questions, such as frequently tested topics or question formats.
• Understand Difficulty Level : Assess the overall difficulty level of the morning shift paper to gauge what to expect in the evening shift.
• Prioritize Important Topics : Pay special attention to topics that were heavily featured in the morning shift.
• Quick Revisions : Conduct quick revisions of these important topics to ensure you have a solid grasp on them.
• Review Notes : Go through your study notes to reinforce your understanding of complex topics.
• Refine Approach : Adjust your approach to answering questions based on the difficulty and pattern observed in the morning shift.
• Summary Notes : Use summary notes for quick revisions of important concepts.
• Key Points : Focus on key points and avoid diving into new topics or overly detailed studies at the last minute.

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Application requirements & enhancements.

Our admission counselors review each application carefully, taking into consideration your academic background, life experiences and interests. We don’t have a minimum test score or GPA range to gauge your potential for admission, but there are some things that can make you a stronger candidate.

Required for admission consideration

We look for students who have been successful in a variety of challenging courses, especially those that are above and beyond what’s required for graduation. And we understand every school is different, so we evaluate your transcript specifically against your high school's curriculum.

Prior to high school graduation, we require you to complete a minimum of:

• English: 4 years
• Math: 3 years
• Science: 3 years (2 must be laboratory science)
• Social studies: 3 years
• Foreign language: 2 years

If you're interested in engineering or the sciences, we recommend an additional year of math and laboratory science. Leaning more toward the liberal arts? We’d suggest another year of social studies and foreign language.

Application essay

All first-year students must complete an essay via the Common App or Coalition with Scoir. What you share in your essay is completely up to you—it should be about conveying who you are to the admission staff. No matter the topic, personalize it. Add a part of you into the piece, and make it genuine.

Arts Supplement Required for music majors and those who are pursing a Arts Achievement Scholarship in either music or art studio

Applicants who are required to submit an Arts Supplement will see this required checklist item on their applicant status portal. Students must upload their portfolio materials using the portfolio updater prior to completing the Arts Supplement. You can access the portfolio uploader by logging into your applicant portal using your CWRU Network ID and clicking Edit Portfolio.

The Arts Supplement is optional for all other applicants. (More on that below.)

Opportunities to enhance your application

We understand there may be more you want to share with us than can fit neatly on the Common App or Coalition with Scoir. Though not required as part of their application, some students choose to share additional information that may possibly strengthen their application and help us get to know them better. We welcome you to share such information with us.

Optional ways to enhance your application include the following:

Test-optional policy

Case Western Reserve University is test-optional.  Read about our test-optional policy .

We “superscore” our students’ test results, which means we take your best scores on each section of the SAT and ACT. If you took a test more than once, you will be evaluated on the highest score you received in each individual section of the exam.

Here’s a look at admitted student statistics for the Class of 2025:

Middle 50% 

• SAT Total: 1420-1510
• ACT Composite: 32-35
• Unweighted GPA: 3.6–4.0
• Test optional: 42%

Ordinarily, scores for standardized tests taken in November of your senior year arrive in time for Early Action or Early Decision I deadlines, and scores for tests taken in January arrive in time for Early Decision II or Regular Decision consideration.

To ensure your application can be fully reviewed in time for your chosen decision plan, you should take tests by the following dates:

• Nov. 30 : Early Action, Early Decision I and Pre-Professional Scholars Program applicants
• Dec. 31 : Early Decision II and Regular Decision applicants

Share your talents

Arts Supplements are required for music and music education majors and available to all applicants. If you intend to submit an arts supplement, be sure to indicate this on your application.

The arts supplement is due 15 days after the application deadline and can be completed via your applicant portal .  For detailed information:

Scholarship Audition and Portfolio Requirements

• Prepare two contrasting monologues, one Shakespeare and one contemporary, not to exceed a total time of four minutes. You may also prepare 16 bars of any song, but this is not required. If possible, please present a headshot and resume at the audition.

A portfolio presentation is needed for the directing concentration. Your portfolio should consist of the following:

• A one-page resume documenting your theater experience (directing, acting, playwriting, design, stage management, etc.).
• A one- to two- page director’s concept for a published play or musical that you would be interested in directing, detailing your vision for the show (characters, moods and tones, visual aspects) in addition to what you would want the audience to take away from the production in terms of its central themes and ideas.
• Production photos from previous projects you have directed (if applicable, not required).
• You should be prepared to speak about your interest and passion for directing as well as your previous directing and/or theater experience.

Dramatic Writing/Playwriting

• Submit a 20-page sample of your work in either playwriting or screenwriting (or both) at least one week before the interview date. This can include either an excerpt from a full-length work or a combination of shorter pieces, such as 10-minute plays or short-film scripts. While dramatic writing is preferred, you may also submit other examples of your creative writing, such as short stories, poetry, essays, etc.

Stage Management

• Bring your stage management binders, copies of scripts you have worked on (with cues written in), paperwork related to the show, and any other evidence of skills related to stage management such as organization, managing/coordinating large groups of people, multitasking and communication.
• A one-page resume of experience in theater is required. You may also include experience in a related field, such as art, architecture, graphics or photography. Additionally, a statement of intent—even if that statement is exploratory—should be provided. Other materials may include a portfolio demonstrating skills in theater (renderings, sketches, paperwork, scale drawings, production photos, etc.) and related areas (artwork, photography, drawing, drafting, computer graphics, etc.). The portfolio may be in scrapbook format. Art projects or model-making could substitute or be included with the other requirements. The material should be organized into some kind of cohesive presentation, with identifying labels for references. The interviewer will retain a copy of your resume but will not keep your portfolio. Portfolio is for presentation purposes only.
• Submit a video and complete an online questionnaire for pre-screening by dance department faculty. The video submission should be 90 seconds to three minutes in length, and you should be clearly visible. Do not submit ensemble footage. Video may be from technique class or performance.
• Submit a portfolio PowerPoint consisting of 24 pieces of your work. Each image credit line should include the name of the piece, the dimensions, the material, media and the date completed. (For example: Self-Portrait, 18” x 24”, media soft pastel on paper, fall 2021.) If you are showing three-dimensional work, i.e. sculpture or pottery, you may want to show two different views, front and side, etc. You may also want to choose to photograph a specific detail.
• Autobiography : A short (250-word) essay, citing your course of study in the visual arts. Include any special out-of-school activities, i.e., art camp, working as a teaching assistant doing creative activities, or private art lessons. Describe both your junior high and high school art experiences, courses that you took, and subjects that you studied.
• Program of study : A separate, short (250-word) essay of what you hope to gain participating in our program in Art History and Art. You may want to consult the Art History and Art website for courses that are available for you to take.

Tell us more about yourself

Additional materials can be shared through a form on your applicant portal. You can use this opportunity to share videos, web links, PDFs, documents, photos and more.

Some students use this as an opportunity to add additional context to their application with materials like:

• Additional letters of recommendation
• Research abstracts
• ACT writing tests
• Schoolhouse.world tutor transcripts
• Predicted IB results
• Though not all may be eligible for college credit at CWRU, these test scores can still enhance your application. You can send scores directly to us or self-report them via your portal.

Anything you have that can help us know you better and understand the contributions you can make to our campus are welcome and appreciated.