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Narrative Essay

How to write an annotation.

One of the greatest challenges students face is adjusting to college reading expectations.  Unlike high school, students in college are expected to read more “academic” type of materials in less time and usually recall the information as soon as the next class.

The problem is many students spend hours reading and have no idea what they just read.  Their eyes are moving across the page, but their mind is somewhere else. The end result is wasted time, energy, and frustration…and having to read the text again.

Although students are taught  how to read  at an early age, many are not taught  how to actively engage  with written text or other media. Annotation is a tool to help you learn how to actively engage with a text or other media.

View the following video about how to annotate a text.

Annotating a text or other media (e.g. a video, image, etc.) is as much about you as it is the text you are annotating. What are YOUR responses to the author’s writing, claims and ideas? What are YOU thinking as you consider the work? Ask questions, challenge, think!

When we annotate an author’s work, our minds should encounter the mind of the author, openly and freely. If you met the author at a party, what would you like to tell to them; what would you like to ask them? What do you think they would say in response to your comments? You can be critical of the text, but you do not have to be. If you are annotating properly, you often begin to get ideas that have little or even nothing to do with the topic you are annotating. That’s fine: it’s all about generating insights and ideas of your own. Any good insight is worth keeping because it may make for a good essay or research paper later on.

The Secret is in the Pen

One of the ways proficient readers read is with a pen in hand. They know their purpose is to keep their attention on the material by:

• Predicting  what the material will be about
• Questioning  the material to further understanding
• Determining  what’s important
• Identifying  key vocabulary
• Summarizing  the material in their own words, and
• Monitoring  their comprehension (understanding) during and after engaging with the material

The same applies for mindfully viewing a film, video, image or other media.

Annotating a Text

Review the video, “How to Annotate a Text.”  Pay attention to both how to make annotations and what types of thoughts and ideas may be part of your annotations as you actively read a written text.

Example Assignment Format: Annotating a Written Text

For the annotation of reading assignments in this class, you will cite and comment on a minimum of FIVE (5) phrases, sentences or passages from notes you take on the selected readings.

Here is an example format for an assignment to annotate a written text:

Example Assignment Format: Annotating Media

In addition to annotating written text, at times you will have assignments to annotate media (e.g., videos, images or other media). For the annotation of media assignments in this class, you will cite and comment on a minimum of THREE (3) statements, facts, examples, research or any combination of those from the notes you take about selected media.

Here is an example format for an assignment to annotate media:

• Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://www.lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
• Authored by : Paul Powell . Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Authored by : Elisabeth Ellington and Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer . Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Annotating a Text. Authored by : HaynesEnglish. Located at : http://youtu.be/pf9CTJj9dCM . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube license
• How to Annotate a Text. Authored by : Kthiebau90. Located at : http://youtu.be/IzrWOj0gWHU . License : All Rights Reserved . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Citation Basics / Annotated Bibliography Format & Examples

Annotated Bibliography Format & Examples

A complete guide to the mla & apa annotated bibliography.

If you’ve just received an assignment that requires an MLA or APA annotated bibliography, you may be wondering where to start. This guide will help answer all of your questions and includes step-by-step instructions on how to do an annotated bibliography in MLA style, as well as an APA annotated bibliography. You will also find sample annotated bibliographies, real-life examples, and opportunities to practice what you have learned.

The MLA ( Modern Language Association ) and APA (American Psychological Association) are not associated with this guide. All of the information provided here, however, offers direction for students and researchers who use these citation styles in their work.

The structures and annotated bibliography templates on this page were created by the in-house librarians at EasyBib.com.

If you’re simply looking for an example of an annotated bibliography (both in MLA format and APA format), scroll down toward the bottom of the page. We’ve included links to visuals for those of you who need help with the structure and styling of an annotated bibliography. If you’re looking for a variety of annotated bibliography topics, and you’re truly searching for the answer to, “What is an annotated bibliography?” then continue reading!

Here’s a run-through of everything this page includes:

Table of contents

What is an annotated bibliography, annotations vs. abstract, why include annotations.

• Step 1: Analyze your sources

Step 2: Write the descriptions

• Step 3a: Formatting an MLA style annotated bibliography
• Step 3b: Formatting an APA style annotated bibliography

Annotated Bibliography Templates

Using the easybib annotation tool.

A bibliography is a complete list of the sources that were used to complete a research paper or project.

Depending on the style guide you follow, you may also see this called a Works Cited (also called an MLA bibliography) or Reference List (APA format). Each listed source, or citation , shares information about the author, title, publishing year, and other details that serve to credit the original authors whose work informed your research. These details also help other students and researchers find and read the source materials.

When your research is related to a scholastic assignment, you should always verify your instructor’s requirements for the types and number of sources to include, as well as the style you should adhere to when formatting your paper and bibliography.

An MLA annotated bibliography and an APA format annotated bibliography are bibliographies that include a concise explanation, or annotation , of each listed source. Depending on the assignment, this annotation may be solely descriptive, or analytical.

An abstract and annotation should not be confused; they differ in both their substance as well as their placement in a paper.

Annotations: 

• Usually found in bibliographies at the end of a paper
• Are subjective
• Purpose is to summarize and evaluate . It should briefly communicate the work’s main point, but also discuss the background of the author or study, and the strengths/weaknesses of the work.

Abstracts: 

• Usually found in journal databases or the beginning of a paper
• Are objective
• Purpose is to summarize . It should provide a short overview of the article and communicate the main points and themes.

If you would like to learn more , this link further explores the difference between an abstract and an annotation.

This resource provides additional information on how to write a bibliography with annotations in other formats. You can also take advantage of the plagiarism checker and bibliography tools that come with EasyBib Plus to help you create your reference lists.

Before you learn how to make an annotated bibliography, you may be wondering why you need to.

Sometimes instructors want you to create and include annotations in your bibliography, either as part of an assignment or as an assignment unto itself. Understanding the purpose of this approach to your reference list can help to ensure that you gain all of the benefits that the annotated bibliography process provides.

As a student, this method will help you develop or hone your research skills, providing you with practice not only in locating sources but also in analyzing and evaluating them for relevance and quality.

Your instructor will gain insight into your research abilities, as well, allowing them to assess your work more thoroughly. If you plan to publish your research, this comprehensive approach to detailing your sources will provide readers and other researchers with a substantial directory of resources to evaluate for their own work.

Whether you’re publishing or submitting your annotated bibliography, make sure your spelling and wording is correct! If you need to brush up on any parts of speech topics, check out our interjection , determiner , and adverb pages!

Step 1: Analyze your sources 

Each annotation should be a summarization or analysis of your source. If you have been tasked with writing annotations as part of a research paper or project, begin to create both the citation and notes on the source while you identify and analyze your sources.

Not only will this approach help you to hone your research skills and identify sources that are relevant and useful for your topic, but you will also save time. When done in this manner, both your citations and annotations will be nearly complete before you begin to write the body of your paper.

Analyzing your potential sources requires a two-pronged approach that first evaluates the author, publication, and date, and then examines the content.

When conducting your initial assessment of the source, consider some of the following questions to guide your appraisal:

• What qualifies the author to write on this subject?
• Is the author affiliated with a reputable institution in this field?
• Is the author credentialed or otherwise considered an expert in this field?
• Is this source current?
• Is this the most recent edition?
• Is the publisher reputable?
• Is the journal reputable?

Once your primary evaluation is complete, you will move on the assessing the content itself. Consider some of these elements as you review each source:

• Who is the intended audience?
• Is the author presenting her opinion or interpretation as the truth, or stating facts?
• What supporting evidence does the author provide?
• Did the author perform the research, or curate and present the research of others?
• If the author used the research of others, are the sources the author cites credible?
• Are there errors or omissions of fact?
• Is the author writing objectively and without bias?

Also, consider the value each source provides to you:

• Is the information helpful for your particular assignment?
• Does it help answer your research question(s)?
• Is this source different from your other sources, or does it repeat information you already have?
• Is the source providing you with a different perspective on your topic, or changing your beliefs or thinking about your subject?

To make it easier for you to create your reference page, write your notes in the format you will be using when you construct this part of the assignment (for instance, as short phrases or complete sentences). Once you have identified all of the sources you wish to include, you will merely need to insert what you have already written on the page and write your citation, which is explained in the next section.

Click here for additional information and a supplementary annotated bibliography sample. For an MLA bibliography example (with annotations),  check out our visual example of an MLA annotated bibliography .

An annotated bibliography entry may be written either as short phrases or complete sentences. Your instructor will advise you of which approach you are required to take.

Annotations should include either:

• The main points from the source, as well as the topics covered, the approach used, and any findings.
• Or your critical evaluation.
• A standard annotation is approximately one paragraph.
• Take care not to include any unnecessary details, as the goal is to summarize each source as succinctly as possible and, in some cases, evaluate them.
• Your field of study or instructor will determine what format your annotated bibliography will use. In this guide, you’ll find examples of an MLA and an APA annotated bibliography.

Here is an annotated bibliography example MLA annotation for the book The Elements of Eloquence: Secrets of the Perfect Turn of Phrase by UK author and blogger Mark Forsyth:

The author, Mark Forsyth, examines the rhetorical devices used in the English language, analyzing the patterns and formats that create memorable quotes. He traces the history of rhetoric to the Ancient Greeks, and provides an abridged timeline, following their use and evolution through to modern day. The author also explores the broader subject of persuasion and maps out the role that the figures of rhetoric play in it. In all, he examines over thirty devices, dissecting notable passages and phrases from pop music, the plays of William Shakespeare, the Bible, and more to explore the figures of rhetoric at work within each of them. Thorough definitions accompany this examination of structure to demonstrate how these formulas have been used to generate famously memorable expressions as well as how to reproduce their effects.

Notice how the annotated bibliography MLA entry above is descriptive enough so the reader has an idea of what the source is about with just a single paragraph. For more information on annotations, check out this informative site . If you’re looking to strengthen your writing in general, reading these grammar guides could be a good start.

For guidance on creating entries in MLA format , APA format , and more styles , check out the EasyBib library of resources or try the EasyBib annotation tool—we talk about it below!

Step 3a: MLA annotated bibliography format

The MLA Style Center and the current edition of the MLA Handbook provide the following guidance for formatting an MLA annotated bibliography:

• Title your reference page as “Annotated Bibliography” or “Annotated List of Works Cited.”
• Place each annotation after its reference.
• Annotations should typically not exceed a single paragraph.
• Annotations should be indented one inch from the start of your citation.
• Double-space all text on the page.
• 1-inch margins around the page.

Sources in an annotated bibliography can be organized alphabetically by the first word in each reference (as with a normal Works Cited page), by publication date, or by subject.

For a visual example of an annotated bibliography, as well as specific annotation examples, visit the MLA annotated bibliography guide .

If you are required to share your references in a manner other than in MLA bibliography format, the EasyBib style guides can help you with many common styles. While you’re at it, check out their conjunction , preposition , and pronoun pages to help keep your paper in mint condition!

Step 3b: APA annotated bibliography format

The American Psychological Association states that your instructor should set the guidelines for your annotated bibliography, but asks that the bibliography be formatted according to their standard reference page rules (see Section 9.51 of the Publication Manual ). If your teacher has requested an APA formatted annotated bibliography, first ask them for guidelines. Otherwise, here are some quick rules for you to follow:

• Double space all text on the page.  
• Title your page “Annotated Bibliogra phy”. Bold and center the title.  
• Organize references alphabetically by the first word of each reference.  
• Only the first line of a ref erence is flush with the left margin. Any other lines after the first line should be indented ½ inch from the left.  
• Add annotations on the next line after their paired reference.   
• Fully indent annotations by a ½ inch from the left.  
• Keep annotations short. No more than one paragraph.  

For examples of a  properly formatted APA annotation, visit this guide on APA annotated bibliographies .  

In comparison to the sample annotated bibliography MLA, the APA sample formats its page elements and references differently.

Students and researchers who type their research notes can save time by using an annotated bibliography template in MLA format while reviewing and analyzing sources. By adding the relevant information into a pre-formatted template, you’ll create a resource that helps you when you begin writing your paper in addition to saving time by completing your references and summaries alongside your research.

Students who prefer to take notes by hand can employ a modified version of this approach, with an additional step required to transfer your handwritten and formatted references from your notebook to populate your reference page.

Bibliography Template for MLA

To create an annotated bibliography MLA template, copy the following details into the program in which you will take notes or hand write it on the top margin of a page in your notebook. For each source, use this template to guide you as you identify the necessary details and insert them into your notes:

• Author (Last name, First name).
• Title of source.
• Title of the container ,
• Other contributors (names and roles),
• Publication Date,
• Location of the source (such as URL or page range).
• Summary or Analysis.

The MLA 9 model for MLA works cited entries offers a single format for all source type, and a great deal of flexibility to include the information most relevant to your topic and omit that which isn’t.

Hopefully our visual annotated bibliography example in MLA above has helped. If you still have lingering questions, visit the MLA Style Center online ( linked here ). Also, here’s a guide if you’re looking for more on the related topic of MLA in-text & parenthetical citations .

Bibliography Template for APA

Students and researchers who are still asking themselves how to piece together an annotated bibliography, or still questioning what is an annotated bibliography, could probably benefit from a template, similar to the one above. This one, however, is for those of you who are tasked with creating an annotated bibliography in the style created by the American Psychological Association.

The tricky thing about this specific style though, is that every reference is styled differently. Books, websites, journal articles, newspaper articles, and many others each have their own reference structure.

For most sources though, you should look for the following, basic information:

• Type of source
• Author (last name, first name)
• Title of source/article/web page, etc.
• Title of where source was found (e.g., database name, website name, etc.)
• Other contributors (names and roles)
• Location of the source (such as URL, DOI, or page range)
• Summary or Analysis

We understand it can get tricky, and it’s very different from the Modern Language Association’s structure for references. Take a moment to either use the other handy guides on EasyBib.com or use our automatic generator to form your references in just a few clicks. Our tools help take the pain away from having to rack your brain to form references properly. Capitals, lowercase letters, italics, quotation marks, punctuation in the appropriate places, it can all be quite overwhelming. Do yourself a favor, and use the EasyBib automatic citation generator.

Even though there are a lot of different variations, here’s a commonly used structure for sources:

Author’s Last Name, First initial, Middle initial. (Year the source was published). Title of the source . Retrieved from (insert the website address here)

Underneath the reference, include your summary or analysis paragraph.

Hopefully, this page helped answer all of your “What is an annotated bibliography?” questions. If you’re seeking out an annotated bibliography generator, follow the steps above the annotated bibliography examples.

Looking for additional help with other related topics? Don’t forget about the various beneficial guides on EasyBib.com! Our APA in-text citation guide and our APA parenthetical citation guide are two of our most popular pages. Learn the ins and outs of referencing your work in the body of your paper with our thorough, complete, and reader-friendly guides.

If you are creating a bibliography in MLA format, the EasyBib MLA bibliography generator can help save you time formatting your citations and annotations correctly. You can create entries for websites, books, videos, databases, dictionary articles, and many other types of sources.

In addition to forming the citations, you can also enter your annotation text to produce the complete entry for each source. The process for this is simple. You can follow along below to practice creating one:

• First, select your source type from among the 50+ available options. For this example, we will use the acting career of Keanu Reeves as our research topic and use the movie Point Break from 1991 as our first source. To cite this film, you would select the option for “Film/Online Video.” As you follow along, pick the option that is suitable for your source if you are using a different example.
• Enter the title of your source or, if you are citing a website, you may enter the URL. (Now would be a great time to peek at how to cite websites in MLA ). After you enter the title or URL for your reference, the EasyBib citation tool will scan for titles that match it and provide you with a list of results. Select “Cite this” next to the listing that matches your source.
• You will see a citation form. This gives you the option to add additional relevant or necessary information. For our sample topic, we will specifically cite Keanu Reeves as the performer and Kathryn Bigelow as the director.
• After entering any additional details, you have the option to expand your entry and include an annotation. To do so, select “Add annotation” at the bottom of the page, and a text box will open up.

Then, type your summary or analysis into the text box. If you took notes during the research stage using the format of your paper, this might be as simple as copying and pasting your already written summary or critique. Once you have entered all of the necessary information, select “Create citation” to generate the complete entry. You can then copy and paste this into your MLA bibliography.

Here’s what it’ll look like:

Point Break . Directed by Kathryn Bigelow, performance by Keanu Reeves, 20th Century Fox, 1991.

Reeves’ role as rookie FBI Agent Johnny Utah in Point Break marks the turning point in his Hollywood film career. While he’d risen to fame due to the success of the Bill and Ted franchise, his status today as an action star began when Point Break provided him with the material to establish himself as capable of portraying more than the lovable but unserious characters of his previous starring roles. In a parallel arc, director Kathryn Bigelow’s career also sees a shift beginning with Point Break , establishing her within the traditional action genre as a serious director capable of creating high-action and visually memorable films. While Point Break leaves plenty to be desired in terms of dialogue, it afforded Bigelow and Reeves the opportunities to showcase themselves and their talent in new ways that still echo in their work today.

• Works Cited

Harner, James L.  On Compiling an Annotated Bibliography . 2nd ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2000.

MLA Handbook . 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 7th ed., American Psychological Association, 2020.

“What Guidance Should I Give My Students for Preparing an Annotated Bibliography?” The MLA Style Center , The Modern Language Association, 4 Nov. 2016, style.mla.org/annotated-bibliographies/.

Visit our EasyBib Twitter feed to discover more citing tips, fun grammar facts, and the latest product updates.

Published October 18, 2015. Updated July 25, 2021.

Written and edited by Michele Kirschenbaum and Elise Barbeau. Michele Kirschenbaum is a school library media specialist and is the in-house librarian at EasyBib.com. Elise Barbeau is the Citation Specialist at Chegg. She has worked in digital marketing, libraries, and publishing.

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An annotated bibliography is a list containing complete information of sources, such as journals, books, and reports, cited in the text. In addition, it provides a brief description of each source in about 100–150 words. The annotation can explain the topics covered in the source or evaluate the source. The main objective of giving the annotation is to provide the reader the importance, accuracy, and value of the source.

An example of an annotated bibliography in APA style is given below.

Lim, L. (2014). Ideology, rationality and reproduction in education: A critical discourse analysis. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 35 (1), 61–76. https://doi:10.1080/01596306.2012.739467

Lim (2014) focuses on issues of power and ideology dominant in curricular discourses of rationality to study a discourse analysis of the goals of one of the most important curricula in the teaching of thinking. He proves that political and class commitments are reproduced in the forms of thinking that are valued in societies. Through his research, Lim asserts that such curricula engage in making our understanding of what thinking and rationality are. It must facilitate the social reproduction of a specific proportion of the middle class.

If you want to evaluate or provide a description of a source you are citing, you can create an annotated bibliography. Write your annotation in 100–150 words and add it below the source for which you are providing your annotation. Remember, your annotation should provide the reader the importance, accuracy, and value of the source. Below are the guidelines and rules to be followed while writing an annotated bibliography for APA style:

Order your reference entries in alphabetical order, similar to how you would order entries in the reference list.

If you want to add an annotation to an entry, add it as a fresh paragraph below the reference entry. The annotation is indented 0.5 inches from the left margin. However, the first line of the annotation is not indented.

To format the annotated bibliography, follow the recommendations given below:

Set the left, right, top, and bottom margins to 1 inch.

Give double-line spacing.

Title the page “Annotated Bibliography.” Set it in bold.

The title should be aligned to the center of the page.

As you format reference entries, left-align all references in the annotated bibliography section. If any entry runs over more than a line, indent the subsequent lines 0.5 inch from the left margin.

Arrange all reference entries alphabetically according to the surname of the authors.

Provide your annotations below the reference entry for which you want to give your annotation. Indent annotations 0.5 inches from the left margin.

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How to write an annotated bibliography

Published March 26, 2021. Updated June 3, 2022.

An Annotated Bibliography Definition:

An annotated bibliography is a reference list with short descriptions, comments, or summaries, following each reference.

Overview of an Annotated Bibliography:

An annotated bibliography can help to collect and easily access key information from the research. The citations should be formatted according to MLA, APA, or Chicago/Turabian, depending on the project and discipline. A manual or style guide can be used to help format the references. Annotations should follow each entry in the bibliography, double-spaced and indented an inch from the left. Annotations can vary dramatically in length both within and between projects. Annotations can summarize the source, evaluate it, or identify its purpose within the research. They can also combine these approaches.

Worried about your writing? Submit your paper for a Chegg Writing essay check , or for an Expert Check proofreading . Both can help you find and fix potential writing issues.

How to format an annotated bibliography

Formatting  an annotated bibliography will depend as much on style as it does in a regular bibliography. In other words, your references will need to be formatted according to MLA, APA, or Chicago/Turabian style, depending on your teacher’s preference or the discipline of your study.

Formatting the references

Use a manual or style guide to help you format your references. There are so many different types of sources that even experienced researchers often consult an official resource.

MLA, APA, Chicago/Turabian

MLA is the most common style used for student papers. APA is commonly used in education and the sciences. Chicago/Turabian is often found in certain types of publications related to business, history, and the fine arts.

Each of these official styles has their own formatting requirements. You can consult the Chegg page “How to write a bibliography” for more detailed descriptions of the most common citations for each style.

Bibliography entries in Chicago/Turabian style will be single-spaced with hanging indents and double-spaced between entries. Both MLA and APA references will be double-spaced, also with hanging indents.

Formatting the annotations

Regardless of the style, the annotations will take the same format: short paragraphs that appear directly under each reference. It’s all right if your annotations vary in length, depending on the source and its importance to your research.

Indent these double-spaced paragraphs a full inch from the left, and leave an extra space between paragraphs if your annotation is more than one paragraph long.

What to include in an annotation

The content of your annotations won’t vary according to citation styles. Instead, it will depend on the assignment or independent purpose for which you compile the bibliography. In some instances, teachers may want you to include specific material. Otherwise, ask yourself, “What would be most helpful to my research?”

There are three types of content often found in annotations for a bibliography:

Your annotations may focus on any one of these three things, or you may choose to combine them for a more holistic approach to the material. Again, it depends on your reason for writing the annotations.

The various approaches are explained and illustrated below. While the examples use different citation styles, these have been selected arbitrarily. There is no necessary correlation between citation style and annotation content.

The same article will be used throughout in order to better demonstrate the differences between types of annotations.

When you’re working with a large number of sources, it’s almost impossible to keep them all in your head. It’s a good idea to have summaries of all sources.  An annotated bibliography can help you collect and easily access key information from your research.

An effective annotation should briefly address the following questions:

• What is the author’s main argument(s) or the point of their study?
• What topics does the study cover?
• What is the research methodology or theoretical approach used in the study?
• What are the results and conclusions of the research?

This citation is formatted according to MLA style.

Frye, Susan. “Of Chastity and Violence: Elizabeth I and Edmund Spenser in the House of Busirane.” Signs , vol. 20, no. 1, 1994, pp. 49–78. JSTOR , links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0097-9740%28199423%2920%3A1%3C49%3AOCAVEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K. Accessed 10 Mar. 2021.

Susan Frye makes the argument that Amoret’s violation in the House of Busirane results from the conflict between Elizabeth’s construction of female chastity as virginal, spiritual, and self-sufficient and the predominant view of women as vulnerable and dependent on men. Through the character of the enchanter Busirane, Spenser literally carves on Amoret, in a scene of both sexual and artistic violence that he forces her twin (Britomart) to watch. In doing so, he wrests the definition of chastity away from Elizabeth. He redefines it as exclusive fidelity to and possession by one man, an equally contemporary but more overtly patriarchal definition.

The summary outlines Frye’s argument, the text on which she focuses, and her historical approach to the material. As a pure summary, it contains none of the paper-writer’s own opinions or commentary.

In many instances, a pure summary may not be the most helpful type of annotation. Instead, you may want to focus your comment on your evaluation of the source.

Depending on your own assessment, you may want to address any of the following questions in your annotation:

• Are there any holes in the study’s methodology or scope?
• Does it come from an authoritative source?
• How old is it? Is the information or approach dated?
• Are there any detectable biases?
• How does it compare with similar studies or essays? How does it revise or influence the work of other writers or researchers?

This citation is formatted according to APA style.

Frye, S. (1994). Of Chastity and Violence: Elizabeth I and Edmund Spenser in the House of Busirane. Signs , 20 (1), 49–78. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0097-9740%28199423%2920%3A1%3C49%3AOCAVEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K.

Frye’s article illustrates the 1990s shift towards feminist reexaminations of Spenser’s epic. Moreover, her articulation of the relationship between the two Amorets present in this scene—the “real” Amoret and Busirane’s simulacrum—has influenced subsequent readings of the episode.

However, Frye’s article shows its age in its understanding of allegory, presenting two monolithic poles in contention—virginal chastity vs. marital chastity. More recent scholarship, largely influenced by Gordan Teskey, instead identifies allegory as a maelstrom of continual tension, multiplicity, and revision. This understanding of the genre also enables a more generous interpretation of the historical Spenser.

The evaluation assesses the place of this article in the history of Spenserian scholarship. It contextualizes the article within a certain critical movement, affirms its influence on later work, and identifies where the essay may fall short or need to be reconsidered in the light of more recent scholarship.

Your annotations can also help the reader of your bibliography better understand how you intend to use your various sources. Does an article provide a useful point of resistance? Do you need the context of an earlier scientific experiment?

This approach to the annotation keeps the focus firmly on your own work.

This citation is formatted according to Chicago/Turabian style.

Frye, Susan. “Of Chastity and Violence: Elizabeth I and Edmund Spenser in the House of Busirane.” Signs 20, no. 1 (1994): 49–78. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0097-9740%28199423%2920%3A1%3C49%3AOCAVEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-K.

I draw on Frye’s historical contextualization to reveal otherwise hidden aspects to scene’s violence. I also use the gap between her reading and later, equally feminist interpretations as, itself, evidence of allegory’s availability and fluidity.

The annotation doesn’t include a summary and assessment of the article. (Presumably, those are elsewhere in the writer’s notes.) Instead, it immediately positions Frye’s work in relationship to the essay-writer’s own perspective and use of the source.

Instead of keeping the above categories distinct, it often makes sense to combine them, using your annotations to accomplish several objectives at once. The following two examples take a more holistic approach to the annotation.

Annotations can also vary  in length and detail. The first annotation is both shorter and much more general than the second. Depending on the context of your assignment or relevance of a source, either might be appropriate.

Both examples use MLA citations.

Susan Frye’s article illustrates the 1990s shift towards feminist reexaminations of chastity in The Faerie Queene . Her article on the tension between competing definitions of chastity paves the way for my own examination of the text’s allegory, which draws on more recent theory and on feminist theology.

Susan Frye’s article illustrates the 1990s shift towards feminist reexaminations of Spenser’s epic. She argues that the House of Busirane episode reveals the conflict between Elizabeth’s construction of female chastity as virginal and self-sufficient and the predominant view of women as vulnerable and dependent on men. In this violent scene, Spenser redefines chastity as exclusive fidelity to and possession by one man, an equally contemporary but more overtly patriarchal definition.

However, more recent scholarship rejects the assumption that allegory necessarily consists of monolithic poles and instead identifies the genre as the site of continual tension, multiplicity, and revision. I use the gap between Frye’s reading and later, equally feminist interpretations as, itself, evidence of this interpretation of the genre, i.e., evidence of allegory’s availability and fluidity.

Before you turn in that paper, don’t forget to cite your sources in APA format , MLA format , or a style of your choice.

Key takeaways

• Annotated bibliographies can help you keep track of extensive research.
• Format your citations according to MLA, APA, or Chicago/Turabian, depending on your project and discipline.
• Your annotations should follow each entry in your bibliography, double-spaced and indented an inch from the left.
• Annotations can vary dramatically in length both within and between projects.
• Annotations can summarize the source, evaluate it, or identify its purpose within your own research. They can also combine these approaches.

To create an annotated bibliography, you need to follow some guidelines listed below for APA style:

Arrange your entries in alphabetical order.

Add the annotation as a new paragraph after its reference entry.

Indent the annotation 0.5 inches from the left margin. Do not add any additional indentation for the first line of the annotation (the same as a block quotation).

Use double-spacing.

For annotations that span multiple paragraphs, indent the first line of the second and any additional paragraphs an additional 0.5 inches (the same as a block quotation).

Include “Annotated Bibliography” in the page’s title. Use bold font for the title and center-align it.

An annotated bibliography contains the same source information as a reference list or works-cited list, but it also includes annotations for each source. An annotated bibliography in MLA and APA styles looks similar to those below (but use double spacing and indent the annotations as you would a block quotation).

Annotated Bibliography (center the title on the page)

Boas, Franz. “Property Marks of Alaskan Eskimos.” American Anthropologist, vol. 1, no. 4, 1899, pp. 601–613.

This is essentially a description of private ownership of property among Eskimos, a concept Boas feels is often distorted in other works. Alaskan Eskimos employ property marks to a higher degree than any other North American Eskimo group. As an instance of this, Boas states that all Alaskan Eskimo weapons were marked with property marks in order to indicate whose a given dead animal was. Taken in connection with the form and occurrence of such marks among the Northeastern tribes of Asia, Boas suggests that Alaskan Eskimos may have been influenced in this respect by the proximity of Asiatic groups.

Taken from Hippler, Arthur E. Eskimo Acculturation: A Selected Annotated Bibliography of Alaskan and Other Eskimo Acculturation Studies . Alaska U College, 1970.

Hughes, C. C. (1963). Observations on community change in the north: An attempt at summary. Anthropologica, 5 (1), 69–79.

This is a general comparison of Arctic communities both Indian and Eskimo in the Canadian and U.S. geopolitical context. Hughes suggests present communities are much more stable than those of 20 years ago. The impact of military defense spending has meant an increase in cash. This has led to changes toward more modern means of transportation, which reduce isolation and to increased use of repenting rifles which have changed the manner of hunting game (in some cases leading to overkill). The attraction of these new communities has in part been the result of new institutions and services primarily in the area of health and education, but most importantly, the concept of steady job. Money has thus become an instrument of internal (individual and societal) control. The natives of the north have learned the difference between reactive control of the environment, which they had traditionally practiced, and the creative control exercised by such Euro-American social units as air force installations. These lessons he suggests have made people in such communities more capable of adaptation in the widest sense.

Taken from Hippler, A. E. (1970). Eskimo acculturation: A selected annotated bibliography of Alaskan and other Eskimo acculturation studies . Alaska University College.

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Home » Writers-House Blog » How to Annotate an Essay

How to Annotate an Essay

An annotated essay should provide a natural and logical flow of opinions and views. This is a reason why many people get so stressed out when they need to write such an essay. However, an annotated essay is also an opportunity to explore ideas and to communicate your own perspective. Writing experts from writers-house.com recommend the following tips.

Annotating: Definition

The main thing is to address the key points and to make sure all your thoughts are directly connected to the key points. Annotating can help you when preparing for exams (verbal or written) or studying for quizzes and test of any kind. Annotating a certain text also allows you to create a well-written response that will either support or question the author’s point.

Where to Start

After you read the whole piece, grab a highlighter. Choose your favorite color and highlight the most important passages that support your point. Make sure to highlight only crucial passages. If you feel that some phrase supports your opinion, highlight or underline it, and pay particular attention to the vocabulary of your source. If the author repeats the same phrase in several places, it can support your own idea better. Don’t forget to highlight any important names, dates, etc.

Complete Your Essay

Margin comments perform a few different functions. Their main purpose is to label types of information, either logically or chronologically. Take notes to define the topic of each paragraph. Consider each paragraph in the context of your point of view and note specific details.

Note how different fragments make you feel and how they support your opinion. If a piece resonates with your own experiences, you can also use this connection in the future. Don’t forget to mention how the piece changed your opinion. The margins also allow you to ask questions about what you don’t agree with.

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How to Write an Annotated Bibliography: A Comprehensive Guide + 22 Examples

Jun 3, 2024 | 0 comments

Jun 3, 2024 | Blog | 0 comments

 An annotated bibliography is valuable for researchers, students, and professionals.

It provides a summary and evaluation of each source used in a research project, helping to organize and analyze the vast amount of information available.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ll explore the purpose of an annotated bibliography and the different types of annotated bibliography. We’ll also provide a step-by-step guide on how to write an annotated bibliography, using proper citation style guides such as those from Purdue University, and understand the concept of fair use.  Whether working in psychology, seeking employment in a library setting, or simply searching for knowledge, mastering the art of annotated bibliographies can be a valuable skill. 

With 22 examples, this guide will help you navigate the complex world of bibliographic research and create a pathfinder for your research journey. 

So, sharpen your mind and prepare to explore the world of annotated bibliographies in the United States. 

Read Also: How to Write a Briefing Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

The Purpose of Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography has two main purposes: summarizing the sources and assessing their relevance and value.

Firstly, it concisely summarizes each source, including key information such as the author, title, publication details, and main arguments or findings. This summary helps readers understand the scope and focus of each source at a glance.

Secondly, the annotation involves critically evaluating the source’s relevance, quality, and potential contribution to your research. This evaluation helps you and other researchers determine the source’s usefulness and applicability to your topic or field of study.

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Types of Annotated Bibliographies

There are two main types of annotated bibliographies: descriptive and evaluative.

• Descriptive Annotated Bibliography : This type summarizes the source’s content and key points. It overviews the source’s main arguments, methods, and findings without delving into critical analysis or evaluation. This type is often used when you want to give a neutral summary of the source’s contents.
• Evaluative Annotated Bibliography : This type goes beyond summary by critically evaluating the source’s quality, relevance, and potential limitations. It assesses the source’s strengths and weaknesses, contribution to the field, and potential applicability to your research. This type is useful when you want to analyze and reflect on the sources you’ve gathered critically.

Difference Between Abstract, Annotation, and Literature Review

The abstract, literature review and annotated bibliography are distinct components of academic writing, each serving a unique purpose.

The abstract (summary)  concisely summarizes a research paper, thesis, or other academic document. It provides a quick overview of the document’s purpose, main arguments, and conclusions. Abstracts are typically included at the beginning of the work, allowing readers to understand the nature and scope of the research. They are often written in past tense and aim to be concise, clear, and coherent.

The literature review is a comprehensive overview of existing literature on a specific topic. It involves analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing multiple sources to identify gaps, contradictions, and areas for further research. Literature reviews are often included in academic papers to provide context, demonstrate the author’s understanding of the field, and highlight the relevance of the research topic. They are commonly used in theses, dissertations, and research papers.

The annotated bibliography is a list of sources used in the research process, accompanied by a summary, evaluation, or reflection on each source. It serves as a reference guide for the reader and provides insights into the relevance and quality of the sources. Annotated bibliographies are often assigned to students to develop their critical thinking and research skills. They help students evaluate and reflect on the sources they gather during the research process.

Read Also: How to Write a Bachelor Thesis – Comprehensive Guide

How to Write an Annotated Bibliography Step-by-Step

Here’s a step-by-step process to help you craft an effective annotated bibliography:

• Choose Your Sources : Start by selecting a topic and conducting thorough research. Identify various sources, including books, journal articles, websites, and other relevant materials. Evaluate the quality and relevance of each source to ensure they are credible and suitable for your bibliography.
• Format the Citations : Use a consistent citation style throughout your bibliography. Common styles include APA, MLA, and Chicago. Follow the specific guidelines for your chosen style, including in-text citations and reference list formatting.
• Provide a Concise Summary : For each source, write a concise summary that includes the author, title, publication details, and main points or arguments. Focus on the scope and purpose of the source rather than simply listing its contents.
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the source?
• How does it compare to other sources on the same topic?
• What unique insights or perspectives does it offer?
• How does it relate to your research question or topic?
• What are the limitations or biases of the source?
• How might it influence your research or thinking?
• Organize and Format Consistently : Ensure that your annotated bibliography is organized clearly and consistently. Use hanging indents for each entry, with the citation in one line and the annotation in the line below. Maintain a consistent font and formatting throughout.
• Edit and Proofread : Once you’ve drafted your annotated bibliography, review and edit it. Check for accuracy, consistency, and clarity. Ensure that your annotations are concise, focused, and free from unnecessary details.

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Sample APA Annotated Bibliography Entry

Here’s an example of an annotated bibliography entry in the American Psychological Association (APA) format:

Lastname, F.M. (Year). Title of the source: Subtitle, if any (Edition).  Place of publication : Publisher. [https://doi.org/xxxxx]

This paragraph is the annotation, where you provide a concise summary of the source’s main points, arguments, and conclusions. You can also include your evaluation of the source’s relevance, strengths, and potential limitations. The annotation should be complete sentences and between 100-200 words. Here’s an example:

Smith, J., & Johnson, R. (2023). The Impact of Climate Change on Global Food Security.  Journal of Environmental Studies, 6 (1), 1-20. [https://doi.org/10.1037/jes.abc123]

Smith and Johnson explore the complex relationship between climate change and global food security in this article. They analyze the potential impacts of rising temperatures, extreme weather events, and changing precipitation patterns on agricultural productivity and food systems. The authors draw on various scientific studies and present their findings clearly and concisely. This article is particularly valuable for understanding the immediate and long-term challenges climate change poses to global food security and offers insights into potential adaptation strategies. The authors’ expertise in environmental science and their use of robust scientific data lend credibility to their arguments. However, the article could have benefited from a broader consideration of socioeconomic factors influencing food security, such as economic policies and trade agreements. This article comprehensively overviews the climate-food security nexus and offers valuable insights for policymakers and researchers.

Annotated Bibliography Examples in MLA Format

Here are some examples of annotated bibliographies in MLA format:

Example 1: Book with One Author

Lastname, Firstname.  Title of Book in Title Case and Sentence Case.  Publisher, Year Published.

This is the citation for a book with one author. The author’s last name comes first, followed by a comma and the author’s first name. The book title is in title case and sentence case, with a period at the end. The publisher and publication year come next, followed by a period.

Here’s an example:

Smith, John.  The Sample Book . Publisher, 2024.

Example 2: Book with Two Authors

Lastname, Firstname, and Firstname Lastname.  Title of Book in Title Case and Sentence Case.  Publisher, Year Published.

For a book with two authors, list their authors’ names in the order they appear on the title page, separated by a comma and a period. The book title and publication information follow the same format as a book with one author.

Smith, John, and Jane Doe.  The Sample Book . Publisher, 2024.

Example 3: Book with Three or More Authors

Lastname, Firstname, et al.  Title of Book in Title Case and Sentence Case.  Publisher, Year Published.

For a book with three or more authors, list the first author’s name followed by “et al..”. The book title and publication information follow the same format as books with one or two authors.

Smith, John, et al.  The Sample Book . Publisher, 2024.

Example 4: Edition Other Than the First

Lastname, Firstname.  Title of Book: Subtitle in Title Case and Sentence Case, Edition Number , Publisher, Year Published.

When citing a book with an edition other than the first, include the edition number in the citation. The edition number is typically placed after the title and followed by a period.

Smith, John.  The Sample Book: A Comprehensive Guide, 2nd ed.  Publisher, 2024.

Example 5: Book with No Author

Title of Book in Title Case and Sentence Case.  Edition Number, Publisher, Year Published.

When a book has no identifiable author, omit the author’s name and begin the citation with the title. The title is in title and sentence case, with a period at the end.

The Sample Book . 2nd ed., Publisher, 2024.

Example 6: Book with a Corporate or Group Author

Corporate or group authors are treated as author names. Begin the citation with the author’s name, followed by a period. The book title and publication information follow the same format as books with one or two authors.

American Psychological Association.  The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.  7th ed., APA, 2020.

Example 7: Book with a Title That Differs From the Book’s Title Page

If the book’s title on the title page differs from the title on the cover or spine, use the title from the title page. Place the title in quotation marks and include the title from the cover or spine in square brackets.

Smith, John. [“The Sample Book.”  The Sample Book: A Comprehensive Guide ]. Publisher, 2024.

Example 8: Book with a Subtitle

Lastname, Firstname.  Title of Book: Subtitle in Title Case and Sentence Case.  Publisher, Year Published.

For a book with a subtitle, include a colon after the title and before the subtitle. The subtitles are in the title and sentence cases, with a period at the end.

Smith, John.  The Sample Book: A Comprehensive Guide . Publisher, 2024.

Example 9: Book with a Volume or Edition Number

Lastname, Firstname.  Title of Book: Subtitle in Title Case and Sentence Case, Volume or Edition Number.  Publisher, Year Published.

When citing a book with a volume or edition number, include the volume or edition number in the citation. The volume or edition number is placed after the title and before the publication information.

Smith, John.  The Sample Book, Vol. 2 . Publisher, 2024.

Example 10: Book with a Translator

Lastname, Firstname.  Title of Book: Subtitle in Title Case and Sentence Case , translated by Firstname Lastname, Publisher, Year Published.

When citing a book that has been translated, include the translator’s name after the book title. The translator’s name is followed by the label “translated by.”

Smith, John.  The Sample Book . Translated by Jane Doe, Publisher, 2024.

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Annotated Bibliography Examples in Chicago Style

This example shows the citation for a book with one author in Chicago style. The author’s last name comes first, followed by a comma and the author’s first name. The book title is in title case and sentence case, with a period at the end. The publisher and publication year come next, followed by a period.

For a book with two authors, list their names in the order they appear on the title page, separated by a comma and a period. The book title and publication information follow the same format as a book with one or two authors.

When citing a book with three or more authors, list the first author’s name followed by “et al..”. The book title and publication information follow the same format as books with one or two authors.

When citing a book with an edition other than the first, include the edition number in the citation. The edition number is typically placed after the title and publication information.

For a book with a subtitle, include a colon after the title and before the subtitle. The subtitle is in the title and sentence cases, with a period at the end.

When citing a book that has been translated, include the translator’s name after the book title. The translator’s name is followed by the “translated by.”.

An annotated bibliography is a powerful tool for researchers to summarize and evaluate their sources effectively.

Following the steps outlined above, you can create a comprehensive and critical guide to the literature on your chosen topic.

Remember to select your sources carefully, format your citations correctly, provide concise and insightful summaries, and critically evaluate each source’s relevance and potential contribution.

Frequently Asked Questions about Writing Annotated Bibliographies

What are the 3 parts of an annotated bibliography apa .

An annotated bibliography in APA style typically consists of three main parts: the citation of the source, a  summary or abstract of the source, and an evaluation or analysis of the source’s relevance to your research.

How to write a 500 word annotated bibliography ?

When writing a 500-word annotated bibliography , include concise  summaries and evaluations of each source. Focus on the most relevant information to your research topic within the word limit.

How long is an annotated bibliography example ?

The length of an annotated bibliography example can vary depending on the number of sources included. A typical example may range from 150 to 200 words per annotation , but it can be shorter or longer based on the specific requirements.

How do you write an annotated bibliography assessment ?

When writing an annotated bibliography assessment , carefully evaluate each source’s reliability, credibility, and relevance to your research. Provide a critical analysis of the source’s strengths and weaknesses in relation to your research topic.

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The two sample essays below highlight the formatting features of MLA and APA style from start to finish. 

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Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Other Academic Writings

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Annotated Bibliographies

Sometimes people confuse Literature Reviews with Annotated Bibliographies but they are quite different in format but they are similar in purpose, to survey the literature.

So what is an annotated bibliography? "... is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.” Definition from Cornell University Library, available at https://guides.library.cornell.edu/annotatedbibliography <Accessed September 30, 2021>

To write a good annotated bibliography you need to be:

• Concise: Get to the point of what the book/article is about, in few words, summarize.
• Evaluative : Determine who is the author, what is his/her expertise in the topic, how reliable is the information
• Critical: Reflect on what is the strength and weakness of the work, what is missing, etc.
• Comparative: Describe how the book/article compares to other similar works

Useful site with tips on how to write an Annotated Bibliography:

• Purdue OWL: Annotated Bibliographies An excellent site that explain the in and out of annotated bibliographies
• How to Read a Paper This article is excellent to learn how to read an academic article in an efficient way to be able to summarize the main arguments and findings.

Resources on How to Write for Different Disciplines

• Brief Guides to Writing in the Disciplines The Harvard College Writing Center has a series of brief guides on how to write for history, philosophy, english, psychology, with more to come on the future

Position Paper

• Academic Writing: Position Paper Visit this guide to learn more about how to write a position paper
• Research Prospectus

The Research Prospectus is a planning document, usually use before writing your thesis or some seminar paper to complete a degree (e.g. Master's thesis or Plan B paper). It does include a working bibliography and small literature review. Below are some useful links on how to write a prospectus, best practices and examples.

• Research Prospectus for political sciences paper

Critical Essays

• Strategies for Essay Writing Excellent resources from the Harvard Writing Center that explain the different components and writing strategies for write a critical essay in the social sciences.
• Guidelines to Write Literary Essays Good advice and strategies to write: ► Close-reading essays ► Lens essays (when you use specific theories to analyze literary texts) ► Research essays

Reflection Paper

"A reflection paper is your chance to add your thoughts and analysis to what you have read and experienced. It is meant to illustrate your understanding of the material and how it affects your ideas."

Below are some resources that will help you write a reflection essay and avoid typical mistakes when writing one.

• Tips on Writing Reflection Essays Excellent handout that explain what is a reflection essay and how to go about writing one.
• Guidelines for Reflection Papers Excellent explanation on how to write a reflection paper.
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Frequently asked questions

How do i write an annotation for a source.

Each annotation in an annotated bibliography is usually between 50 and 200 words long. Longer annotations may be divided into paragraphs .

The content of the annotation varies according to your assignment. An annotation can be descriptive, meaning it just describes the source objectively; evaluative, meaning it assesses its usefulness; or reflective, meaning it explains how the source will be used in your own research .

Frequently asked questions: Citing sources

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

A source annotation in an annotated bibliography fulfills a similar purpose to an abstract : they’re both intended to summarize the approach and key points of a source.

However, an annotation may also evaluate the source , discussing the validity and effectiveness of its arguments. Even if your annotation is purely descriptive , you may have a different perspective on the source from the author and highlight different key points.

You should never just copy text from the abstract for your annotation, as doing so constitutes plagiarism .

Most academics agree that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia as a source in your academic writing , and universities often have rules against doing so.

This is partly because of concerns about its reliability, and partly because it’s a tertiary source. Tertiary sources are things like encyclopedias and databases that collect information from other sources rather than presenting their own evidence or analysis. Usually, only primary and secondary sources are cited in academic papers.

A Wikipedia citation usually includes the title of the article, “Wikipedia” and/or “Wikimedia Foundation,” the date the article was last updated, and the URL.

In APA Style , you’ll give the URL of the current revision of the article so that you’re sure the reader accesses the same version as you.

There’s some disagreement about whether Wikipedia can be considered a reliable source . Because it can be edited by anyone, many people argue that it’s easy for misleading information to be added to an article without the reader knowing.

Others argue that because Wikipedia articles cite their sources , and because they are worked on by so many editors, misinformation is generally removed quickly.

However, most universities state that you shouldn’t cite Wikipedia in your writing.

Hanging indents are used in reference lists in various citation styles to allow the reader to easily distinguish between entries.

You should apply a hanging indent to your reference entries in APA , MLA , and Chicago style.

A hanging indent is used to indent all lines of a paragraph except the first.

When you create a hanging indent, the first line of the paragraph starts at the border. Each subsequent line is indented 0.5 inches (1.27 cm).

APA and MLA style both use parenthetical in-text citations to cite sources and include a full list of references at the end, but they differ in other ways:

• APA in-text citations include the author name, date, and page number (Taylor, 2018, p. 23), while MLA in-text citations include only the author name and page number (Taylor 23).
• The APA reference list is titled “References,” while MLA’s version is called “ Works Cited .”
• The reference entries differ in terms of formatting and order of information.
• APA requires a title page , while MLA requires a header instead.

A parenthetical citation in Chicago author-date style includes the author’s last name, the publication date, and, if applicable, the relevant page number or page range in parentheses . Include a comma after the year, but not after the author’s name.

For example: (Swan 2003, 6)

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

APA Style distinguishes between parenthetical and narrative citations.

In parenthetical citations , you include all relevant source information in parentheses at the end of the sentence or clause: “Parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity (Levin, 2002).”

In narrative citations , you include the author’s name in the text itself, followed by the publication date in parentheses: “Levin (2002) argues that parts of the human body reflect the principles of tensegrity.”

In a parenthetical citation in MLA style , include the author’s last name and the relevant page number or range in parentheses .

For example: (Eliot 21)

A parenthetical citation gives credit in parentheses to a source that you’re quoting or paraphrasing . It provides relevant information such as the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number(s) cited.

How you use parenthetical citations will depend on your chosen citation style . It will also depend on the type of source you are citing and the number of authors.

APA does not permit the use of ibid. This is because APA in-text citations are parenthetical and there’s no need to shorten them further.

Ibid. may be used in Chicago footnotes or endnotes .

Write “Ibid.” alone when you are citing the same page number and source as the previous citation.

When you are citing the same source, but a different page number, use ibid. followed by a comma and the relevant page number(s). For example:

• Ibid., 40–42.

Only use ibid . if you are directing the reader to a previous full citation of a source .

Ibid. only refers to the previous citation. Therefore, you should only use ibid. directly after a citation that you want to repeat.

Ibid. is an abbreviation of the Latin “ibidem,” meaning “in the same place.” Ibid. is used in citations to direct the reader to the previous source.

Signal phrases can be used in various ways and can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

To use signal phrases effectively, include:

• The name of the scholar(s) or study you’re referencing
• An attributive tag such as “according to” or “argues that”
• The quote or idea you want to include

Different citation styles require you to use specific verb tenses when using signal phrases.

• APA Style requires you to use the past or present perfect tense when using signal phrases.
• MLA and Chicago requires you to use the present tense when using signal phrases.

Signal phrases allow you to give credit for an idea or quote to its author or originator. This helps you to:

• Establish the credentials of your sources
• Display your depth of reading and understanding of the field
• Position your own work in relation to other scholars
• Avoid plagiarism

A signal phrase is a group of words that ascribes a quote or idea to an outside source.

Signal phrases distinguish the cited idea or argument from your own writing and introduce important information including the source of the material that you are quoting , paraphrasing , or summarizing . For example:

“ Cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker (1994) insists that humans possess an innate faculty for comprehending grammar.”

If you’re quoting from a text that paraphrases or summarizes other sources and cites them in parentheses , APA and Chicago both recommend retaining the citations as part of the quote. However, MLA recommends omitting citations within a quote:

• APA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic (Jones, 2015; Sill, 2019; Paulson, 2020) shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).
• MLA: Smith states that “the literature on this topic shows no clear consensus” (Smith, 2019, p. 4).

Footnote or endnote numbers that appear within quoted text should be omitted in all styles.

If you want to cite an indirect source (one you’ve only seen quoted in another source), either locate the original source or use the phrase “as cited in” in your citation.

In scientific subjects, the information itself is more important than how it was expressed, so quoting should generally be kept to a minimum. In the arts and humanities, however, well-chosen quotes are often essential to a good paper.

In social sciences, it varies. If your research is mainly quantitative , you won’t include many quotes, but if it’s more qualitative , you may need to quote from the data you collected .

As a general guideline, quotes should take up no more than 5–10% of your paper. If in doubt, check with your instructor or supervisor how much quoting is appropriate in your field.

To present information from other sources in academic writing , it’s best to paraphrase in most cases. This shows that you’ve understood the ideas you’re discussing and incorporates them into your text smoothly.

It’s appropriate to quote when:

• Changing the phrasing would distort the meaning of the original text
• You want to discuss the author’s language choices (e.g., in literary analysis )
• You’re presenting a precise definition
• You’re looking in depth at a specific claim

To paraphrase effectively, don’t just take the original sentence and swap out some of the words for synonyms. Instead, try:

• Reformulating the sentence (e.g., change active to passive , or start from a different point)
• Combining information from multiple sentences into one
• Leaving out information from the original that isn’t relevant to your point
• Using synonyms where they don’t distort the meaning

The main point is to ensure you don’t just copy the structure of the original text, but instead reformulate the idea in your own words.

“ Et al. ” is an abbreviation of the Latin term “et alia,” which means “and others.” It’s used in source citations to save space when there are too many authors to name them all.

Guidelines for using “et al.” differ depending on the citation style you’re following:

To insert endnotes in Microsoft Word, follow the steps below:

• Click on the spot in the text where you want the endnote to show up.
• In the “References” tab at the top, select “Insert Endnote.”
• Type whatever text you want into the endnote.

If you need to change the type of notes used in a Word document from footnotes to endnotes , or the other way around, follow these steps:

• Open the “References” tab, and click the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the “Footnotes” section.
• In the pop-up window, click on “Convert…”
• Choose the option you need, and click “OK.”

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

Footnotes are notes indicated in your text with numbers and placed at the bottom of the page. They’re used to provide:

• Citations (e.g., in Chicago notes and bibliography )
• Additional information that would disrupt the flow of the main text

Be sparing in your use of footnotes (other than citation footnotes), and consider whether the information you’re adding is relevant for the reader.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page they refer to. This is convenient for the reader but may cause your text to look cluttered if there are a lot of footnotes.

Endnotes appear all together at the end of the whole text. This may be less convenient for the reader but reduces clutter.

Both footnotes and endnotes are used in the same way: to cite sources or add extra information. You should usually choose one or the other to use in your text, not both.

An in-text citation is an acknowledgement you include in your text whenever you quote or paraphrase a source. It usually gives the author’s last name, the year of publication, and the page number of the relevant text. In-text citations allow the reader to look up the full source information in your reference list and see your sources for themselves.

If you are reusing content or data you used in a previous assignment, make sure to cite yourself. You can cite yourself just as you would cite any other source: simply follow the directions for that source type in the citation style you are using.

Keep in mind that reusing your previous work can be considered self-plagiarism , so make sure you ask your professor or consult your university’s handbook before doing so.

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Peer review is a process of evaluating submissions to an academic journal. Utilizing rigorous criteria, a panel of reviewers in the same subject area decide whether to accept each submission for publication. For this reason, academic journals are often considered among the most credible sources you can use in a research project– provided that the journal itself is trustworthy and well-regarded.

Academic dishonesty can be intentional or unintentional, ranging from something as simple as claiming to have read something you didn’t to copying your neighbor’s answers on an exam.

You can commit academic dishonesty with the best of intentions, such as helping a friend cheat on a paper. Severe academic dishonesty can include buying a pre-written essay or the answers to a multiple-choice test, or falsifying a medical emergency to avoid taking a final exam.

Academic dishonesty refers to deceitful or misleading behavior in an academic setting. Academic dishonesty can occur intentionally or unintentionally, and varies in severity.

It can encompass paying for a pre-written essay, cheating on an exam, or committing plagiarism . It can also include helping others cheat, copying a friend’s homework answers, or even pretending to be sick to miss an exam.

Academic dishonesty doesn’t just occur in a classroom setting, but also in research and other academic-adjacent fields.

To apply a hanging indent to your reference list or Works Cited list in Word or Google Docs, follow the steps below.

Microsoft Word:

• Highlight the whole list and right click to open the Paragraph options.
• Under Indentation > Special , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.
• Set the indent to 0.5 inches or 1.27cm.

Google Docs:

• Highlight the whole list and click on Format >  Align and indent >  Indentation options .
• Under  Special indent , choose Hanging from the dropdown menu.

When the hanging indent is applied, for each reference, every line except the first is indented. This helps the reader see where one entry ends and the next begins.

For a published interview (whether in video , audio, or print form ), you should always include a citation , just as you would for any other source.

For an interview you conducted yourself , formally or informally, you often don’t need a citation and can just refer to it in the text or in a footnote , since the reader won’t be able to look them up anyway. MLA , however, still recommends including citations for your own interviews.

The main elements included in a newspaper interview citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the names of the interviewer and interviewee, the interview title, the publication date, the name of the newspaper, and a URL (for online sources).

The information is presented differently in different citation styles. One key difference is that APA advises listing the interviewer in the author position, while MLA and Chicago advise listing the interviewee first.

The elements included in a newspaper article citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author name, the article title, the publication date, the newspaper name, and the URL if the article was accessed online .

In APA and MLA, the page numbers of the article appear in place of the URL if the article was accessed in print. No page numbers are used in Chicago newspaper citations.

Untitled sources (e.g. some images ) are usually cited using a short descriptive text in place of the title. In APA Style , this description appears in brackets: [Chair of stained oak]. In MLA and Chicago styles, no brackets are used: Chair of stained oak.

For social media posts, which are usually untitled, quote the initial words of the post in place of the title: the first 160 characters in Chicago , or the first 20 words in APA . E.g. Biden, J. [@JoeBiden]. “The American Rescue Plan means a $7,000 check for a single mom of four. It means more support to safely.”

MLA recommends quoting the full post for something short like a tweet, and just describing the post if it’s longer.

The main elements included in image citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the image’s creator, the image title, the year (or more precise date) of publication, and details of the container in which the image was found (e.g. a museum, book , website ).

In APA and Chicago style, it’s standard to also include a description of the image’s format (e.g. “Photograph” or “Oil on canvas”). This sort of information may be included in MLA too, but is not mandatory.

The main elements included in a lecture citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the speaker, the lecture title, the date it took place, the course or event it was part of, and the institution it took place at.

For transcripts or recordings of lectures/speeches, other details like the URL, the name of the book or website , and the length of the recording may be included instead of information about the event and institution.

The main elements included in a YouTube video citation across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name of the author/uploader, the title of the video, the publication date, and the URL.

The format in which this information appears is different for each style.

All styles also recommend using timestamps as a locator in the in-text citation or Chicago footnote .

Any credible sources on your topic can be included in an annotated bibliography . The exact sources you cover will vary depending on the assignment, but you should usually focus on collecting journal articles and scholarly books . When in doubt, utilize the CRAAP test !

An annotated bibliography is an assignment where you collect sources on a specific topic and write an annotation for each source. An annotation is a short text that describes and sometimes evaluates the source.

The elements included in journal article citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the name(s) of the author(s), the title of the article, the year of publication, the name of the journal, the volume and issue numbers, the page range of the article, and, when accessed online, the DOI or URL.

In MLA and Chicago style, you also include the specific month or season of publication alongside the year, when this information is available.

In APA , MLA , and Chicago style citations for sources that don’t list a specific author (e.g. many websites ), you can usually list the organization responsible for the source as the author.

If the organization is the same as the website or publisher, you shouldn’t repeat it twice in your reference:

• In APA and Chicago, omit the website or publisher name later in the reference.
• In MLA, omit the author element at the start of the reference, and cite the source title instead.

If there’s no appropriate organization to list as author, you will usually have to begin the citation and reference entry with the title of the source instead.

The main elements included in website citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the date of publication, the page title, the website name, and the URL. The information is presented differently in each style.

When you want to cite a specific passage in a source without page numbers (e.g. an e-book or website ), all the main citation styles recommend using an alternate locator in your in-text citation . You might use a heading or chapter number, e.g. (Smith, 2016, ch. 1)

In APA Style , you can count the paragraph numbers in a text to identify a location by paragraph number. MLA and Chicago recommend that you only use paragraph numbers if they’re explicitly marked in the text.

For audiovisual sources (e.g. videos ), all styles recommend using a timestamp to show a specific point in the video when relevant.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

The main elements included in all book citations across APA , MLA , and Chicago style are the author, the title, the year of publication, and the name of the publisher. A page number is also included in in-text citations to highlight the specific passage cited.

In Chicago style and in the 6th edition of APA Style , the location of the publisher is also included, e.g. London: Penguin.

A block quote is a long quote formatted as a separate “block” of text. Instead of using quotation marks , you place the quote on a new line, and indent the entire quote to mark it apart from your own words.

The rules for when to apply block quote formatting depend on the citation style:

• APA block quotes are 40 words or longer.
• MLA block quotes are more than 4 lines of prose or 3 lines of poetry.
• Chicago block quotes are longer than 100 words.

In academic writing , there are three main situations where quoting is the best choice:

• To analyze the author’s language (e.g., in a literary analysis essay )
• To give evidence from primary sources
• To accurately present a precise definition or argument

Don’t overuse quotes; your own voice should be dominant. If you just want to provide information from a source, it’s usually better to paraphrase or summarize .

Every time you quote a source , you must include a correctly formatted in-text citation . This looks slightly different depending on the citation style .

For example, a direct quote in APA is cited like this: “This is a quote” (Streefkerk, 2020, p. 5).

Every in-text citation should also correspond to a full reference at the end of your paper.

A quote is an exact copy of someone else’s words, usually enclosed in quotation marks and credited to the original author or speaker.

The DOI is usually clearly visible when you open a journal article on an academic database. It is often listed near the publication date, and includes “doi.org” or “DOI:”. If the database has a “cite this article” button, this should also produce a citation with the DOI included.

If you can’t find the DOI, you can search on Crossref using information like the author, the article title, and the journal name.

A DOI is a unique identifier for a digital document. DOIs are important in academic citation because they are more permanent than URLs, ensuring that your reader can reliably locate the source.

Journal articles and ebooks can often be found on multiple different websites and databases. The URL of the page where an article is hosted can be changed or removed over time, but a DOI is linked to the specific document and never changes.

When a book’s chapters are written by different authors, you should cite the specific chapter you are referring to.

When all the chapters are written by the same author (or group of authors), you should usually cite the entire book, but some styles include exceptions to this.

• In APA Style , single-author books should always be cited as a whole, even if you only quote or paraphrase from one chapter.
• In MLA Style , if a single-author book is a collection of stand-alone works (e.g. short stories ), you should cite the individual work.
• In Chicago Style , you may choose to cite a single chapter of a single-author book if you feel it is more appropriate than citing the whole book.

Articles in newspapers and magazines can be primary or secondary depending on the focus of your research.

In historical studies, old articles are used as primary sources that give direct evidence about the time period. In social and communication studies, articles are used as primary sources to analyze language and social relations (for example, by conducting content analysis or discourse analysis ).

If you are not analyzing the article itself, but only using it for background information or facts about your topic, then the article is a secondary source.

A fictional movie is usually a primary source. A documentary can be either primary or secondary depending on the context.

If you are directly analyzing some aspect of the movie itself – for example, the cinematography, narrative techniques, or social context – the movie is a primary source.

If you use the movie for background information or analysis about your topic – for example, to learn about a historical event or a scientific discovery – the movie is a secondary source.

Whether it’s primary or secondary, always properly cite the movie in the citation style you are using. Learn how to create an MLA movie citation or an APA movie citation .

To determine if a source is primary or secondary, ask yourself:

• Was the source created by someone directly involved in the events you’re studying (primary), or by another researcher (secondary)?
• Does the source provide original information (primary), or does it summarize information from other sources (secondary)?
• Are you directly analyzing the source itself (primary), or only using it for background information (secondary)?

Some types of source are nearly always primary: works of art and literature, raw statistical data, official documents and records, and personal communications (e.g. letters, interviews ). If you use one of these in your research, it is probably a primary source.

Primary sources are often considered the most credible in terms of providing evidence for your argument, as they give you direct evidence of what you are researching. However, it’s up to you to ensure the information they provide is reliable and accurate.

Always make sure to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism .

Common examples of secondary sources include academic books, journal articles , reviews, essays , and textbooks.

Anything that summarizes, evaluates or interprets primary sources can be a secondary source. If a source gives you an overview of background information or presents another researcher’s ideas on your topic, it is probably a secondary source.

Common examples of primary sources include interview transcripts , photographs, novels, paintings, films, historical documents, and official statistics.

Anything you directly analyze or use as first-hand evidence can be a primary source, including qualitative or quantitative data that you collected yourself.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

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Reference Examples

More than 100 reference examples and their corresponding in-text citations are presented in the seventh edition Publication Manual . Examples of the most common works that writers cite are provided on this page; additional examples are available in the Publication Manual .

To find the reference example you need, first select a category (e.g., periodicals) and then choose the appropriate type of work (e.g., journal article ) and follow the relevant example.

When selecting a category, use the webpages and websites category only when a work does not fit better within another category. For example, a report from a government website would use the reports category, whereas a page on a government website that is not a report or other work would use the webpages and websites category.

Also note that print and electronic references are largely the same. For example, to cite both print books and ebooks, use the books and reference works category and then choose the appropriate type of work (i.e., book ) and follow the relevant example (e.g., whole authored book ).

Examples on these pages illustrate the details of reference formats. We make every attempt to show examples that are in keeping with APA Style’s guiding principles of inclusivity and bias-free language. These examples are presented out of context only to demonstrate formatting issues (e.g., which elements to italicize, where punctuation is needed, placement of parentheses). References, including these examples, are not inherently endorsements for the ideas or content of the works themselves. An author may cite a work to support a statement or an idea, to critique that work, or for many other reasons. For more examples, see our sample papers .

Reference examples are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 10 and the Concise Guide Chapter 10

Related handouts

• Common Reference Examples Guide (PDF, 147KB)
• Reference Quick Guide (PDF, 225KB)

Textual Works

Textual works are covered in Sections 10.1–10.8 of the Publication Manual . The most common categories and examples are presented here. For the reviews of other works category, see Section 10.7.

• Journal Article References
• Magazine Article References
• Newspaper Article References
• Blog Post and Blog Comment References
• UpToDate Article References
• Book/Ebook References
• Diagnostic Manual References
• Children’s Book or Other Illustrated Book References
• Classroom Course Pack Material References
• Religious Work References
• Chapter in an Edited Book/Ebook References
• Dictionary Entry References
• Wikipedia Entry References
• Report by a Government Agency References
• Report with Individual Authors References
• Brochure References
• Ethics Code References
• Fact Sheet References
• ISO Standard References
• Press Release References
• White Paper References
• Conference Presentation References
• Conference Proceeding References
• Published Dissertation or Thesis References
• Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis References
• ERIC Database References
• Preprint Article References

Data and Assessments

Data sets are covered in Section 10.9 of the Publication Manual . For the software and tests categories, see Sections 10.10 and 10.11.

• Data Set References
• Toolbox References

Audiovisual Media

Audiovisual media are covered in Sections 10.12–10.14 of the Publication Manual . The most common examples are presented together here. In the manual, these examples and more are separated into categories for audiovisual, audio, and visual media.

• Artwork References
• Clip Art or Stock Image References
• Film and Television References
• Musical Score References
• Online Course or MOOC References
• Podcast References
• PowerPoint Slide or Lecture Note References
• Radio Broadcast References
• TED Talk References
• Transcript of an Audiovisual Work References
• YouTube Video References

Online Media

Online media are covered in Sections 10.15 and 10.16 of the Publication Manual . Please note that blog posts are part of the periodicals category.

• Facebook References
• Instagram References
• LinkedIn References
• Online Forum (e.g., Reddit) References
• TikTok References
• X References
• Webpage on a Website References
• Clinical Practice References
• Open Educational Resource References
• Whole Website References

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How to Annotate Texts

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Annotation Fundamentals

How to start annotating , how to annotate digital texts, how to annotate a textbook, how to annotate a scholarly article or book, how to annotate literature, how to annotate images, videos, and performances, additional resources for teachers.

Writing in your books can make you smarter. Or, at least (according to education experts), annotation–an umbrella term for underlining, highlighting, circling, and, most importantly, leaving comments in the margins–helps students to remember and comprehend what they read. Annotation is like a conversation between reader and text. Proper annotation allows students to record their own opinions and reactions, which can serve as the inspiration for research questions and theses. So, whether you're reading a novel, poem, news article, or science textbook, taking notes along the way can give you an advantage in preparing for tests or writing essays. This guide contains resources that explain the benefits of annotating texts, provide annotation tools, and suggest approaches for diverse kinds of texts; the last section includes lesson plans and exercises for teachers.

Why annotate? As the resources below explain, annotation allows students to emphasize connections to material covered elsewhere in the text (or in other texts), material covered previously in the course, or material covered in lectures and discussion. In other words, proper annotation is an organizing tool and a time saver. The links in this section will introduce you to the theory, practice, and purpose of annotation. 

How to Mark a Book, by Mortimer Adler

This famous, charming essay lays out the case for marking up books, and provides practical suggestions at the end including underlining, highlighting, circling key words, using vertical lines to mark shifts in tone/subject, numbering points in an argument, and keeping track of questions that occur to you as you read. 

How Annotation Reshapes Student Thinking (TeacherHUB)

In this article, a high school teacher discusses the importance of annotation and how annotation encourages more effective critical thinking.

The Future of Annotation (Journal of Business and Technical Communication)

This scholarly article summarizes research on the benefits of annotation in the classroom and in business. It also discusses how technology and digital texts might affect the future of annotation. 

Annotating to Deepen Understanding (Texas Education Agency)

This website provides another introduction to annotation (designed for 11th graders). It includes a helpful section that teaches students how to annotate reading comprehension passages on tests.

Once you understand what annotation is, you're ready to begin. But what tools do you need? How do you prepare? The resources linked in this section list strategies and techniques you can use to start annotating. 

What is Annotating? (Charleston County School District)

This resource gives an overview of annotation styles, including useful shorthands and symbols. This is a good place for a student who has never annotated before to begin.

How to Annotate Text While Reading (YouTube)

This video tutorial (appropriate for grades 6–10) explains the basic ins and outs of annotation and gives examples of the type of information students should be looking for.

Annotation Practices: Reading a Play-text vs. Watching Film (U Calgary)

This blog post, written by a student, talks about how the goals and approaches of annotation might change depending on the type of text or performance being observed. 

Annotating Texts with Sticky Notes (Lyndhurst Schools)

Sometimes students are asked to annotate books they don't own or can't write in for other reasons. This resource provides some strategies for using sticky notes instead.

Teaching Students to Close Read...When You Can't Mark the Text (Performing in Education)

Here, a sixth grade teacher demonstrates the strategies she uses for getting her students to annotate with sticky notes. This resource includes a link to the teacher's free Annotation Bookmark (via Teachers Pay Teachers).

Digital texts can present a special challenge when it comes to annotation; emerging research suggests that many students struggle to critically read and retain information from digital texts. However, proper annotation can solve the problem. This section contains links to the most highly-utilized platforms for electronic annotation.

Evernote is one of the two big players in the "digital annotation apps" game. In addition to allowing users to annotate digital documents, the service (for a fee) allows users to group multiple formats (PDF, webpages, scanned hand-written notes) into separate notebooks, create voice recordings, and sync across all sorts of devices. 

OneNote is Evernote's main competitor. Reviews suggest that OneNote allows for more freedom for digital note-taking than Evernote, but that it is slightly more awkward to import and annotate a PDF, especially on certain platforms. However, OneNote's free version is slightly more feature-filled, and OneNote allows you to link your notes to time stamps on an audio recording.

Diigo is a basic browser extension that allows a user to annotate webpages. Diigo also offers a Screenshot app that allows for direct saving to Google Drive.

While the creators of Hypothesis like to focus on their app's social dimension, students are more likely to be interested in the private highlighting and annotating functions of this program.

Foxit PDF Reader

Foxit is one of the leading PDF readers. Though the full suite must be purchased, Foxit offers a number of annotation and highlighting tools for free.

Nitro PDF Reader

This is another well-reviewed, free PDF reader that includes annotation and highlighting. Annotation, text editing, and other tools are included in the free version.

Goodreader is a very popular Mac-only app that includes annotation and editing tools for PDFs, Word documents, Powerpoint, and other formats.

Although textbooks have vocabulary lists, summaries, and other features to emphasize important material, annotation can allow students to process information and discover their own connections. This section links to guides and video tutorials that introduce you to textbook annotation. 

Annotating Textbooks (Niagara University)

This PDF provides a basic introduction as well as strategies including focusing on main ideas, working by section or chapter, annotating in your own words, and turning section headings into questions.

A Simple Guide to Text Annotation (Catawba College)

The simple, practical strategies laid out in this step-by-step guide will help students learn how to break down chapters in their textbooks using main ideas, definitions, lists, summaries, and potential test questions.

Annotating (Mercer Community College)

This packet, an excerpt from a literature textbook, provides a short exercise and some examples of how to do textbook annotation, including using shorthand and symbols.

Reading Your Healthcare Textbook: Annotation (Saddleback College)

This powerpoint contains a number of helpful suggestions, especially for students who are new to annotation. It emphasizes limited highlighting, lots of student writing, and using key words to find the most important information in a textbook. Despite the title, it is useful to a student in any discipline.

Annotating a Textbook (Excelsior College OWL)

This video (with included transcript) discusses how to use textbook features like boxes and sidebars to help guide annotation. It's an extremely helpful, detailed discussion of how textbooks are organized.

Because scholarly articles and books have complex arguments and often depend on technical vocabulary, they present particular challenges for an annotating student. The resources in this section help students get to the heart of scholarly texts in order to annotate and, by extension, understand the reading.

Annotating a Text (Hunter College)

This resource is designed for college students and shows how to annotate a scholarly article using highlighting, paraphrase, a descriptive outline, and a two-margin approach. It ends with a sample passage marked up using the strategies provided. 

Guide to Annotating the Scholarly Article (ReadWriteThink.org)

This is an effective introduction to annotating scholarly articles across all disciplines. This resource encourages students to break down how the article uses primary and secondary sources and to annotate the types of arguments and persuasive strategies (synthesis, analysis, compare/contrast).

How to Highlight and Annotate Your Research Articles (CHHS Media Center)

This video, developed by a high school media specialist, provides an effective beginner-level introduction to annotating research articles. 

How to Read a Scholarly Book (AndrewJacobs.org)

In this essay, a college professor lets readers in on the secrets of scholarly monographs. Though he does not discuss annotation, he explains how to find a scholarly book's thesis, methodology, and often even a brief literature review in the introduction. This is a key place for students to focus when creating annotations. 

A 5-step Approach to Reading Scholarly Literature and Taking Notes (Heather Young Leslie)

This resource, written by a professor of anthropology, is an even more comprehensive and detailed guide to reading scholarly literature. Combining the annotation techniques above with the reading strategy here allows students to process scholarly book efficiently. 

Annotation is also an important part of close reading works of literature. Annotating helps students recognize symbolism, double meanings, and other literary devices. These resources provide additional guidelines on annotating literature.

AP English Language Annotation Guide (YouTube)

In this ~10 minute video, an AP Language teacher provides tips and suggestions for using annotations to point out rhetorical strategies and other important information.

Annotating Text Lesson (YouTube)

In this video tutorial, an English teacher shows how she uses the white board to guide students through annotation and close reading. This resource uses an in-depth example to model annotation step-by-step.

Close Reading a Text and Avoiding Pitfalls (Purdue OWL)

This resources demonstrates how annotation is a central part of a solid close reading strategy; it also lists common mistakes to avoid in the annotation process.

AP Literature Assignment: Annotating Literature (Mount Notre Dame H.S.)

This brief assignment sheet contains suggestions for what to annotate in a novel, including building connections between parts of the book, among multiple books you are reading/have read, and between the book and your own experience. It also includes samples of quality annotations.

AP Handout: Annotation Guide (Covington Catholic H.S.)

This annotation guide shows how to keep track of symbolism, figurative language, and other devices in a novel using a highlighter, a pencil, and every part of a book (including the front and back covers).

In addition to written resources, it's possible to annotate visual "texts" like theatrical performances, movies, sculptures, and paintings. Taking notes on visual texts allows students to recall details after viewing a resource which, unlike a book, can't be re-read or re-visited ( for example, a play that has finished its run, or an art exhibition that is far away). These resources draw attention to the special questions and techniques that students should use when dealing with visual texts.

How to Take Notes on Videos (U of Southern California)

This resource is a good place to start for a student who has never had to take notes on film before. It briefly outlines three general approaches to note-taking on a film. 

How to Analyze a Movie, Step-by-Step (San Diego Film Festival)

This detailed guide provides lots of tips for film criticism and analysis. It contains a list of specific questions to ask with respect to plot, character development, direction, musical score, cinematography, special effects, and more. 

How to "Read" a Film (UPenn)

This resource provides an academic perspective on the art of annotating and analyzing a film. Like other resources, it provides students a checklist of things to watch out for as they watch the film.

Art Annotation Guide (Gosford Hill School)

This resource focuses on how to annotate a piece of art with respect to its formal elements like line, tone, mood, and composition. It contains a number of helpful questions and relevant examples. 

Photography Annotation (Arts at Trinity)

This resource is designed specifically for photography students. Like some of the other resources on this list, it primarily focuses on formal elements, but also shows students how to integrate the specific technical vocabulary of modern photography. This resource also contains a number of helpful sample annotations.

How to Review a Play (U of Wisconsin)

This resource from the University of Wisconsin Writing Center is designed to help students write a review of a play. It contains suggested questions for students to keep in mind as they watch a given production. This resource helps students think about staging, props, script alterations, and many other key elements of a performance.

This section contains links to lessons plans and exercises suitable for high school and college instructors.

Beyond the Yellow Highlighter: Teaching Annotation Skills to Improve Reading Comprehension (English Journal)

In this journal article, a high school teacher talks about her approach to teaching annotation. This article makes a clear distinction between annotation and mere highlighting.

Lesson Plan for Teaching Annotation, Grades 9–12 (readwritethink.org)

This lesson plan, published by the National Council of Teachers of English, contains four complete lessons that help introduce high school students to annotation.

Teaching Theme Using Close Reading (Performing in Education)

This lesson plan was developed by a middle school teacher, and is aligned to Common Core. The teacher presents her strategies and resources in comprehensive fashion.

Analyzing a Speech Using Annotation (UNC-TV/PBS Learning Media)

This complete lesson plan, which includes a guide for the teacher and relevant handouts for students, will prepare students to analyze both the written and presentation components of a speech. This lesson plan is best for students in 6th–10th grade.

Writing to Learn History: Annotation and Mini-Writes (teachinghistory.org)

This teaching guide, developed for high school History classes, provides handouts and suggested exercises that can help students become more comfortable with annotating historical sources.

Writing About Art (The College Board)

This Prezi presentation is useful to any teacher introducing students to the basics of annotating art. The presentation covers annotating for both formal elements and historical/cultural significance.

Film Study Worksheets (TeachWithMovies.org)

This resource contains links to a general film study worksheet, as well as specific worksheets for novel adaptations, historical films, documentaries, and more. These resources are appropriate for advanced middle school students and some high school students. 

Annotation Practice Worksheet (La Guardia Community College)

This worksheet has a sample text and instructions for students to annotate it. It is a useful resource for teachers who want to give their students a chance to practice, but don't have the time to select an appropriate piece of text. 

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