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Learn how to use qualitative methods, such as focus groups and interviews, to support and strengthen your community assessment. |
Why use qualitative methods of assessment, when would you use qualitative methods of assessment, how do you use qualitative methods of assessment.
Using qualitative assessment methods rather than purely data-based information is crucial to understanding many community issues and needs. Numbers work well to show comparisons, progress, an statistics of community efforts, but they cannot express motives, opinions, feelings, or relationships. This section discusses how to use qualitative assessment methods and when to implement them into communtiy planning.
Qualitative methods of assessment are ways of gathering information that yield results that can’t easily be measured by or translated into numbers. They are often used when you need the subtleties behind the numbers – the feelings, small actions, or pieces of community history that affect the current situation. They acknowledge the fact that experience is subjective – that it is filtered through the perceptions and world views of the people undergoing it – and that it’s important to understand those perceptions and world views.
There are two major scientific ways of gathering information: quantitative methods and qualitative methods. Quantitative methods are those that express their results in numbers. They tend to answer questions like “How many?” or “How much?” or “How often?” When they’re used to compare things – the results of community programs, the effects of an economic development effort, or attitudes about a community issue – they do it by subjecting all of the things or people they’re comparing to exactly the same tests or to the same questions whose answers can be translated into numbers. That way, they can compare apples to apples – everything or everyone is measured by the same standard. Quantitative measures are often demanded by policy makers; they are considered trustworthy because their results can be measured against one another, and because they leave less room for bias.
Qualitative methods don’t yield numerical results in themselves. They may involve asking people for “essay” answers about often-complex issues, or observing interactions in complex situations. When you ask a lot of people for their reactions to or explanations of a community issue, you’re likely to get a lot of different answers. When you observe a complex situation, you may see a number of different aspects of it, and a number of ways in which it could be interpreted. You’re not only not comparing apples to apples, you may be comparing apples to bulldozers or waterfalls. As a result, researchers and policymakers sometimes see qualitative methods as less accurate and less legitimate than quantitative ones. That can be true, but, as we’ll see, if qualitative methods are used with care, they can also yield reliable information.
Qualitative and quantitative methods are, in fact, complementary. Each has strengths and weaknesses that the other doesn’t, and together, they can present a clearer picture of the situation than either would alone. Often, the most accurate information is obtained when several varieties of each method are used. That’s not always possible, but when it is, it can yield the best results.
There are a number of qualitative methods that can be used in assessment of issues or community needs. We’ll list the major ones here, and look at them in more detail later in the section.
They include:
A special case of group interviewing is a focus group . This is a group of about 6-10 people, led by a trained facilitator, assembled to answer a specific question or questions. An effort is sometimes made to make sure that group members don’t know one another, so that social pressures won’t influence them. If trained facilitators are available, focus groups can be a good way to get accurate information about an issue.
Many types of qualitative information are turned into numerical results, although not always accurately. The transformation may miss important details, or the information may simply be too complex to fit easily into numerical constraints, unless you can create a computer model or similar number-based framework that has the capacity to take in an enormous amount of variety. There are many software programs – NVivo and Atlas.ti are fairly well-known, but there are many others, including some freeware – that are intended expressly for analyzing qualitative data.
Since qualitative methods give you results that are not always easy to compare, or even to check for accuracy, people who want hard and fast evidence often see them as suspect. In fact, both quantitative and qualitative measures are important and necessary, depending on the situation. When you’re assessing community issues, as we’ve discussed, you’ll often get closest to the complete picture by using both. The problem is convincing those who need to be convinced – policymakers, funders, etc. – that your qualitative measures are reliable.
There is a debate in the research community about how to judge qualitative methods. Some say they should be evaluated by the same standards as quantitative methods. Others maintain that, because they are intrinsically different from quantitative methods, qualitative methods need a set of standards that take into account their philosophical base and the kind of information they yield.
The British government, for instance, has developed a framework for demonstrating qualitative reliability, which includes a set of 18 questions that a qualitative assessment or study should be subjected to (see Tool #1 ).
Guidelines that can help you argue for the reliability of your qualitative assessment include:
Something that’s objective – an observation, statement, opinion, research finding, etc. – is based on reality as it actually is. Scientists, for instance, aim to be objective, and to understand the way things really are, rather than the way the scientists or others want them to be, or think they might be. A subjective observation, statement, opinion, or research finding, on the other hand, is based on the thoughts and assumptions of the person issuing it. A researcher may be so appalled by the conditions in neighborhoods where violence is rampant that she may begin to feel that violence is in fact the only rational response, and slant her research in that direction. Especially in community assessment, objectivity is vitally important. Objectivity in looking at the community will help you understand how to most effectively address issues, maximize and use assets, and solve problems. Understanding your own subjective reactions – to difficult conditions, to particular individuals, to cultural practices – will help you to screen them out, thereby increasing the reliability of your findings.
The basic reason to use qualitative methods is that there are some kinds of questions and some dimensions of community assessment that can be better addressed by them than by quantitative methods. The methods you use should be determined by the questions you’re asking. Since it may be hard to convince policymakers and others that qualitative methods are useful, however, why bother to use them at all? Some of the major reasons:
Clearly, there are times when quantitative research will give you the information you need. So when do you use qualitative methods? It depends to a great extent on the question you’re asking. (The first four situations below are based on a USAID guide to using rapid appraisal methods, Performance Monitoring and Evaluation Tips .)
An odd set of numbers – a community that’s decidedly low-income, but where a vast majority of people own their own homes, for instance – might be the springboard for a qualitative examination of why this is so. A number of reasons are possible: The community is largely elderly, and people are living in long-since-paid-for houses they bought 40 or more years ago, when their income was higher and housing was less expensive. One or more local banks have made it a priority to help people buy houses, and provide low-interest mortgages and other subsidy programs to further that goal. While they may be low-income, the members of the community nonetheless scrimp on everything else in order to put away money for a house. This is often the case among immigrants from certain cultures, where people are willing to live very simply for many years in order to save for property and education. The community has been “written off” because of its substandard housing, dangerous streets, and lack of services, and houses as a result are ridiculously cheap. A combination of factors, some of which may not be listed here. By and large, quantitative methods won’t easily tell you the reasons for this unusual situation, but qualitative methods will.
Now that you’re convinced of the importance of using qualitative methods of assessment, how are you going to do it? There’s seldom one right way to do anything, but we’ll offer some steps to take in using qualitative methods, including some guidelines for doing interviews and observations, the two most common methods. (Most of these guidelines hold equally for using quantitative methods as well.)
You may remember that this is also one of the guidelines for qualitative reliability. It may seem elementary, but it doesn’t happen anywhere near as often as it ought to. The importance of deciding what you want to know is that it determines the character of your assessment – what kinds of questions you ask, whom you ask them of, how you’ll go about it, etc. Without that minimal amount of structure, you’re likely to wind up with a confused and unorganized mass of information.
There are many ways to approach a community assessment, and, consequently, many questions you might choose to start your assessment with. You might even use more than one, but it’s important to be clear about exactly what you’re looking for.
Some possibilities:
If you want to learn about people’s public behavior, you would probably use direct observation. Observing mothers and children in a clinic waiting room, for example, might give you information about the mothers’ anxiety levels or child-rearing practices.
If you want to know people’s opinions or how they feel about issues, some type of interview would be appropriate.
Once you’ve chosen the right method, it’s important to carry it out properly. Be aware of what you can do with the resources you have. You can’t conduct thousands of interviews in a large city, for instance, without considerable money. If you’re a cash-strapped nonprofit, you might look for a grant to fund your interviews, or you might confine your assessment to one neighborhood. Perhaps you’d mobilize volunteers to conduct interviews, or interview groups rather than individuals. It’s better to do a limited community assessment well than a large one badly. In choosing your method, be aware also that, in some cases, quantitative methods may be more appropriate and more likely to tell you what you want to know.
With qualitative methods, where contact is often personal, the question of who carries them out can be very important. Academics or others who are perceived by community members as “the other,” whether because of their behavior, their speech, or simply because they’re outsiders, may find it hard to gather accurate and complete information from a population that’s very conscious of class or cultural differences. Often, it makes more sense to train members of the population or others who are known and trusted by – or at least familiar to, in their behavior, dress, and speech –those who are being asked to contribute their opinions and observations.
Data collectors should be fluent in the language and culture of those they are interviewing. If you’re assessing commercial activity in a Hispanic neighborhood, you’ll miss most of what’s really happening unless you understand both the Spanish language and the normal ways in which Hispanic (or Dominican or Mexican or Puerto Rican) customers and merchants relate to one another.
If you recruit members of the community or of a specific population to do qualitative information gathering – because they relate to the population better, because they speak the language, because you’re engaged in a participatory effort, or simply because you think they’ll be good at it – you should provide them with training to make sure that the results they come up with are reliable. Depending on what kinds of methods they’ll be using, some of the elements of a training might be:
It may be that you want to hear from all sectors of the community, but some issues or circumstances demand more specific informants. Some possible interview subjects may be public officials, members of a specific population or cultural group, people from a particular geographic area, or people with certain characteristics (parents of young children, individuals with disabilities, males 18-24, people with high blood pressure).
Knowing whom you need to ask extends to any method in which you talk directly to people – focus groups, large community meetings, etc. Focus groups used by marketers are chosen extremely carefully, for example, with age, gender, income, place of residence, and even such factors as favored leisure activities considered.
Observation may or may not involve people. If it does, the question may not be whom you want to observe, but rather what activity or situation you want to observe. If it’s general – what kinds of street activity take place in various neighborhoods, how people use a public park – it’s not necessary to focus on a particular population, but rather on the place. If it’s more specific – back to commercial activity in that Hispanic neighborhood – you’ll need to be in the right place at the right time.
Now it’s time for you or the people you’ve chosen to go out and collect the qualitative information you need.
As mentioned above, interviews can be structured or unstructured. In a strictly structured interview, the same questions in the same order are asked of everyone, with relatively little room for wandering off the specific topic. Semi-structured interviews may also be based on a list of specific questions, but – while trying to make sure that the interviewee answers all of them – the interviewer may pursue interesting avenues, or encourage the interviewee to talk about other related issues. An unstructured interview is likely to be more relaxed – more like a conversation than a formal interview.
There are advantages and disadvantages to each approach. A structured interview may make the interviewee focus in on the questions and the interview process, take it more seriously, and thus provide excellent information. Because everyone is interviewed in the same way, a structured interview may be – or at least may look – reliable. It may also make an interviewee nervous, emphasize the differences between him and the interviewer, and lead to incomplete or less-than-truthful answers.
A semi- or unstructured interview may allow the interviewee to be more relaxed, and thus more forthcoming. It also leaves room for pursuing a topic that’s not directly related to the formal list of questions, but that might be important or even crucial. At the same time, because it can be far-ranging, a semi- or unstructured interview – particularly one that doesn’t start with a list of questions – is, or appears, less reliable than a structured one. It also, in the hands of an inexperienced or indecisive interviewer, may allow an interviewee to get sidetracked and never get back to the original questions.
What kind of interview you use depends on the nature of the information you’re looking for, the needs of the people you’re interviewing (e.g., whether comfort is more important than structure), and your own comfort. The author has conducted all three types of interviews, and has found that semi-structured interviews – having clear questions and goals for the interview, but conducting it in an informal way, with room for pursuing tangents and some simple friendly conversation – is generally productive. The following guidelines for interviewing reflect that view.
If the results of the interview are likely to be published, even if the interviewee will be anonymous, you might want to get a signed “informed consent” form, indicating that the interviewee understands the purpose of the interview, and gives permission for the material to be published or used in other ways.
Some interviewees can manage one-word answers to nearly any question. They might answer "What was participating in the program like?" with “Good.” Don’t be afraid to probe these answers. “What does that mean?” or “How was it good?” might get you a flood of information. If it gets you another one-word answer, keep probing, unless you sense that the person is getting angry or frustrated. Then it’s probably time to move on to the next question, and hope that there’ll be an opportunity to return to this one for a fuller explanation. But be aware that some people are simply quieter – or less reflective – than others. You may never get much more than one-word answers from them.
At the same time, be aware when they’ve strayed too far from the topic. There’s a Mark Twain story that consists of the voice of a man telling an anecdote about a three-legged dog. Every other word reminds him of something else – another story – and he gets continually sidetracked, never finishing the story of the dog, or any of the others, either. Beware the Curse of the Three-Legged Dog: gently but firmly direct people back to the topic if they get too far afield.
Group interviews are both similar to and different from individual ones. The basic guidelines – being clear what you’re asking, open-ended questions, probing, etc. – still hold, but the group brings its own dynamic to the situation. The interview becomes more of a group discussion , and the interviewer’s concerns must extend to making sure that everyone gets heard, reining in individuals who dominate the discussion, and keeping the focus on ideas and information, rather than personalities. As with other methods, group interviews have advantages and disadvantages. The former include using the energy of the group to generate more information than might otherwise be forthcoming. Members may stimulate one another to come up with more and more useful material, as their thinking is prodded by the memories and conclusions of others. They can also act as a check on the accuracy of the information provided. In addition, the presence of other, often familiar, interviewees may help to break down shyness or nervousness, and create a relaxed atmosphere in which everyone feels comfortable talking. (The skills of the interviewer at making people comfortable – at least partially by being comfortable herself – are important here.) With these potential positives come the possible negatives of conflict, antagonism, or dislike among group members, as well as other negative feelings or history that can disrupt or twist discussion and make an interview all but useless. There are also problems that can arise from members of the group being too friendly: they may spend too much time in chit-chat, and have trouble focusing on the questions at hand. Group interviews may be useful when resources – and, as a result, interviewers – are limited, or when there are a large number of people who should be, or would like to be, interviewed. Groups probably shouldn’t be much larger than five or six, and interviewers should have, or be trained in, basic group facilitation skills .
What do we mean by “observation?” For our purposes, there are essentially two kinds: direct and participant observation.
Direct observation is the practice of examining or watching places, people, or activity without interfering or taking part in what’s going on. The observer is the proverbial fly on the wall, often unidentified, who does nothing but watch and record what she sees and/or hears. A direct observation to see how people use a public park, for instance, might consist of one or more observers simply sitting in one place or walking around the park for several hours, or even several days. Observers might come back at different times of day, on different days, or at different times of year, in order to understand as much as possible of what goes on in the park. They might occasionally ask questions of people using the park, but in as low-key and unobtrusive a way as possible, not identifying themselves as researchers.
Some kinds of direct observation – those where people are observed in situations they think are private – have the potential of violating privacy. In these instances, ethics generally demands that the observer obtain the permission of those being observed . In laboratory schools, for instance, where teachers are trained and new educational ideas tested, classes are often observed from behind one-way mirrors. In such cases, both the teachers and the parents of the students are generally informed that such observation may happen, and are asked to sign consent forms. They don’t know exactly when observation is taking place, but they understand that it’s part of the laboratory school environment, and are willing to allow it in order both to improve individual teachers’ skills and to foster the development of better educational methods.
Participant observation involves becoming to some extent part of the life of the people you’re observing – learning and taking part in their culture, their celebrations and rituals, and their everyday activities. A participant observer in the park above might introduce himself into the activities he observes – a regular volleyball game, winter cross-country skiing, dog walking, in-line skating – and get to know well the people who engage in those activities. He would also monitor his own feelings and reactions to using the park, in order to better understand how its users feel about it. He would probably ask lots of questions, and might well identify himself as a researcher.
An effective participant observer may take a long time (in some cases, years) to establish himself in this way. There are exceptions to this rule, of course. Some marketing firms and corporations employ trend-spotters as participant observers. Young, hip, and stylish themselves, these observers are able to identify and mingle with adolescent and young adult trend-setters in brief interactions, and determine what products, styles, and behaviors are likely to catch on soon with young people in general. You may able to do something similar, but it helps greatly if you’re already part of the group that you’re interested in observing, or if the group, like public park users, can include anyone.
Both direct and participant observation can be useful in community assessment. A participant observer in that situation is likely to be a member of the group being observed, because of the length of time it can take to establish an outsider as a participant observer. Direct observation is probably more common as an assessment tool.
Regardless of its type, your observation should be conducted so as to be reliable.
Some guidelines for reaching that goal:
What should you observe and record? That depends on the questions you’re trying to answer, but some basics include:
Clothing reflects the way people choose to present themselves to the world. A mohawk haircut, piercings, and black clothes represent an attitude and, to some extent, a world view, not just a fashion statement. The same is true for an expensive suit, or for an outfit of jeans, wool shirt, and hiking boots. Paying attention to such details can increase both your understanding and the reliability of your observation.
At a neighborhood festival, for instance, an observer could be watching from a window high above the street, from a position just at the edge of the crowd, from within the crowd and the festival goings-on, as a participant in a festival activity, or even as a festival volunteer or organizer. What she would see and hear, what she would experience, and the information she would obtain would be different from each of these viewpoints.
How do you record observations? That depends on the nature of the observation and on your resources. Video recording, unless it’s done from a concealed spot, or in a situation where such recording is expected (a tourist site, or that street festival, for example), can change people’s behavior or put the observer under some suspicion. Audio recording is much less obvious, but also provides less information, unless it’s specifically sound information that you’re seeking. In most cases, recording would be done with a notebook and pencil or with a laptop computer. If recording during the observation would be disruptive or out of place, you’d probably wait till after you had left the situation – but as soon after as possible, so as not to forget or confuse details.
Once you’ve gathered information by whatever qualitative method, you have to figure out what it tells you . Some of that will be obvious: if you’ve been interested in who uses that public park we were talking about earlier, and your observation tells you that it’s mostly young people, you have an answer to your initial question . Your next questions may be why other groups don’t use the park as much , and whether the fact that it’s largely used by young people keeps others away. When you’ve answered those questions, you may have generated others , or you may have a basis for planning a campaign to get more people using the park.
The final step here is to use the information and analysis that came from your use of qualitative methods to change the community for the better. All the assessment in the world is useless if it doesn’t lead to some action that’s meant to create positive change.
Qualitative methods of gathering information – methods such as interviews, observation, focus groups, and community meetings that don’t always yield results that can be reduced to numbers, or that are used to capture a level of information difficult to get with quantitative methods – are often extremely useful in community assessment, especially when used together with quantitative methods, which do give numerical results. Qualitative methods can get at the things that numbers don’t, such as the reasons for people’s actions, or community history. They can help to identify community issues and needs, and provide a basis for planning community efforts that lead to long-term change.
Online Resources
The Action Catalogue is an online decision support tool that is intended to enable researchers, policy-makers and others wanting to conduct inclusive research, to find the method best suited for their specific project needs.
Chapter 6: Research Methods in the "Introduction to Community Psychology" describes the ecological lens in community research, the role of ethics, the differences between qualitative and quantitative research, and mixed methods research.
Harnessing Qualitative Data to Advance Health Equity is a presentation on how data has the potential to both paint an accurate picture of what sexual and intimate partner violence prevention practitioners and advocates know is happening on the ground and convey that reality to policymakers.
Qualitative assessment of the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services goals provides a summary of the results of focus groups conducted to explore the public's perception of relevant issues. This is a summary, but you can also download a PDF of the full report.
Qualitative Methods provides brief descriptions of four standard qualitative research methods: participant observation, direct observation, unstructured interviews, and case studies.
Qualitative Research Methods is a compendium of sites with papers, links, etc. to qualitative research methods.
Print Resources
Berg, B. (2007), Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (6th edn.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Berkowitz, W. (1982). Community impact . Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Company, Inc.
Table of contents
Qualitative research refers to the intuitive and creative analysis of intangible information you can use for writing a top-class college paper. Due to interacting with the data before and after the collection, having the best qualitative research topics is paramount to writing a research assignment that stands above the rest.
These topics can involve gathering key data from the most relevant sources to your assignment topics and are fundamental to your effort to collect first-hand information. Some of the major fields where qualitative research is performed include:
The main goal of qualitative research is to help you understand the topic of your assignment by identifying the most important aspects of your topic and gathering enough information to provide an in-depth analysis of the topic at hand and provide the answers to all the related questions. This type of research aims to identify and understand the general lifestyle, issues, and problems to provide solutions to a global problem. Since doing all the research on your own can turn out to be quite daunting, you can always resort to hiring an affordable research paper writing service to get professional assistance.
Writing a research paper or a college assignment with success solely depends on your ability to choose suitable qualitative research topics. It’s essential to carefully examine and explore the field with all the challenges before you start writing to identify the key factors and aspects of your assignment. Here are a few tips on how to do that to get good research paper ideas.
Your assignment topic should be something that interests you deeply so that you can completely get into it and make the most out of your efforts. More importantly, your topic should allow you to develop your personal skills and learn new things.
If you choose a topic that has little to no supporting research available, you’ll end up getting stuck. You must properly research the topic before you start writing. This research will also help you shortlist unrelated topics and narrow down your scope so that you can focus on the information that matches your exact needs.
Consulting with your professors and going through the assessment guidelines is paramount to writing a top-class paper. Follow your university guidelines to make sure your efforts get approved by your supervisor.
If you’re looking for the best way to choose some of the most suitable qualitative research paper topics for your college assignment, these 60 topics should help you get ahead of your task and write an engaging paper. All topics above are for your personal education and motivation. If you still need help with your assignment, our professional paper writing services are available 24/7.
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Megan b. irby.
1 Maya Angelou Center for Health Equity, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@ybrim
2 Program in Community-Engaged Research, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@eroomrk (K.R.M.); ude.htlaehekaw@lladnari (I.R.)
3 Department of Social Sciences and Health Policy and Program in Community-Engaged Research, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@nnaml
4 Formerly of the Program in Community-Engaged Research, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; moc.oohay@nilmahtld
Phillip summers.
5 Department of Radiology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@sremmusp
6 Department of Pediatrics and Program in Community-Engaged Research, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@notleksj
7 Department of Family and Community Medicine and Program in Community-Engaged Research, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA; ude.htlaehekaw@leinads
Associated data.
Data are available from the corresponding author.
Community-engaged research (CEnR) has emerged within public health and medicine as an approach to research designed to increase health equity, reduce health disparities, and improve community and population health. We sought to understand how CEnR has been conducted and to identify needs to support CEnR within an emerging academic learning health system (aLHS). We conducted individual semi-structured interviews with investigators experienced in CEnR at an emerging aLHS in the southeastern United States. Eighteen investigators (16 faculty and 2 research associates) were identified, provided consent, and completed interviews. Half of participants were women; 61% were full professors of varied academic backgrounds and departments. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, coded, and analyzed using constant comparison, an approach to grounded theory. Twenty themes emerged that were categorized into six domains: Conceptualization and Purpose, Value and Investment, Community-Academic Partnerships, Sustainability, Facilitators, and Challenges. Results also identified eight emerging needs necessary to enhance CEnR within aLHSs. The results provide insights into how CEnR approaches can be harnessed within aLHSs to build and nurture community-academic partnerships, inform research and institutional priorities, and improve community and population health. Findings can be used to guide the incorporation of CEnR within aLHSs.
1.1. community-engaged research.
Community-engaged research (CEnR) has emerged within public health and medicine as an approach to research designed to increase health equity, reduce health disparities, and improve community and population health. CEnR involves the affected community in research, and defines that community as any group of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interest, health condition, or similar categories of shared identity. Rather than investigators and research teams from universities, government, or other types of research organizations approaching and entering a community with a preconceived notion of a community’s best interests, in projects that apply CEnR approaches, community members and representatives from community organizations collaborate and share research roles with academic investigators and research teams. Community members become not merely “targets” of research but also research partners. CEnR emphasizes relationship-building and trust; open communication; co-learning; reciprocal transfer of expertise; shared power, resources, and decision-making; and mutual ownership of the processes and products of research [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].
Growing evidence suggests that including community members and representatives from community organizations in the design, implementation, and evaluation of research can lead to deeper, more informed, and nuanced understandings of health-related phenomena and identify actions (e.g., interventions, programs, and policy and system changes) that are more relevant, culturally congruent, and likely to be effective, sustained, and scalable, if warranted, to improve community and population health [ 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. However, the conduct of CEnR is shaped by institutional (e.g., allocation of resources and time), community (e.g., local history and receptivity), and personal (e.g., background, experiences, and world views) factors. Thus, there is no standardized way to engage and partner with communities to conduct CEnR, and there is great variability across models of engagement and in the degree to which communities are included in the research process [ 8 , 9 ].
Community engagement often is viewed as a continuum that spans from outreach (less engaged), consultation, involvement, and collaboration, to shared leadership (more engaged) [ 3 , 4 , 7 , 12 , 13 ]. As such, the community engagement literature is extensive and features a wide range of theories, approaches, strategies, and methods, reflecting tremendous diversity in how community engagement is defined, implemented, and evaluated [ 1 , 2 , 6 , 7 , 13 ]. Despite this heterogeneity, CEnR includes several common critical elements. These include: (1) Collaboration with groups of people affiliated by geographic proximity, special interest, health condition, or other categories of shared identity; (2) Groups of community members, organizational representatives, and academic researchers adhering to common principles and norms to nurture trust and promote authentic partnership; (3) Focus on identifying and addressing the needs and priorities and harnessing the assets that affect health and well-being; and (4) Research as an approach to systematically uncover and understand health-related phenomena and improve community and population health [ 2 , 3 , 7 ].
Learning health systems (LHSs) are organizations or networks that pursue a cycle of perpetual learning processes embedded in daily practice. These processes inform evidence-based improvements in health care to yield better patient outcomes. This cycle combines quality improvement methods and data analytics from patient care, which are fed back into the LHS to inform institutional policies and structures and improve care delivery [ 14 ]. An academic learning health system (aLHS) prioritizes gathering new, generalizable knowledge to improve community and population health, in addition to promoting continuous improvement and innovation within its own health care delivery system. An aLHS draws on its embedded academic expertise in public health and medical education, health system sciences, translation, and population and community health; shares knowledge and imparts skills necessary to advance the system internally; and disseminates knowledge broadly to contribute to knowledge generation and advance science [ 15 , 16 ].
Although engaging patients to provide perspectives and feedback into various aspects of health systems has long been valued, to date, there has been no exploration of CEnR within aLHSs. This is due in part to the recent emergence of the aLHS as a concept and entity [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Understanding how CEnR has been conducted and identifying needs to support and enhance CEnR within an emerging aLHS could provide insights critical to advance our knowledge of effective CEnR methods and designs and strengthen the conduct of future research designed to increase health equity, reduce health disparities, and improve community and population health [ 18 ].
Wake Forest School of Medicine/Wake Forest Baptist Health (WFSM/WFBH), an emerging aLHS, has a long and successful history of CEnR [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. A number of its investigators routinely incorporate community engagement in their research. We sought to explore how CEnR has been harnessed at WFSM/WFBH; how investigators at this emerging aLHS have incorporated principles of community engagement within their research; the degree to which community members and/or representatives from community organizations have been involved in the planning, implementation, evaluation, and/or dissemination phases of research; the nature of CEnR as it is implemented within the context of the local community; and what institutional supports are needed to facilitate and integrate CEnR within an aLHS.
2.1. setting.
WFSM/WFBH is an emerging aLHS serving more than 50 counties in North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. It is comprised of WFSM and five hospitals in the Piedmont region of northwest North Carolina. In addition to training medical, physician assistant, and nursing students, WFSM has a broad array of biomedical graduate and postdoctoral training programs. It also has a large Division of Public Health Sciences with Departments in Biostatistics and Data Science, Epidemiology and Prevention, Implementation Science, and Social Sciences and Health Policy. A Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), National Institutes of Health (NIH), supports the WFSM/WFBH Clinical and Translational Science Institute (CTSI), which includes the Program in Community-Engaged Research (UL1TR001420). The Program aims to improve community and population health through promoting and facilitating community-relevant and engaged research, working in partnership with communities to identify health needs, priorities, and assets and to seek solutions to health challenges together [ 23 ].
We conducted individual semi-structured interviews with investigators experienced in community engagement and CEnR. We identified potential interviewees with assistance from the WFSM/WFBH CTSI and Institutional Review Board (IRB). A keyword search was performed within the institutional grants management software (InfoEd) and IRB databases to identify WFSM/WFBH investigators who had submitted research applications related to community engagement or CEnR within the past ten years. Search terms included “community”, “engagement”, “CBPR”, “participatory research”, and “partnership”. Abstracts from identified applications were reviewed to further determine eligibility. Investigators were then contacted by electronic mail and invited to participate in an interview. Interviews with consenting participants were then scheduled at a time and location convenient to the participant. Interviews were conducted by two trained study staff and digitally recorded, with study staff also taking clarifying notes. During interviews, participants were asked for the names of other investigators within the institution who also conducted CEnR to identify additional potential participants. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and subsequently verified.
We chose a qualitative research approach to gain a broad spectrum of perspectives about CEnR within the context of an aLHS. This qualitative approach can yield perspectives and insights that are not previously known by researchers and thus would not emerge in a more close-ended quantitative approach [ 24 , 25 ]. A semi-structured interview guide was designed to collect both descriptive demographic data from each participant, including race/ethnicity, age, gender, position, academic degrees, background, current academic department, years at WFSM/WFBH, and CEnR training. The guide also captured socio-contextual and detailed descriptions of perceptions, experiences, and strategies specific to the use of community engagement and CEnR. Areas explored included: how each participant conceptualizes and defines CEnR; their preparation for CEnR, including formal training; perceived benefits of CEnR; challenges associated with CEnR; how communities are engaged in research; what roles community members and representatives from community organizations play in CEnR; how the region (i.e., southern United States) and the institution (i.e., an emerging aLHS) affect CEnR; how sustainability and dissemination of CEnR are incorporated into CEnR; and what CEnR lessons have been learned by each participant. The guide is summarized in Table 1 .
Abbreviated items from the individual semi-structured interview guide.
Abbreviated Items from the Individual Semi-Structured Interview Guide. |
---|
The semi-structured interview guide was drafted, reviewed, revised, and finalized by community members with experience in community-engaged research and experts in community engagement and aLHSs. All items were open-ended. The guide was pilot tested for comprehension and timing with 3 investigators; slight revisions to wording were made based on the pilot.
Each interview transcript was coded by two analysts. Themes were identified through constant comparison, an approach to developing grounded theory, combining inductive coding with simultaneous comparison [ 25 ]. Using standard procedures [ 25 ], analysts first coded text and convened to compare their codes. They then identified and resolved any discrepancies through discussion. Matrices were used to identify similarities and differences within and across participants. Analysts identified, refined, and interpreted themes iteratively through discussion and by examining codes and rereading the transcripts. Findings and themes were presented to interview participants in a presentation for the WFSM/WFBH CTSI Program in Community-Engaged Research Affinity Group ( n = 27). The Affinity Group is a group of investigators, research team members, and others at WFSM/WFBH who are interested in CEnR. Members of the Community Stakeholder Advisory Committee (CSAC) ( n = 8) of the CTSI’s Program in Community-Engaged Research also attended. CSAC is comprised of representatives from community organizations who provide feedback to the CTSI regarding research infrastructure and policies, and to investigators and research teams regarding WFSM/WFBH research initiatives [ 26 ] Presentation attendees contributed to the refinement of themes and their interpretation through facilitated group discussion.
Human subject approval and oversight for this study were provided by the WFSM/WFBH IRB.
The keyword search in InfoEd and IRB databases yielded the names and research projects of 51 investigators. Sixteen investigators were confirmed as eligible based on a review of project abstracts; 14 of these responded to email invitations and agreed to participate. Four additional participants were referred by initial participants. In all, 18 investigators (16 faculty and 2 senior research associates) provided consent and completed interviews. Interviews averaged 45 min.
The participant sample ( Table 2 ) was 50% female, had a mean age of 55 years, was mostly White, and had varied academic backgrounds. Most participants held doctoral degrees (i.e., PhD, DrPH, EdD, MD, and MD/PhD). On average, participants had worked at WFSM/WFBH for nearly 14 years, and represented six academic departments. Nearly all participants indicated they had never received formal education or training in CEnR, though 100% reported “on-the-job” training and experience. All had been principal investigators on at least one federally funded research project.
Demographics of participants ( N = 18).
Demographics | (%) * |
---|---|
Black | 2 (11%) |
White | 16 (89%) |
55 years | |
Female | 9 (50%) |
Male | 9 (50%) |
Research Associate | 2 (11%) |
Assistant Professor | 2 (11%) |
Associate Professor | 3 (17%) |
Professor | 11 (61%) |
Bachelors | 1 (6%) |
Masters | 1 (6%) |
PhD, DrPH, EdD | 13 (72%) |
MD | 2 (11%) |
MD-PhD | 1 (6%) |
Anthropology | 2 (11%) |
Education | 1 (6%) |
Exercise Science | 1 (6%) |
Medicine | 3 (17%) |
Neuroscience | 1 (5%) |
Psychology | 4 (22%) |
Public Health | 4 (22%) |
Public Policy | 1 (6%) |
Sociology | 1 (6%) |
Dermatology | 1 (6%) |
Epidemiology & Prevention | 5 (28%) |
Family Medicine | 3 (17%) |
Neurology | 1 (6%) |
Social Sciences & Health Policy | 7 (39%) |
Psychiatry | 1 (6%) |
4–27 years (13.9) | |
Formal Training | 2 (11%) |
No Formal Training | 16 (89%) |
On-the-Job Training | 18 (100%) |
* Count and percent or mean and standard deviation.
Twenty themes emerged across six domains related to community engagement and CEnR within an aLHS ( Table 3 ): Conceptualization and Purpose, Value and Investment, Community-Academic Partnerships, Sustainability, Facilitators, and Challenges.
Domains and themes related to conducting community-engaged research (CEnR) at an academic learning health system (aLHS).
Domains | Themes |
---|---|
Conceptualization and Purpose of CEnR | |
Value and Investment in CEnR: Institutional, Professional, and Personal | |
Community-Academic Partnerships | |
Sustainability of CEnR | |
Facilitators of CEnR | |
Challenges of CEnR |
Participants agreed that CEnR is a collaborative approach to research designed to improve health and well-being through participatory and better-informed inquiry, always with an eye on how knowledge generated can be translated and applied within the local affected community. However, participants noted that this local application of knowledge does not preclude its generalizability and transferability to other contexts, thus aligning with the broader research goals of an aLHS. Participants also identified CEnR as an approach relevant within many aspects of an aLHS, including education and training, quality improvement, clinical care, and clinical trials.
Participants highlighted the difficulties in defining “community” and emphasized that communities are heterogeneous, which can be challenging for investigators and research teams who may want “simple answers” (e.g., perspectives and insights) from community partners; as participants reported, working with one community does not yield one voice. CEnR was identified as requiring careful consideration of the various perspectives and insights of all partners. Finally, participants also identified additional goals of CEnR, including strengthening connections within the community, building resilience and capacity, and reducing the effects of marginalization.
Participants described CEnR as an under-appreciated and frequently misunderstood approach to research within many institutions, including federal funding agencies such as the NIH, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA). A participant reported that this misunderstanding among federal partners persists even when a project is required by the federal partner and funder and initially designed to be conducted using CEnR approaches. A participant provided an example of an intervention study that resulted in null findings; the participant attributed the study’s null findings to funder-required changes to the study design, recruitment and retention strategies, and an intervention that did not align with community partner perspectives and were contrary to project-specific community steering committee guidance.
Participants also noted that their professional and academic investment in CEnR stemmed from their own personal values, including community health, health equity, and social justice. Participants agreed that this commitment was not limited to traditional nine-to-five “work hours,” but that successful community engagement must be woven into daily life and interactions to be successful.
Participants expressed that the type and degree of engagement, and the ease with which partnerships are formed, depend on the extent to which communities feel they have been marginalized and how they perceive research and research institutions. Moreover, partnerships, how they function, and the roles of partnership members in CEnR vary profoundly across investigators and across projects. Participants identified many areas as essential to the development of strong and productive partnerships: fostering trust and mutual respect, balancing expertise across community and aLHS partners, investing time, facilitating open communication, embracing conflict as a strategy for resolution, and overcoming barriers (including addressing community mistrust based on previous community experiences with both research and health care). Participants noted the role of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study [ 27 ], the Guatemalan Syphilis Experiments [ 28 ]), and rampant anti-immigration rhetoric [ 29 ], racism, homophobia, and transphobia in the United States as contributing to community mistrust.
Participants described sustaining CEnR as complex, citing both the need and the difficulty of maintaining community-aLHS partnerships beyond the time period of an individual project. They highlighted the difficulty in sustaining partnerships without funding for continued community involvement and effort from academic investigators and research teams. Additionally, participants noted that sustainability is influenced by the strength and quality of engagement throughout a project, and how well community partners were incorporated into the research process—from conception, study design and conduct, data analysis and interpretation, to the dissemination of findings.
Participants emphasized the need for institutional support (e.g., funding, protected time, and respect) and research resources (e.g., CTSA and institutional research centers) that prioritize CEnR as integral to the academic mission of an aLHS. Participants also noted the immense value of having an IRB that is willing to learn the nuances of CEnR in order to approve and oversee CEnR.
Participants described the potential for burn out and strain resulting from the need to incorporate community engagement into daily life and the great time commitment accompanying CEnR. Other challenges identified by participants related to the discordance between community and academic goals within a given research project, and differences in overarching community and academic priorities that challenged collaboration. Participants also described the challenges of history and how an institution’s complicity in oppressive practices of the past influenced the development and maintenance of community research partnerships. For example, some participants cited WFSM/WFBH’s past involvement in the North Carolina Eugenics Program [ 30 ] as reducing community trust and engagement.
We also identified eight emergent needs that could enhance CEnR within aLHSs ( Table 4 ). First, participants described the need for increased understanding among academic investigators, research teams, and healthcare providers of community contexts and assets, social determinants of health (also known as “social drivers of health”), and historical factors that influence community and population health. Participants reported that this increased understanding may be particularly critical because many investigators, research teams, and providers may be from other regions of the country or other parts of the world. Thus, although well intentioned, they may not sufficiently understand the local community or the contexts of the populations of interest and focus.
Emergent needs to support and enhance community-engaged research (CEnR) within an academic learning health system (aLHS).
Emergent Needs to Support and Enhance Community-Engaged Research (CEnR) within an Academic Learning Health System (aLHS). |
---|
Similarly, participants noted a profound need for increased understanding of CEnR within the aLHS and its value as an approach within community and population health, public health, and medicine. Participants expressed frustration that CEnR is often conflated with community outreach; formative or qualitative research; or behavioral and social sciences. Participants emphasized that members of communities have critical perspectives regarding research into locally identified needs and priorities. Such collaborations can harness the assets of both the community and the aLHS.
Third, participants also highlighted the need for training community members, academic investigators, and research teams to increase their understanding of and skills in partnering with communities and conducting CEnR. Participants noted that establishing authentic and productive partnerships to conduct CEnR is difficult, and, despite good intentions, many investigators and research teams at the emerging aLHS do not understand how to work effectively with community members and representatives from community organizations. At the same time, participants shared that community partners may not sufficiently understand the research process, how evidence and knowledge are generated, and the various components of and objectives inherent within an aLHS.
Fourth, participants noted that although the theories and principles underlying CEnR are well documented, effective frameworks and methods aligned with CEnR are needed. They noted the need for methodologic innovations. Participants noted methods such as photovoice [ 31 ], empowerment-based community forums [ 32 ], evidence academies [ 33 ], and citizen science [ 23 ] are well developed, further research approaches to and methods aligned with CEnR are needed.
Participants also noted that policy changes can positively affect health in multiple ways, whether within an aLHS, the local community, or nationally. They identified a need for evidence-based, practical guidance to increase the translation of CEnR findings into policies designed to improve community and population health.
Sixth, participants acknowledged the need for guidance on balancing the perspectives of community and aLHS partners. They reported that it can be difficult for academic investigators and research teams to know how to elicit community partner perspectives, to usefully share their own perspectives (based on theory, their own prior research, and the existing literature), build on and negotiate with community partners, and negotiate and compromise in ways that ensure sound science and maximize the success of a research project. Participants noted that CEnR requires weighing scientific rigor and what is realistic and “doable”; far too often, participants reported, investigators and research teams may choose rigorous research approaches that simply cannot be successfully implemented. Participants asserted not including community perspectives through CEnR could result in study designs that are inauthentic to how communities convene, interact, and take action; enrollment and retention plans that are not acceptable or realistic; and/or measurement that does not make sense to members of the community. In such situations, data collection may be sacrificed, analysis and interpretation of findings may be less accurate, and sustainability and meaningful dissemination of findings may not be possible.
Participants cited a need for a model to incorporate principles of CEnR into research mission, vision, and priorities of an aLHS. They suggested that the linkages between CEnR and aLHS need further exploration and articulation. Finally, participants reported the need for more institutional support for community engagement and CEnR. This support included pilot funding and protected time of investigators and research teams to establish partnerships, develop innovative methods, and explore integration of community perspectives into the priorities and processes of an aLHS.
Our results provide insights critical to understanding how CEnR approaches function within an emerging aLHS and ways to further build and nurture community-academic partnerships and inform research and institutional priorities to increase health equity, reduce health disparities, and improve community and population health. In this study, we identified six primary domains of 20 themes related to the purpose of CEnR, its value within an aLHS, characteristics of effective community-aLHS partnerships, issues related to sustainability of CEnR, facilitators of CEnR within an aLHS, and challenges facing CEnR within an aLHS. Many of these domains have been explored in the broader CEnR literature; however, this is the first exploration of CEnR within an aLHS. We also uncovered eight needs that, if addressed, could support and enhance community engagement and CEnR within an aLHS. Several findings deserve highlighting.
First, participants expressed the need for academic investigators, research teams, and healthcare providers to better understand community contexts, social determinants of health, and historical factors influencing community and population health and participation in research. This view is consistent with previous research suggesting that health disparities will persist without better understanding of health and health-related phenomena within communities and the ongoing reluctance of community members to participate in research [ 11 ].
Participants also described the importance of the aLHS’s reputation in the community as critical to influencing trust and engagement, particularly among historically marginalized populations. Participants specifically noted WFSM/WFBH’s past involvement in the North Carolina Eugenics Program and other discriminatory practices committed against minority and vulnerable populations [ 30 ]; they also noted that many communities across the United States share similar historical narratives. Thus, although much work must done; the inclusion of CEnR within CTSAs and emerging aLHS is a step in the right direction.
Trust is built by and exists among individuals; community members may or may not trust an institution, but the ongoing commitment of investigators and research teams from an aLHS to partner with and listen to community members can overcome mistrust [ 21 ]. Thus, thorough training for academic investigators and research teams is essential. This training should include how to work collaboratively; how to encourage, elicit, and listen to diverse voices; and how to help partners organize for community and population health. While training in designing studies, reducing bias, and increasing validity are critical for investigators and research teams, skills in relationship building and maintenance and in negotiation and compromise are similarly critical [ 2 , 11 , 34 , 35 ]. For example, when investigators and research teams from an aLHS attend community fairs, church gatherings, community forums, or parties and celebrations, these informal settings help build and nurture trust among partners. These opportunities show commitment and allow attendees to further understand one another. Volunteering with a community organization or serving on local health coalitions are other ways to advance trust and develops genuine and mutually respectful relationships between researchers and communities. In addition, this involvement can open other doors by helping to identify others in the community who may be committed to working together [ 21 ].
Nearly all participants in this study highlighted the need for institutions to explicitly show their value of CEnR. This finding aligns with previous work that identified barriers attributable to institutional culture that shape research agendas and support for CEnR, and challenges in gaining support from institution leadership and top decision-makers [ 8 , 11 ]. Overcoming these challenges and cultural aspects specific to aLHSs likely requires leadership to further explore institutional readiness to serve as a partner to communities, the existence and appropriateness of structures to support CEnR scholarship, investigator and study staff training in CEnR, the extent to which aLHS goals align with principles of CEnR, and whether there is sufficient CEnR expertise within the institution to establish a commitment to CEnR [ 11 , 34 , 35 ]. Participants echoed the need for CEnR training opportunities (for investigators, research teams, and community members); education on effective models of engagement across diverse populations; resources to conduct CEnR authentically; and guidance for interpreting findings and disseminating information back to communities.
This study was conducted at a single aLHS; thus, findings may not be applicable to other aLHSs. Regardless, the study’s design and analysis may help other aLHSs and medical centers, as well as those seeking to incorporate CEnR approaches within public health and medicine, to engage and form authentic and long-lasting partnerships with communities. The sample size achieved saturation across interviews and provides valuable information regarding the number of investigators and research teams conducting CEnR. In this study, we did not collect data from community research partners, which was beyond the scope of our work. Future research is warranted to better understand perspectives of community members and community organizations with or without previous experience partnering with investigators and research teams within aLHSs.
While some findings from this study reflect the broader CEnR literature, these findings are important for informing CEnR approaches and can be used to guide the incorporation of CEnR within aLHSs. LHSs and aLHSs are becoming more established and numerous, and many institutions could benefit from our findings. In educating the next generation of academic investigators, research teams, and healthcare providers, an aLHS can incorporate CEnR as it strives to understand and increase health equity, reduce health disparities, and improve community and population health.
Conceptualization, S.D.R.; methodology, S.D.R., M.B.I., K.R.M. and P.S.; software, S.D.R.; validation, M.B.I., D.H., I.R. and P.S.; formal analysis, S.D.R. and M.B.I.; investigation, M.B.I., S.D.R. and K.R.M.; resources, S.D.R.; data curation, S.D.R. and M.B.I.; writing—original draft preparation, S.D.R. and M.B.I.; writing—review and editing, S.D.R., M.B.I., K.R.M., L.M.-J., D.H., I.R., P.S., J.A.S. and S.S.D.; supervision, S.D.R.; project administration, K.R.M.; funding acquisition, S.D.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This research was funded by National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, National Institutions of Health, grant number UL1TR001420.
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of Wake Forest School of Medicine (protocol code IRB00049597; date of initial approval: 04/10/2018, renewed annually).
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
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Darshini Ayton
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
The key concept in action research is change or action .
Action research (also known as ‘participatory action research’) aligns well with the practice of health and social care because researchers and practitioners in this discipline work with people and communities in holistic and relational ways to understand the history, culture and context of the setting. Action research aims to understand the setting and improve it through change or action. 1 This method has its roots in activism and advocacy and is focused on solutions. It is practical and deals with real-world problems and issues. Action research often undergoes phases in seeking to understand the problem, plan a solution, implement the solution and then reflect on or evaluate the solution, cyclically and iteratively. Action research is used in the practice of health and social care because it has two fundamental aims: to improve and to involve. This chapter outlines how this is evident, using examples from the research literature (see Table 7.1.).
Action research is a collaborative process between researchers and community members. This process is a core component of action research and represents a significant shift from typical research methods. Through action research, those who are being researched become the researchers, with close consideration given to power dynamics. The research participants become partners in the research and are involved in identifying and prioritising the research area, designing and undertaking data collection, conducting data analysis, and interpreting and disseminating the results. 1 The research partners may be provided with support and training to enable them to undertake these activities and to promote empowerment and capacity building (see examples following). Patient and public involvement in research and healthcare improvement (known in Australia as ‘consumer and community involvement’), has led to action research gaining popularity as a research design that captures the ‘living knowledge’ with, for and by people and communities throughout the research journey.
As an example, in the project Relationships Matter for Youth ‘Aging Out’ of Care, 2 Doucet and colleagues aimed to examine relationships that matter to young people in care and how these relationships can be nurtured and supported over time. The project is a collaborative participatory action research study incorporating photovoice (see Chapter 17 for more information on photovoice). Eight young people, formerly in care and from diverse backgrounds, were recruited to the study. The lead researcher highlighted their own lived experience of the child welfare system and a consciousness of the power dynamics at play. The lead researcher created processes within the project to ensure the youth co-researchers were empowered to share their experiences and that the research team members were working with the youth co-researchers and not for them. These processes included three months of weekly facilitated group discussions, shared meals before project commencement and group outings and community engagement during the project to encourage connection, bonding and trust. The youth co-researchers were provided with photography training and digital cameras. Data collection included the youth co-researchers submitting 6–7 photographs with responses to the following questions for photo contextualisation:
The photographs were showcased at an exhibition that was open to the community; those in attendance included policymakers, advocates and community representatives. The change documented through this project was one of social transformation for the community and self-transformation and healing for the individuals.
Action research can be practitioner-led, whereby the study investigates problems identified by the practitioner with the goal of understanding and improving practice over time. Improvement can be both social improvement and healthcare improvement. Healthcare improvement, in particular quality (of healthcare) improvement, has been the focus of clinical practice, research, education and advocacy for more than 30 years. The two main frameworks guiding healthcare and quality improvement efforts are the Plan, Do, Study, Act (PDSA) cycle and Learning Health Systems. 3 Both of these frameworks lend themselves to action research. For example, the PDSA cycle is guided by three overarching questions:
Learning Health Systems is another approach to quality improvement that has gained popularity over the past decade. Data collected by health services (e.g. patient data, health records, laboratory results) are used for knowledge creation in continuous and rapid cycles of study, feedback and practice change. 5 A Learning Health Systems framework incorporates systems science, data science, research methods for real-world contexts, implementation science, participatory research and quality improvement approaches.
Van Heerden and colleagues adopted an action research study to transform the practice and environment of neonatal care in the maternity section of a district hospital in South Africa. The study Strategies to sustain a quality improvement initiative in neonatal resuscitation 6 was conducted in three cycles. Cycle 1 was a situation analysis that explored and described the existing practices and factors influencing neonatal resuscitation and mortality in the hospital through administering questionnaires with nurses (n=69); a focus group with nine doctors; and an analysis of hospital records. A nominal group discussion (structured group discussion including prioritisation) was conducted with 10 managers and staff, followed by a reflective meeting with the project’s steering committee. Cycle 2 developed and implemented strategies to sustain a quality improvement initiative. The strategies addressed training, equipment and stock, staff attitudes, staff shortages, transport transfer for critically ill neonates, and protocols. Cycle 3 was an evaluation of change and sustainability after the implementation of strategies (Cycle 2) and involved the analysis of hospital record data, repeat questionnaire with nurses (n=40), focus group discussion with 10 doctors, steering committee and management members, followed by reflective meetings with the steering committee. Qualitative data was analysed through open coding, and quantitative data was analysed descriptively. The neonatal mortality rate declined (yet still needed to improve) and the implementation strategies facilitated change that led to improvement and practice transformation.
There is debate as to whether action research is a methodology or an approach, since several different research methods and methodologies can be used. For example, multiple forms of data collection can be utilized, including quantitative data from surveys or medical records, to inform the identification and understanding of the problem and evaluation of the solution. Action research can also draw on descriptive qualitative research, quantitative cross-sectional studies, case studies (see Chapter 8 ), ethnography ( Chapter 9 ) and grounded theory ( Chapter 10 ). Action research can therefore take a purely qualitative approach, or can take a mixed-methods approach. See Table 7.1. for examples of action research studies.
Action research addresses practical problems, drawing on principles of empowerment, capacity-building and participation. The research problem to be addressed is typically identified by the community, and the solutions are for the community. The research participants are collaborators in the research process. The examples presented in this chapter demonstrate how the research collaborators and co-researchers received training and support to lead elements of the project. Another advantage of action research is that it is a continuous cycle of development. Hence, the approach is iterative and the full solution can take multiple cycles and iterations to develop and sustain. 7,8
Since action research is fundamentally about relationships and integrating research into the real world, studies can take years to result in a solution. It is important to be able to adapt and be flexible in response to community and stakeholder needs and contexts. The research can therefore be constrained by what is practical and also ethical within the setting. This may limit the scope and scale of the research and compromise its rigour. Action research can also create unanticipated work for community members and participants because they are not usually involved in research in this way, and thus training may be required, as well as remuneration for time and experience. 7,8
Middleton, 2021 | Taylor, 2015 | |
'To provide a critical analysis of the continuous process required to engender a collaborative effort towards developing socially just community sports programs.' | 'To identify the factors affecting telehealth adoption, and to test solutions to address prioritised areas for improvement and expansion.' | |
This project was initiated by staff at the YMCA. Hence, it was community initiated and led. The YMCA team wanted to improve the sports program for forced migrant young people resettled in their community. The young people were provided with a one-year free membership; however many families did not renew this after the free period. The research team believed that an action research approach in which they worked alongside forced migrant young people would extend to the young people’s family members also benefiting from sports involvement. The YMCA team had a staff member with lived experience of being an asylum seeker and the manager knew about YMCA programs that could benefit from an action research approach. | To improve the adoption of telehealth aligned with the principles of plan do study act (PDSA) quality improvement process.Phase 1: Qualitative in-depth case studyPhase 2: Action research – researchers worked in partnership with participants at each site to plan, test and evaluate solutions to telehealth adoption. | |
YMCA in Northeastern Ontario, Canada | Four community nursing settings using telehealth to monitor the symptoms of patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and Chronic Health Failure, United Kingdom | |
Relationships between the research team, YMCA team and young people were developed through meetings, shared meals, community encounters, Facebook group and visits to the homes of the young people.33 forced migrant young people from 15 families became collaborators in the study. The average age was 13 years.Get-to-know-you interviews were conducted, incorporating art and interviewing techniques – ‘draw any images and/or symbols that meaningfully depicted personal stories related to playing sport in Canada’, which was followed by interpreting events. The team then co-developed creative non-fiction polyphonic vignettes – these were shared with the young people and families and the YMCA and research teams for feedback. | Recruitment via site collaborators and local telehealth champions. All case study participants were invited to take part in the action research component if interested. 57 staff (community matrons, nurse specialists, frontline clinical and support staff, clinical leads and service managers, and other managers) and 1 patient. Total participants: 58.Phase 2: Action research component.Workshop 1 – develop an implementation plan (plan component of the PDSA cycle). Phase 1 case study findings presented. 3–6 actions were identified.An Action Inquiry Group (AIG) was established for each action with members responsible for implementation (DO) and review of progress and learning (STUDY).Workshop 2 – review and reflect on work and extend, refine or discontinue the plan. (ACT) | |
Reflexive thematic analysis | Thematic analysis using framework analysis | |
Themes are not presented in this article as it focuses on the process of the action research project. | Seven main action areas were identified (see subheadings in the article) |
Action research is a research design in which researchers and community members work together to identify problems, design and implement solutions and evaluate the impact of these solutions. Change or action is a core component of this research design.
Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Darshini Ayton is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
A newer edition of this book is available.
Margaret R. Boyd Bridgewater State University Bridgewater, MA, USA
Community-based research challenges the traditional research paradigm by recognizing that complex social problems today must involve multiple stakeholders in the research process—not as subjects but as co-investigators and co-authors. It is an “orientation to inquiry” rather than a methodology and reflects a transdisciplinary paradigm by including academics from many different disciplines, community members, activists, and often students in all stages of the research process. Community-based research is relational research where all partners change and grow in a synergistic relationship as they work together and strategize to solve issues and problems that are defined by and meaningful to them. This chapter is an introduction to the historical roots and subdivisions within community-based research and discusses the core principles and skills useful when designing and working with community members in a collaborative, innovative, and transformative research partnership. The rationale for working within this research paradigm is discussed as well as the challenges researchers and practitioners face when conducting community-based research. As the scholarship and practice of this form of research has increased dramatically over the last twenty years, this chapter looks at both new and emerging issues as well as founding questions that continue to be debated in the contemporary discourse.
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Methodology
Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.
Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.
Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.
Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.
Approach | What does it involve? |
---|---|
Grounded theory | Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories . |
Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures. | |
Action research | Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change. |
Phenomenological research | Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences. |
Narrative research | Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences. |
Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.
Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:
Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.
For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.
Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.
Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.
Approach | When to use | Example |
---|---|---|
To describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data. | A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps. | |
To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data. | A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity. | |
To examine the content, structure, and design of texts. | A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade. | |
To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts. | A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns. |
Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.
Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.
Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:
The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.
Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .
Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
There are five common approaches to qualitative research :
Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.
There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:
The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .
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Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.
It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).
Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).
1. ethnography.
Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.
Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).
It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.
The key advantage of ethnography is its depth; it provides an in-depth understanding of the group’s behaviour, lifestyle, culture, and context. It also allows for flexibility, as researchers can adapt their approach based on their observations (Bryman, 2015) | There are issues regarding the subjective interpretation of data, and it’s time-consuming. It also requires the researchers to immerse themselves in the study environment, which might not always be feasible. |
Example of Ethnographic Research
Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “
Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.
Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.
Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here
Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.
Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).
The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.
One of the chief benefits of autoethnography is its ability to bridge the gap between researchers and audiences by using relatable experiences. It can also provide unique and profound insights unaccessible through traditional ethnographic approaches (Heinonen, 2012). | The subjective nature of this method can introduce bias. Critics also argue that the singular focus on personal experience may limit the contributions to broader cultural or social understanding. |
Example of Autoethnographic Research
Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “
Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).
Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”
Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here
Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.
In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.
The main advantage of semi-structured interviews is their flexibility, allowing for exploration of unexpected topics that arise during the interview. It also facilitates the collection of robust, detailed data from participants’ perspectives (Smith, 2015). | Potential downsides include the possibility of data overload, periodic difficulties in analysis due to varied responses, and the fact they are time-consuming to conduct and analyze. |
Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research
Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “
Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.
Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.
Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.
During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.
One of the key advantages of focus groups is their ability to deliver a rich understanding of participants’ experiences and beliefs. They can be particularly beneficial in providing a diverse range of perspectives and opening up new areas for exploration (Doody, Slevin, & Taggart, 2013). | Potential disadvantages include possible domination by a single participant, groupthink, or issues with confidentiality. Additionally, the results are not easily generalizable to a larger population due to the small sample size. |
Example of Focus Group Research
Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “
Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .
Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.
Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.
The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).
In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.
An advantage of phenomenology is its potential to reveal rich, complex, and detailed understandings of human experiences in a way other research methods cannot. It encourages explorations of deep, often abstract or intangible aspects of human experiences (Bevan, 2014). | Phenomenology might be criticized for its subjectivity, the intense effort required during data collection and analysis, and difficulties in replicating the study. |
Example of Phenomenology Research
Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”
Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.
Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.
Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).
In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).
An advantage of grounded theory is its ability to generate a theory that is closely related to the reality of the persons involved. It permits flexibility and can facilitate a deep understanding of complex processes in their natural contexts (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). | Critics note that it can be a lengthy and complicated process; others critique the emphasis on theory development over descriptive detail. |
Example of Grounded Theory Research
Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “
Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.
Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.
Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).
In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.
These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).
The strength of narrative research is its ability to provide a deep, holistic, and rich understanding of an individual’s experiences over time. It is well-suited to capturing the complexities and intricacies of human lives and their contexts (Leiblich, Tuval-Mashiach, & Zilber, 2008). | Narrative research may be criticized for its highly interpretive nature, the potential challenges of ensuring reliability and validity, and the complexity of narrative analysis. |
Example of Narrative Research
Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”
Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.
Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.
Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).
The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.
Case study research is ideal for a holistic, in-depth investigation, making complex phenomena understandable and allowing for the exploration of contexts and activities where it is not feasible to use other research methods (Crowe et al., 2011). | Critics of case study research often cite concerns about the representativeness of a single case, the limited ability to generalize findings, and potential bias in data collection and interpretation. |
Example of Case Study Research
Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “
Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.
Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.
Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here
Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.
The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).
The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).
A key strength of participant observation is its capacity to offer intimate, nuanced insights into social realities and practices directly from the field. It allows for broader context understanding, emotional insights, and a constant iterative process (Mulhall, 2003). | The method may present challenges including potential observer bias, the difficulty in ensuring ethical standards, and the risk of ‘going native’, where the boundary between being a participant and researcher blurs. |
Example of Participant Observation Research
Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics
Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.
Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.
Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.
This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).
During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.
This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.
Non-participant observation can increase distance from the participants and decrease researcher bias, as the observer does not become involved in the community or situation under study (Jorgensen, 2015). This method allows for a more detached and impartial view of practices, behaviors, and interactions. | Criticisms of this method include potential observer effects, where individuals may change their behavior if they know they are being observed, and limited contextual understanding, as observers do not participate in the setting’s activities. |
Example of Non-Participant Observation Research
Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study
Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .
Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.
Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).
Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.
When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).
The application of Content Analysis offers several strengths, chief among them being the ability to gain an in-depth, contextualized, understanding of a range of texts – both written and multimodal (Gray, Grove, & Sutherland, 2017) – see also: . | Content analysis is dependent on the descriptors that the researcher selects to examine the data, potentially leading to bias. Moreover, this method may also lose sight of the wider social context, which can limit the depth of the analysis (Krippendorff, 2013). |
Example of Content Analysis
Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .
Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.
Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.
Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here
Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.
Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).
Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.
Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).
Discourse Analysis presents as its strength the ability to explore the intricate relationship between language and society. It goes beyond mere interpretation of content and scrutinizes the power dynamics underlying discourse. Furthermore, it can also be beneficial in discovering hidden meanings and uncovering marginalized voices (Wodak & Meyer, 2015). | Despite its strengths, Discourse Analysis possesses specific weaknesses. This approach may be open to allegations of subjectivity due to its interpretive nature. Furthermore, it can be quite time-consuming and requires the researcher to be familiar with a wide variety of theoretical and analytical frameworks (Parker, 2014). |
Example of Discourse Analysis
Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis
Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.
Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.
Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here
Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.
This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).
Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.
The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps:
Action Research has the immense strength of enabling practitioners to address complex situations in their professional context. By fostering reflective practice, it ignites individual and organizational learning. Furthermore, it provides a robust way to bridge the theory-practice divide and can lead to the development of best practices (Zuber-Skerritt, 2019). | Action Research requires a substantial commitment of time and effort. Also, the participatory nature of this research can potentially introduce bias, and its iterative nature can blur the line between where the research process ends and where the implementation begins (Koshy, Koshy, & Waterman, 2010). |
Example of Action Research
Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing
Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.
Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.
Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here
Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).
In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.
This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).
The prime strength of the Semiotic Analysis lies in its ability to reveal the underlying ideologies within cultural symbols and messages. It helps to break down complex phenomena into manageable signs, yielding powerful insights about societal values, identities, and structures (Mick, 1986). | On the downside, because Semiotic Analysis is primarily interpretive, its findings may heavily rely on the particular theoretical lens and personal bias of the researcher. The ontology of signs and meanings can also be inherently subject to change, in the analysis (Lannon & Cooper, 2012). |
Example of Semiotic Research
Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia
Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.
Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.
Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.
Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).
Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.
For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).
One key strength of Qualitative Longitudinal Studies is its ability to capture change and continuity over time. It allows for an in-depth understanding of individuals or context evolution. Moreover, it provides unique insights into the temporal ordering of events and experiences (Farrall, 2006). | Qualitative Longitudinal Studies come with their own share of weaknesses. Mainly, they require a considerable investment of time and resources. Moreover, they face the challenges of attrition (participants dropping out of the study) and repeated measures that may influence participants’ behaviors (Saldaña, 2014). |
Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research
Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study
Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study. Palliative medicine , 30 (8), 711-719.
Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.
Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here
Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).
Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.
For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).
Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.
The key advantage of Open-Ended Surveys is their ability to generate in-depth, nuanced data that allow for a rich, . They provide a more personalized response from participants, and they may uncover areas of investigation that the researchers did not previously consider (Sue & Ritter, 2012). | Open-Ended Surveys require significant time and effort to analyze due to the variability of responses. Furthermore, the results obtained from Open-Ended Surveys can be more susceptible to subjective interpretation and may lack statistical generalizability (Fielding & Fielding, 2008). |
Example of Open-Ended Survey Research
Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey
Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey. The Qualitative Report , 19 (11), 1-11.
Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.
Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.
Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).
It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).
The predominant strength of Naturalistic Observation lies in : it allows the behavior of interest to be studied in the conditions under which it normally occurs. This method can also lead to the discovery of new behavioral patterns or phenomena not previously revealed in experimental research (Barker, Pistrang, & Elliott, 2016). | The observer may have difficulty avoiding subjective interpretations and biases of observed behaviors. Additionally, it may be very time-consuming, and the presence of the observer, even if unobtrusive, may influence the behavior of those being observed (Rosenbaum, 2017). |
Example of Naturalistic Observation Research
Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study
Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.
Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.
Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here
Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).
Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.
For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).
Photo-Elicitation boasts of its ability to facilitate dialogue that may not arise through conventional interview methods. As a visual catalyst, it can support interviewees in articulating their experiences and emotions, potentially resulting in the generation of rich and insightful data (Heisley & Levy, 1991). | There are some limitations with Photo-Elicitation. Interpretation of the images can be highly subjective and might be influenced by cultural and personal variables. Additionally, ethical concerns may arise around privacy and consent, particularly when photographing individuals (Van Auken, Frisvoll, & Stewart, 2010). |
Example of Photo-Elicitation Research
Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study
Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .
Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.
Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).
Some key features of this method include:
Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).
It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.
Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.
There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.
However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.
Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.
Research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013) | Research method dealing with numbers and statistical analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) | |
Interviews, text/image analysis (Fugard & Potts, 2015) | Surveys, lab experiments (Van Voorhis & Morgan, 2007) | |
Yields rich and detailed data; adaptive to new directions and insights (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) | Enables precise measurement and analysis; findings can be generalizable; allows for replication (Ali & Bhaskar, 2016) | |
Findings may not be generalizable; labor-intensive and time-consuming; reliability and validity can be challenging to establish (Marshall & Rossman, 2014) | May miss contextual detail; depends heavily on design and instrumentation; does not provide detailed description of behaviors, attitudes, and experiences (Mackey & Gass, 2015) |
Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here
In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.
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Do you have difficulty finding a qualitative research title for your project? If you are, you need not worry because you are not alone. However, there are many unique qualitative titles you can explore for your research. You just need a few qualitative research title examples to get you started. Qualitative research is focused on data obtained through a researcher’s first-hand observations, natural setting recording, artifacts, case studies, documents, questionnaires, and interviews. The findings in qualitative research are usually non-numerical. Also, it is common in humanities and social sciences. This post provides over 100 qualitative research topics you can consider.
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An excellent research topic will help you earn a good grade. Consider any example of a qualitative research title from the following options:
The topic of your research paper can influence how easily you can conduct your study and draw conclusions.
Here are fantastic examples of qualitative research titles:
Choosing a qualitative research topic is not a task you should take lightly because it can influence your performance. Here are some noteworthy qualitative research titles examples:
Are you looking for qualitative research topic examples to start your study? Below are some creative examples to consider:
When competing with several brilliant minds, a good research topic can do you greatly. The following qualitative research examples titles are a great place to start:
Qualitative research is popular in the education field and other social sciences. Choose a qualitative research title example on the subject of education from the following list:
Coming up with a qualitative research title can be hard because of the numerous subject areas and the issue of uniqueness. Therefore, we have prepared the following qualitative title examples for you:
You can base your research topic on a specific region or nation, like the Philippines. A sample qualitative research title can get you started. You can pick a sample qualitative research title from the ideas below:
Most top performers in research subjects attribute their success to choosing the best title for qualitative research. Here are some qualitative research topics about humanities and social science to promote good performance:
Finding a good topic for qualitative research is a critical task that requires a lot of thought and research. However, we have simplified the process with the following qualitative topic ideas:
Qualitative research for college and high school students helps improve reading, writing, and intellectual skills. Here are some qualitative research examples and topic ideas for students :
Qualitative research is an investigative analysis of intangible or inexact data, mostly non-numerical. The title of qualitative research you choose will guide your entire research process and influence its conclusions. Do you need a paper or an example of a research title qualitative topic? Our expert team is ready to write it for you.
Qualitative psychology ®.
Library research guide, developing a topic, narrow your topic, too broad or narrow.
It can be difficult to choose the right topic for your research in community development . Here are some questions to ask yourself:
Produced by K-State Libraries Video Transcript
If you have learned what to do when your topic is too broad, consider another scenario:
Though having a topic that is too broad is a common problem, you also need to make sure your topic is not too narrow. If your topic is so limited by geographical area, details, or is very current, you may not be able to find any information about it when researching.
Below is a table that shows examples of topics that are too broad, too narrow and just right.
Too Broad | Just Right | Too Narrow |
---|---|---|
Discipline of children from different cultures | How does race effect the severity of discipline in early childhood education? | Corporal punishment in Johnson County, Kansas elementary schools |
Housing segregation in the United States | The effect of racism on home lending and its relationship to housing segregation | How race affects buying homes in Manhattan, Kansas |
Negative effect of environmental toxins |
The exposure of different racial communities to environmental toxins | The exposure of Nicodemus, Kansas to outdated farming pesticides |
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Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to comprehend concepts, perspectives, and experiences. It’s also helpful for obtaining in-depth insights into a certain subject or generating new research ideas.
As a result, qualitative research is practical if you want to try anything new or produce new ideas.
There are various ways you can conduct qualitative research. In this article, you'll learn more about qualitative research methodologies, including when you should use them.
Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights
Qualitative research is a broad term describing various research types that rely on asking open-ended questions. Qualitative research investigates “how” or “why” certain phenomena occur. It is about discovering the inherent nature of something.
The primary objective of qualitative research is to understand an individual's ideas, points of view, and feelings. In this way, collecting in-depth knowledge of a specific topic is possible. Knowing your audience's feelings about a particular subject is important for making reasonable research conclusions.
Unlike quantitative research , this approach does not involve collecting numerical, objective data for statistical analysis. Qualitative research is used extensively in education, sociology, health science, history, and anthropology.
Typically, qualitative research aims at uncovering the attitudes and behavior of the target audience concerning a specific topic. For example, “How would you describe your experience as a new Dovetail user?”
Some of the methods for conducting qualitative analysis include:
Hosting a focus group is a popular qualitative research method. It involves obtaining qualitative data from a limited sample of participants. In a moderated version of a focus group, the moderator asks participants a series of predefined questions. They aim to interact and build a group discussion that reveals their preferences, candid thoughts, and experiences.
Unmoderated, online focus groups are increasingly popular because they eliminate the need to interact with people face to face.
Focus groups can be more cost-effective than 1:1 interviews or studying a group in a natural setting and reporting one’s observations.
Focus groups make it possible to gather multiple points of view quickly and efficiently, making them an excellent choice for testing new concepts or conducting market research on a new product.
However, there are some potential drawbacks to this method. It may be unsuitable for sensitive or controversial topics. Participants might be reluctant to disclose their true feelings or respond falsely to conform to what they believe is the socially acceptable answer (known as response bias).
A case study is an in-depth evaluation of a specific person, incident, organization, or society. This type of qualitative research has evolved into a broadly applied research method in education, law, business, and the social sciences.
Even though case study research may appear challenging to implement, it is one of the most direct research methods. It requires detailed analysis, broad-ranging data collection methodologies, and a degree of existing knowledge about the subject area under investigation.
The historical approach is a distinct research method that deeply examines previous events to better understand the present and forecast future occurrences of the same phenomena. Its primary goal is to evaluate the impacts of history on the present and hence discover comparable patterns in the present to predict future outcomes.
This qualitative data collection method involves gathering verbal testimonials from individuals about their personal experiences. It is widely used in historical disciplines to offer counterpoints to established historical facts and narratives. The most common methods of gathering oral history are audio recordings, analysis of auto-biographical text, videos, and interviews.
One of the most fundamental, oldest research methods, qualitative observation , is the process through which a researcher collects data using their senses of sight, smell, hearing, etc. It is used to observe the properties of the subject being studied. For example, “What does it look like?” As research methods go, it is subjective and depends on researchers’ first-hand experiences to obtain information, so it is prone to bias. However, it is an excellent way to start a broad line of inquiry like, “What is going on here?”
Record keeping uses existing documents and relevant data sources that can be employed for future studies. It is equivalent to visiting the library and going through publications or any other reference material to gather important facts that will likely be used in the research.
The grounded theory approach is a commonly used research method employed across a variety of different studies. It offers a unique way to gather, interpret, and analyze. With this approach, data is gathered and analyzed simultaneously. Existing analysis frames and codes are disregarded, and data is analyzed inductively, with new codes and frames generated from the research.
Ethnography is a descriptive form of a qualitative study of people and their cultures. Its primary goal is to study people's behavior in their natural environment. This method necessitates that the researcher adapts to their target audience's setting.
Thereby, you will be able to understand their motivation, lifestyle, ambitions, traditions, and culture in situ. But, the researcher must be prepared to deal with geographical constraints while collecting data i.e., audiences can’t be studied in a laboratory or research facility.
This study can last from a couple of days to several years. Thus, it is time-consuming and complicated, requiring you to have both the time to gather the relevant data as well as the expertise in analyzing, observing, and interpreting data to draw meaningful conclusions.
A narrative framework is a qualitative research approach that relies on people's written text or visual images. It entails people analyzing these events or narratives to determine certain topics or issues. With this approach, you can understand how people represent themselves and their experiences to a larger audience.
The phenomenological study seeks to investigate the experiences of a particular phenomenon within a group of individuals or communities. It analyzes a certain event through interviews with persons who have witnessed it to determine the connections between their views. Even though this method relies heavily on interviews, other data sources (recorded notes), and observations could be employed to enhance the findings.
Some of the instruments involved in qualitative research include:
Document research: Also known as document analysis because it involves evaluating written documents. These can include personal and non-personal materials like archives, policy publications, yearly reports, diaries, or letters.
Focus groups: This is where a researcher poses questions and generates conversation among a group of people. The major goal of focus groups is to examine participants' experiences and knowledge, including research into how and why individuals act in various ways.
Secondary study: Involves acquiring existing information from texts, images, audio, or video recordings.
Observations: This requires thorough field notes on everything you see, hear, or experience. Compared to reported conduct or opinion, this study method can assist you in getting insights into a specific situation and observable behaviors.
Structured interviews : In this approach, you will directly engage people one-on-one. Interviews are ideal for learning about a person's subjective beliefs, motivations, and encounters.
Surveys: This is when you distribute questionnaires containing open-ended questions
Make sense of your research by automatically summarizing key takeaways through our free content analysis tool.
Everyday examples of qualitative research include:
For instance, suppose you own a business such as a grocery store (or any store) and believe it caters to a broad customer base, but after conducting a demographic analysis, you discover that most of your customers are men.
You could do 1:1 interviews with female customers to learn why they don't shop at your store.
In this case, interviewing potential female customers should clarify why they don't find your shop appealing. It could be because of the products you sell or a need for greater brand awareness, among other possible reasons.
Suppose you are the product manager at a SaaS company looking to introduce a new product. Focus groups can be an excellent way to determine whether your product is marketable.
In this instance, you could hold a focus group with a sample group drawn from your intended audience. The group will explore the product based on its new features while you ensure adequate data on how users react to the new features. The data you collect will be key to making sales and marketing decisions.
You can also use qualitative research to understand existing buyer behavior better. Marketers analyze historical information linked to their businesses and industries to see when purchasers buy more.
Qualitative research can help you determine when to target new clients and peak seasons to boost sales by investigating the reason behind these behaviors.
Data collection is gathering information on predetermined variables to gain appropriate answers, test hypotheses, and analyze results. Researchers will collect non-numerical data for qualitative data collection to obtain detailed explanations and draw conclusions.
To get valid findings and achieve a conclusion in qualitative research, researchers must collect comprehensive and multifaceted data.
Qualitative data is usually gathered through interviews or focus groups with videotapes or handwritten notes. If there are recordings, they are transcribed before the data analysis process. Researchers keep separate folders for the recordings acquired from each focus group when collecting qualitative research data to categorize the data.
Qualitative data analysis is organizing, examining, and interpreting qualitative data. Its main objective is identifying trends and patterns, responding to research questions, and recommending actions based on the findings. Textual analysis is a popular method for analyzing qualitative data.
Textual analysis differs from other qualitative research approaches in that researchers consider the social circumstances of study participants to decode their words, behaviors, and broader meaning.
Qualitative research is helpful in various situations, particularly when a researcher wants to capture accurate, in-depth insights.
Here are some instances when qualitative research can be valuable:
Examining your product or service to improve your marketing approach
When researching market segments, demographics, and customer service teams
Identifying client language when you want to design a quantitative survey
When attempting to comprehend your or someone else's strengths and weaknesses
Assessing feelings and beliefs about societal and public policy matters
Collecting information about a business or product's perception
Analyzing your target audience's reactions to marketing efforts
When launching a new product or coming up with a new idea
When seeking to evaluate buyers' purchasing patterns
Qualitative research examines people's ideas and what influences their perception, whereas quantitative research draws conclusions based on numbers and measurements.
Qualitative research is descriptive, and its primary goal is to comprehensively understand people's attitudes, behaviors, and ideas.
In contrast, quantitative research is more restrictive because it relies on numerical data and analyzes statistical data to make decisions. This research method assists researchers in gaining an initial grasp of the subject, which deals with numbers. For instance, the number of customers likely to purchase your products or use your services.
A distinguishing feature of qualitative research is that it’s conducted in a real-world setting instead of a simulated environment. The researcher is examining actual phenomena instead of experimenting with different variables to see what outcomes (data) might result.
Yes, combining qualitative and quantitative research approaches happens all the time and is known as mixed methods research. For example, you could study individuals’ perceived risk in a certain scenario, such as how people rate the safety or riskiness of a given neighborhood. Simultaneously, you could analyze historical data objectively, indicating how safe or dangerous that area has been in the last year. To get the most out of mixed-method research, it’s important to understand the pros and cons of each methodology, so you can create a thoughtfully designed study that will yield compelling results.
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We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.
Einstein was many things—a physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research.
Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. That’s what we’re going to focus on today.
Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.
The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.
Let’s get started!
When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.
By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when we’ve achieved our goals?
Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.
For example:
Other research questions, however—and the ones we will be focusing on in this article—are qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.
According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , “Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’ lives and social worlds.”
This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings and experiences by “addressing questions beyond ‘what works’, towards ‘what works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,” states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .
Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.
As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , “...‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.”
Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.
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Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, let’s take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.
According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which we’ll explore in more depth.
Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or ‘self-question’. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.
For example, if you’re interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask:
At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. “Sometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.”
As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions:
into the following question:
As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.
If we continue with the current example, it’s possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customers’ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information:
A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are “a central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.” Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates to—their lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.
In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps you’ve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.
The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically about” Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.
Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting:
Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.
In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:
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It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.
Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.
Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand.
This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.
This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.
Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.
By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.
Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company.
This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.
Now that you’re aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:
As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.
Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.
Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.
Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:
If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.
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Asking the right questions in the right way is the key to research success. That’s true for not just the discussion guide but for every step of a research project. Following are 100+ questions that will take you from defining your research objective through screening and participant discussions.
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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide
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Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.
Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.
Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:
This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.
This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.
This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.
This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.
This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.
This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.
This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.
This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.
Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations
Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:
This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.
This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.
This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.
This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.
This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.
This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.
This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.
Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:
Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:
Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:
The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.
Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:
Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:
Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:
Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:
Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:
Also see Research Methods
Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer
Qualitative research topics are undoubtedly not easy. While statistics enthralls some students, others don’t like the subject. That’s because qualitative assignments entail cognitive analysis, which complicates them. But apart from the hardships of completing the projects, selecting topics for qualitative research papers is also a challenge.
This article presents a list of 130-plus qualitative research topic ideas to help learners that struggle to get titles for their papers. It is helpful because many learners have difficulties picking titles that will make their essays impressive to educators. But before presenting the topics, this article defines qualitative research.
Qualitative research is an investigative and innovative abstract data analysis. When writing a qualitative research paper, a learner analyzes intangible data. Qualitative researchers code the data after or during collection. Therefore, having top-notch research topics is necessary for a first-class essay.
Knowing how to write a qualitative research paper is vital because it helps the student deliver a copy that provides a clear picture of an event or situation. A researcher can achieve this via practical experience, reliable reporting, and conversations. Gathering raw data is the initial step in qualitative research. A researcher can gather raw data by conducting reviews, observations, and surveys. Also, researchers can use creative methods to collect data.
Qualitative research covers many things. Here are examples of topics that learners can explore in their qualitative study.
These are good examples of qualitative research topics. However, a student that picks a title in this category should research it extensively to impress the educator with their work.
Professors ask students to write about qualitative topics when pursuing nursing studies. Here are issues to consider in this category.
These are good qualitative research topics for students pursuing nursing studies. Nevertheless, learners must research any of these titles before writing their papers.
Most topics spring up from the education niche despite fitting other specifications. Here are examples of qualitative research topics that include the education niche.
Many topics and issues in the education system allow learners to find subjects to investigate and cover in their papers quickly. And this is not an exhaustive qualitative research topic list in this field. Nevertheless, it covers the most exciting ideas to explore.
Educators ask students to write academic papers while studying the public health sector. And this provides insights into crucial and relevant aspects of this sector. Here are qualitative research topics examples in this category.
These are excellent qualitative research paper topics in the public health sector. Nevertheless, learners need sufficient time and resources to investigate their preferred titles in this category to write winning papers.
Project management writing focuses on ways to achieve results and goals while basing the achievement on the process. This subject covers planning, structuring, proffering, and controlling ways to execute plans to accomplish desired goals. Here are research topics for qualitative research in project management.
These are topics to explore in project management. Nevertheless, learners need adequate time to investigate their chosen titles and write winning essays.
Qualitative research can also cover political science. Investigating this field enables people to understand it better and can be broad. Here are sample titles to consider in for your scientific thesis .
While political science is a broad field, these narrow topics help learners handle their research effectively. Pick any of these ideas to write a winning essay.
Ethnographic research entails studying and paying attention to society and describing it. Here are topics to consider for a research paper in this field.
This article has presented easy qualitative research topics. However, some need time and resources to investigate and write quality papers. Therefore, pick your paper title carefully to write an essay that will earn you an excellent grade.
Maybe you have a title for your paper but not time for writing a unique, top-notch thesis. In that case, get the best dissertation services from our writers. We’re educated, native ENL writers with a proven track record of exceeding customers’ expectations. Our team helps university, college, and high school learners complete their writing and editing assignments. Whether writing a research paper is a requirement for a degree or a diploma course, we can help you. Contact us to get quality, custom, and cheap help from qualified experts in your study field.
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Top 70 qualitative research topics to ace 2022.
November 16, 2020
There is no denying it; qualitative research topics are not as easy as ABC. To some, statistics is an enthralling subject while others may opt to clean the sea rather than sit in a statistics class. Millions of students around the globe face this crossroad. The task is further complicated by the fact that qualitative assignments deal with a cognitive analysis of data.
If this is you, calm down. Our expert writers have already analyzed your problem and collated a list of 70 qualitative research paper topics for your inspiration. Keep your eyes peeled.
However, before we venture into our topic list, here is something you need to have at your fingertips;
It is the creative and investigative analysis of intangible and inexact data. The method is inductive in that the researcher codes the data during or after the collection. It is, therefore, necessary to have top-notch qualitative research topics for a first-class paper.
You can never miss a qualitative research assignment. Therefore, use any of the examples of qualitative research topics above for your motivation. The issues should propel you to composing a top-rated qualitative research paper.
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A research title is a succinct, informative phrase that encapsulates a study’s essence. It gives readers a clear indication of the research’s focus, scope, and significance. An effective research title is concise, specific, and engaging, incorporating key terms related to the primary subject matter. Crafting a well-thought-out research title is crucial as it influences first impressions and impacts the study’s visibility and accessibility. Additionally, a strong research title enhances the title page and ensures the research paper cover letter accurately reflects the study’s content.
A research title is a concise statement that clearly and precisely encapsulates the main topic, scope, and objective of a research study. It serves as the first point of contact for readers and should effectively communicate the essence of the research in a way that is both engaging and informative. A well-crafted research title is specific, descriptive, and reflective of the study’s core focus, helping to attract interest and provide a clear understanding of the research subject at a glance.
A well-crafted research title follows a specific format to ensure clarity and precision. Here’s a structured approach:
[Main Topic]: [Specific Aspect or Focus]
Example: “The Impact of Social Media on Teen Mental Health: A Comprehensive Analysis of Behavioral Changes”
Here are some examples of well-crafted research titles across various fields:
A research title is a critical component of any research study or academic paper. It serves multiple important functions that contribute to the overall success and impact of the research. Here are key reasons why a research title is important:
The research title is often the first element a reader encounters. A well-crafted title can create a strong first impression, attracting the reader’s attention and encouraging them to explore the study further.
A good research title clearly and succinctly communicates the main topic and scope of the study. It helps the reader quickly understand what the research is about and what specific aspect is being addressed.
The title provides guidance to the reader about the content and direction of the research. It sets expectations and helps readers decide if the paper is relevant to their interests or research needs.
In the digital age, research titles are crucial for searchability. A precise and descriptive title improves the chances of the paper being found in online searches, databases, and academic journals, increasing its visibility and accessibility.
A well-formulated research title contributes to the academic and professional recognition of the work. It reflects the researcher’s ability to clearly define and articulate their study, which can enhance credibility and reputation within the academic community.
A good research title is essential for effectively communicating the main focus and scope of your study. Here are the key characteristics that make a research title effective:
A well-crafted research title is crucial as it provides the first impression of your study. It should be concise, informative, and engaging to capture the reader’s attention while conveying the essence of your research. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write an effective research title.
The title should:
To create a comprehensive title, identify the following components of your research:
Avoid vague and ambiguous terms. Be precise in describing your research. For example, instead of “Study of Education Methods,” use “Effectiveness of Interactive Learning Techniques in High School Biology.”
A good title is typically between 10 to 15 words. It should be long enough to include essential information but short enough to be easily readable.
Use words that describe the content and aim of your research effectively. Descriptive words help in making the title informative and engaging. Examples include “effects,” “analysis,” “evaluation,” “comparison,” etc.
Ensure that your title is accessible to a broad audience by avoiding technical jargon and abbreviations that might not be widely understood.
Think about who will be reading your research. Tailor your title to meet the expectations and interests of your target audience, whether they are academic peers, professionals, or the general public.
Indicate whether the research is a review, case study, experiment, or theoretical analysis. This helps set the context for the reader. For example, “A Case Study on Renewable Energy Adoption in Urban Areas.”
Incorporate relevant keywords that reflect the main themes of your research. This not only helps in search engine optimization but also makes your research easily discoverable.
Review your title for clarity, conciseness, and accuracy. Ask for feedback from peers or mentors to ensure it effectively represents your research.
How should a research title be structured.
A research title should be clear, concise, and informative, often including the main variables, methods, and context of the study.
Key elements include relevance, clarity, specificity, and the inclusion of main keywords related to the research topic.
Yes, a research title can be a question if it effectively conveys the research’s focus and intrigues the reader.
A research title should be brief but descriptive, typically between 10 to 15 words, avoiding unnecessary jargon or overly complex terms.
Yes, including keywords helps in indexing and searching, making it easier for others to find your research.
Yes, it can be refined or adjusted as the research progresses to better reflect the study’s findings and scope.
It can, especially if the methodology is central to the study’s uniqueness or understanding, but it’s not always necessary.
A research title should be specific enough to give a clear idea of the study’s focus but not so detailed that it becomes cumbersome.
A catchy research title is engaging, piques curiosity, and uses intriguing language while still being clear and informative.
Humor can be used if appropriate for the subject matter and audience, but it should not compromise clarity or professionalism.
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Qualitative Research Titles. Qualitative research titles often reflect the study's focus on understanding the depth and complexity of human behavior, experiences, or social phenomena. Here are some examples across various fields: ... "The Role of Community Health Workers in Improving Access to Maternal Healthcare in Rural Areas" ...
Online Resources. The Action Catalogue is an online decision support tool that is intended to enable researchers, policy-makers and others wanting to conduct inclusive research, to find the method best suited for their specific project needs.. Chapter 6: Research Methods in the "Introduction to Community Psychology" describes the ecological lens in community research, the role of ethics, the ...
Anthropology. Political science. Psychology. Business management. History. Social science. The main goal of qualitative research is to help you understand the topic of your assignment by identifying the most important aspects of your topic and gathering enough information to provide an in-depth analysis of the topic at hand and provide the ...
We chose a qualitative research approach to gain a broad spectrum of perspectives about CEnR within the context of an aLHS. ... For example, when investigators and research teams from an aLHS attend community fairs, church gatherings, community forums, or parties and celebrations, these informal settings help build and nurture trust among ...
Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves immersing yourself in a particular community or organization to observe their behavior and interactions up close. The word "ethnography" also refers to the written report of the research that the ethnographer produces afterwards. Ethnography is a flexible research method that ...
In community-based qualitative studies, researchers are often interested in the roles and positions that participants play in a setting and in the tasks, activities, and responsibilities associated with these roles. Interviewers might ask participants to describe a typical day or their morning routine.
Qualitative methods are dynamic, as are CBPR methods. To evolve our methods, we write. To keep our methods safe, relevant, and respectful, we write. To encourage representation within our methods, we write. These tasks riddle our written works. In the pro-cess, we learn basic lessons about ourselves, regardless of.
The research problem to be addressed is typically identified by the community, and the solutions are for the community. The research participants are collaborators in the research process. The examples presented in this chapter demonstrate how the research collaborators and co-researchers received training and support to lead elements of the ...
The epistemology of community-based research can be traced back to many roots—Karl Marx, John Dewey, Paulo Freire, C.W. Mills, Thomas Kuhn, and Jane Addams to name but a few. Community-based research as it is practiced today has been enriched by the diversity of thoughts, methodologies, and practices that has been its foundation.
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and ...
This practical text integrates theoretical perspectives with guidelines for designing and implementing community-based qualitative research projects. Coverage of participatory research designs and approaches is complemented by chapters on specific aspects of this research process, such as developing relationships and sharing findings to ...
Qualitative Research Examples. 1. Ethnography. Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology, this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.
Here are fantastic examples of qualitative research titles: Female harm: how it is influenced by culture. The socioeconomic impacts of free education. The link between food insecurity and poor performance in schools. Alcoholism among college students: a critical study. How to mitigate child labor in our society.
Sample articles from the APA journal Qualitative Psychology. ... APA Community . Network with peers, enhance your professional development, expand your personal growth, and more ... Recommendations for Designing and Reviewing Qualitative Research in Psychology: Promoting Methodological Integrity (PDF, 166KB) February 2017
Housing segregation in the United States. The effect of racism on home lending and its relationship to housing segregation. How race affects buying homes in Manhattan, Kansas. Negative effect of environmental toxins. The exposure of different racial communities to environmental toxins. The exposure of Nicodemus, Kansas to outdated farming ...
While many books and articles guide various qualitative research methods and analyses, there is currently no concise resource that explains and differentiates among the most common qualitative approaches. We believe novice qualitative researchers, students planning the design of a qualitative study or taking an introductory qualitative research course, and faculty teaching such courses can ...
Qualitative research: methods and examples. Qualitative research is an excellent way to gain insight into real-world problems. This research type can explain various aspects of individuals in a target group, such as their traits, behaviors, and motivations. Qualitative research involves gathering and evaluating non-numerical information to ...
The purpose of the study is to explore community perception about community preparedness in facing flood disaster. The qualitative. descriptive with phenomenology approach was used in this study ...
25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions. It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions. Let's begin with five questions.
Qualitative Research. Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people's beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus ...
Here are research topics for qualitative research in project management. How effective communication strategies can impact the outcome of a project. How different leadership styles affect team productivity during a project. The role of conflict management in ensuring successful project outcomes. Gender differences in the perception and ...
Sample of the Qualitative Research Paper. In the following pages you will find a sample of the full BGS research qualitative paper. pleted research paper beginning with thetitle page and working through each c. 46. Full Title of the Paper. Your Full Name (as it appears on your transcript) Trinity Washington University.
Easy Qualitative Research Topics. The efficacy of homeschooling programs. Understanding the key roles of healthy eating habits. New ways of reaching out to the prospective market. Factoring in the dynamics of real estate investment. Latest newsgathering technologies and their effectiveness.
A research title is a critical component of any research study or academic paper. It serves multiple important functions that contribute to the overall success and impact of the research. Here are key reasons why a research title is important: 1. First Impression. The research title is often the first element a reader encounters.