18. what is the thesis of this excerpt

Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

You can turn a subject into a central idea by focusing. Begin by reviewing what you know about your subject or by looking over notes you have made about it through listing, brainstorming, clustering, freewriting, or other prewriting activities.

With these details fresh in your mind, ask yourself:

What is my purpose in writing about this topic? What main point do I want to make about the topic?

WHAT IS MY PURPOSE?

Let's say you decide to write about high school. You might tell a story about your history class, compare two schools you attended, or argue that high schools should require foreign-language study.

If you want to compare the two high schools you attended, you can include details about their academic programs, athletic teams, students, or teachers. But you probably wouldn't argue that high schools should stay open in summer because doing so would take you outside your declared purpose.

WHAT IS MY MAIN POINT?

The next step in focusing is to decide what to say about your subject. What is the most interesting or important point you want to make about the schools you are comparing? The answer will be your main point, which ties all the details of the essay together.

Again, you turn an abstract subject into a central idea by stating a main point about that subject. If your main point is that entering a new school improved your attitude about education, your central idea might read:

Changing high schools made me a more serious student.

MAKING A POINT ABOUT A SUBJECT

In the box below, main points have been added to subjects to form working topic sentences or thesis statements.

Back to Top

CHECK YOUR WORKING CENTRAL IDEA

After writing a working central idea, check it for qualities that will make it effective as the basis of a paragraph or essay. Ask yourself:

Is my central idea expressed in a complete thought? Is it specific? Does it express an idea that is worth developing in a full-length paragraph or essay? Is it limited enough to discuss in a short piece of writing?

Never confuse a central idea with a simple subject. Central ideas are expressed in complete sentences; subjects are words or phrases. Take these subjects:

The city zoo. Professional athletes. Majoring in foreign languages.

Can you write a paragraph or essay on one of these subjects? Only if you decide on the main point you want to make about it. Try these as working central ideas:

The city zoo is in great need of repairs. Professional athletes are overpaid. Studying foreign languages leads to many career choices.

A CENTRAL IDEA IS SPECIFIC

Make your central idea specific. The key to this step is to focus your main point as precisely as you can. That will give you a clear direction to follow as you develop an essay or paragraph. Take this central idea:

Jogging isn't for everybody.

It is correct, but it leaves questions unanswered. For example, what kind of people should not jog? What ill effects might jogging cause them? Now, try this:

Jogging can be harmful to people who suffer from heart, back, or joint problems.

A CENTRAL IDEA CONTAINS A MAIN POINT THAT IS WORTH DEVELOPING

Make sure your main point is an idea-not just a fact-that is worth developing in a full-length paragraph or essay. Read these two sentences:

The War Memorial is in Ottawa. The War Memorial has been severely vandalized.

The first sentence is a statement of fact; it does not call for discussion. The second lends itself to discussion. For example, you might describe what the vandals did, explain how much repairs will cost, or discuss ways to prevent future problems.

A CENTRAL IDEA IS LIMITED

Essays that beginning college or university students write usually contain approximately five to seven paragraphs of about 50 to 100 words. Therefore, you should limit your working topic sentence or thesis, making it as specific as you can. Otherwise, you won't be able to make your point clearly and completely.

LIMIT THE DISCUSSION TO A MANAGEABLE LENGTH

Let's say you want to convince someone to stop smoking. You might limit yourself to three reasons to stop smoking: the health risks, the costs, and its effects on others.

Here's your working thesis:

Break the habit: otherwise, it will ruin your health, empty your wallet, and annoy your friends.

Your working topic sentences, which will control the three body paragraphs, could be as follows:

Smoking causes cancer, emphysema, and heart disease. You can save hundreds or even thousands of dollars a year by quitting. Smoking is offensive to friends and family.

LIMITING YOUR CENTRAL IDEA FURTHER

You begin a rough draft by discussing illnesses caused by smoking. However, you soon realize that you can't cover all three reasons for quitting and still keep the essay short. So you limit yourself to the issue of health risks.

Your thesis statement becomes:

Break the habit: smoking causes heart disease, emphysema, and cancer.

Your topic sentences become:

Smoking weakens the heart and impairs circulation. Smoking is a major cause of emphysema. Smoking has been linked directly to cancer of the mouth and the esophagus.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A TOPIC SENTENCE AND A THESIS

A topic sentence is the sentence that expresses the central idea of a paragraph. A thesis statement is a sentence that expresses the central idea of an essay.

It's a good idea to decide the topic sentence of a paragraph after writing the working version of an essay's thesis. A topic sentence explains one aspect or point in the thesis and, therefore, should always be more specific and limited than a thesis.

REVISE AND REFINE THE CENTRAL IDEA AS YOU WORK

You can revise a central idea whenever you need to. The working version of a topic sentence or thesis statement provides only a starting point and a sense of direction. Don't be afraid to look back to your central ideas and rewrite them often. As a matter of fact, focusing is something you should do throughout the writing process.

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Praxis Core Reading

Course: praxis core reading   >   unit 1, main idea | quick guide.

• Supporting ideas | Quick guide
• Meanings of words | Quick guide
• Organization | Quick guide
• Inferences | Quick guide
• Evaluation of evidence | Quick guide
• Purpose of component | Quick guide
• Relationship of ideas | Quick guide
• Fact or opinion | Quick guide
• Author's attitude | Quick guide
• Recognize similar situations | Quick guide
• Draw conclusions | Quick guide

Main Idea Questions

What’s the “big idea”.

• The main idea is what the passage says
• The primary purpose is why the author wrote the passage

Active reading strategies

• Restate the thesis in your own terms
• Identify the point of view of the author, and note how it differs from other views presented in the passage (e.g., the perspectives of other individuals or groups)
• Take special note of contrast language: yet, but, although, however, etc.
• Jot quick notes to yourself on the scratch paper provided
• After every paragraph, check your comprehension by saying the main idea of that paragraph back to yourself in your own words
• Look at the first and last sentences of each paragraph to find big ideas

Common wrong choice types

• Too narrow: Choices that are too narrow will accurately describe a part of the passage, but they’ll exclude the broader point. The main point of a passage won't show up in just one place.
• Too strong or extreme: Some distractors will draw upon a point that is made in the passage, but take it further than can be directly supported. Be wary of “blanket” words like “always” “any” “all” “ever” and “never.”
• Beyond the scope: These wrong options bring in content that, while related, is ultimately outside of the scope of the passage. These choices feature ideas or information that you might reasonably expect to find in a larger excerpt from the same source that the passage was taken from, but the statement simply can't be supported by information in the text in front of you.
• Conflicts and contradictions: Some options contain language that is in direct conflict with information presented in the passage. These wrong choices can be the easiest to rule out, but many students find themselves drawn to strong statements on the opposing sides of arguments. It can also be easy to overlook negations like "not" or "isn't", so read choices closely to avoid these tempting distractors!
• True statements: Just because a choice contains a true statement doesn't make it a correct statement of the idea or purpose of the passage!
• Things that the author might agree with Don’t select a choice just because you think the author would agree with the idea expressed; that may not be the main point the author was making in the passage.
• Sounds familiar? Be careful with choices that use words found in the passage. Read the passage and every choice carefully—a quick skim of the passage may not be enough to determine the main idea or primary purpose.
• (Choice A)   examine Shakespeare's life in light of his dramatic works A examine Shakespeare's life in light of his dramatic works
• (Choice B)   contest a theory that attempts to explain why Shakespeare wrote the kinds of plays he did B contest a theory that attempts to explain why Shakespeare wrote the kinds of plays he did
• (Choice C)   explain the terms "comedy," "tragedy," and "tragicomedy" as they are used in discussions of Shakespeare's plays C explain the terms "comedy," "tragedy," and "tragicomedy" as they are used in discussions of Shakespeare's plays
• (Choice D)   compare Shakespeare's plays with the works of other dramatists of his day D compare Shakespeare's plays with the works of other dramatists of his day
• (Choice E)   discuss what is known about Shakespeare's psychological states E discuss what is known about Shakespeare's psychological states

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3.4 Annotated Sample Reading: from Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass by Frederick Douglass

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Read in several genres to understand how conventions are shaped by purpose, language, culture, and expectation.
• Use reading for inquiry, learning, critical thinking, and communicating in varying rhetorical and cultural contexts.
• Read a diverse range of texts, attending to relationships among ideas, patterns of organization, and interplay between verbal and nonverbal elements.

Introduction

Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) was born into slavery in Maryland. He never knew his father, barely knew his mother, and was separated from his grandmother at a young age. As a boy, Douglass understood there to be a connection between literacy and freedom. In the excerpt from his autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave , that follows, you will learn about how Douglass learned to read. By age 12, he was reading texts about the natural rights of human beings. At age 15, he began educating other enslaved people. When Douglass was 20, he met Anna Murray, whom he would later marry. Murray helped Douglass plot his escape from slavery. Dressed as a sailor, Douglass bought a train ticket northward. Within 24 hours, he arrived in New York City and declared himself free. Douglass went on to work as an activist in the abolitionist movement as well as the women’s suffrage movement.

In the portion of the text included here, Douglass chooses to represent the dialogue of Mr. Auld, an enslaver who by the laws of the time owns Douglass. Douglass describes this moment with detail and accuracy, including Mr. Auld’s use of a racial slur. In an interview with the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), Harvard professor Randall Kennedy (b. 1954), who has traced the historical evolution of the word, notes that one of its first uses, recorded in 1619, appears to have been descriptive rather than derogatory. However, by the mid-1800s, White people had appropriated the term and begun using it with its current negative connotation. In response, over time, Black people have reclaimed the word (or variations of it) for different purposes, including mirroring racism, creating irony, and reclaiming community and personal power—using the word for a contrasting purpose to the way others use it. Despite this evolution, Professor Kennedy explains that the use of the word should be accompanied by a deep understanding of one’s audience and by being clear about the intention. However, even when intention is very clear and malice is not intended, harm can, and likely will, occur. Thus, Professor Kennedy cautions that all people should understand the history of the word, be aware of its potential negative effect on an audience, and therefore use it sparingly, or preferably not at all.

In the case of Mr. Auld and Douglass, Douglass gives an account of Auld’s exact language in order to hold a mirror to the racism of Mr. Auld—and the reading audience of his memoir—and to emphasize the theme that literacy (or education) is one way to combat racism.

Living by Their Own Words

Literacy from unexpected sources.

annotated text From the title and from Douglass’s use of pronoun I, you know this work is autobiographical and therefore written from the first-person point of view. end annotated text

public domain text [excerpt begins with first full paragraph on page 33 and ends on page 34 where the paragraph ends] end public domain text

public domain text Very soon after I went to live with Mr. and Mrs. Auld, she very kindly commenced to teach me the A, B, C. After I had learned this, she assisted me in learning to spell words of three or four letters. Just at this point of my progress, Mr. Auld found out what was going on, and at once forbade Mrs. Auld to instruct me further, telling her, among other things, that it was unlawful, as well as unsafe, to teach a slave to read. end public domain text

annotated text Douglass describes the background situation and the culture of the time, which he will defy in his quest for literacy. The word choice in his narration of events indicates that he is writing for an educated audience. end annotated text

public domain text To use his own words, further, he said, “If you give a nigger an inch, he will take an ell. A nigger should know nothing but to obey his master—to do as he is told to do. Learning would spoil the best nigger in the world. Now,” said he, “if you teach that nigger (speaking of myself) how to read, there would be no keeping him. It would forever unfit him to be a slave. He would at once become unmanageable, and of no value to his master. As to himself, it could do him no good, but a great deal of harm. It would make him discontented and unhappy.” end public domain text

annotated text In sharing this part of the narrative, Douglass underscores the importance of literacy. He provides a description of Mr. Auld, a slaveholder, who seeks to impose illiteracy as a means to oppress others. In this description of Mr. Auld’s reaction, Douglass shows that slaveholders feared the power that enslaved people would have if they could read and write. end annotated text

annotated text Douglass provides the details of Auld’s dialogue not only because it is a convention of narrative genre but also because it demonstrates the purpose and motivation for his forthcoming pursuit of literacy. We have chosen to maintain the authenticity of the original text by using the language that Douglass offers to quote Mr. Auld’s dialogue because it both provides context for the rhetorical situation and underscores the value of the attainment of literacy for Douglass. However, contemporary audiences must understand that this language should be uttered only under very narrow circumstances in any current rhetorical situation. In general, it is best to avoid its use. end annotated text

public domain text These words sank deep into my heart, stirred up sentiments within that lay slumbering, and called into existence an entirely new train of thought. It was a new and special revelation, explaining dark and mysterious things, with which my youthful understanding had struggled, but struggled in vain. I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty—to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black man. It was a grand achievement, and I prized it highly. From that moment, I understood the pathway from slavery to freedom. It was just what I wanted, and I got it at a time when I the least expected it. Whilst I was saddened by the thought of losing the aid of my kind mistress, I was gladdened by the invaluable instruction which, by the merest accident, I had gained from my master. end public domain text

annotated text In this reflection, Douglass has a definitive and transformative moment with reading and writing. The moment that sparked a desire for literacy is a common feature in literacy narratives, particularly those of enslaved people. In that moment, he understood the value of literacy and its life-changing possibilities; that transformative moment is a central part of the arc of this literacy narrative. end annotated text

public domain text Though conscious of the difficulty of learning without a teacher, I set out with high hope, and a fixed purpose, at whatever cost of trouble, to learn how to read. The very decided manner with which he spoke, and strove to impress his wife with the evil consequences of giving me instruction, served to convince me that he was deeply sensible of the truths he was uttering. It gave me the best assurance that I might rely with the utmost confidence on the results which, he said, would flow from teaching me to read. What he most dreaded, that I most desired. What he most loved, that I most hated. That which to him was a great evil, to be carefully shunned, was to me a great good, to be diligently sought; and the argument which he so warmly urged, against my learning to read, only served to inspire me with a desire and determination to learn. In learning to read, I owe almost as much to the bitter opposition of my master, as to the kindly aid of my mistress. I acknowledge the benefit of both. end public domain text

annotated text Douglass articulates that this moment changed his relationship to literacy and ignited a purposeful engagement with language and learning that would last throughout his long life. The rhythm, sentence structure, and poetic phrasing in this reflection provide further evidence that Douglass, over the course of his life, actively pursued and mastered language after having this experience with Mr. Auld. end annotated text

public domain text [excerpt continues with the beginning of Chapter 7 on page 36 and ends with the end of the paragraph at the top of page 39] end public domain text

public domain text [In Chapter 7, the narrative continues] I lived in Master Hugh’s family about seven years. During this time, I succeeded in learning to read and write. In accomplishing this, I was compelled to resort to various stratagems. I had no regular teacher. My mistress, who had kindly commenced to instruct me, had, in compliance with the advice and direction of her husband, not only ceased to instruct, but had set her face against my being instructed by any one else. It is due, however, to my mistress to say of her, that she did not adopt this course of treatment immediately. She at first lacked the depravity indispensable to shutting me up in mental darkness. It was at least necessary for her to have some training in the exercise of irresponsible power, to make her equal to the task of treating me as though I were a brute. end public domain text

public domain text My mistress was, as I have said, a kind and tender-hearted woman; and in the simplicity of her soul she commenced, when I first went to live with her, to treat me as she supposed one human being ought to treat another. In entering upon the duties of a slaveholder, she did not seem to perceive that I sustained to her the relation of a mere chattel, and that for her to treat me as a human being was not only wrong, but dangerously so. Slavery proved as injurious to her as it did to me. When I went there, she was a pious, warm, and tender-hearted woman. There was no sorrow or suffering for which she had not a tear. She had bread for the hungry, clothes for the naked, and comfort for every mourner that came within her reach. Slavery soon proved its ability to divest her of these heavenly qualities. Under its influence, the tender heart became stone, and the lamblike disposition gave way to one of tiger-like fierceness. The first step in her downward course was in her ceasing to instruct me. She now commenced to practise her husband’s precepts. She finally became even more violent in her opposition than her husband himself. end public domain text

annotated text Douglass describes in detail a person in his life and his relationship to her. He uses specific diction to describe her kindness and to help readers get to know her—a “tear” for the “suffering”; “bread for the hungry, clothes for the naked, and comfort for every mourner.” end annotated text

public domain text She was not satisfied with simply doing as well as he had commanded; she seemed anxious to do better. Nothing seemed to make her more angry than to see me with a newspaper. She seemed to think that here lay the danger. I have had her rush at me with a face made all up of fury, and snatch from me a newspaper, in a manner that fully revealed her apprehension. She was an apt woman; and a little experience soon demonstrated, to her satisfaction, that education and slavery were incompatible with each other. end public domain text

annotated text The fact that Douglass can understand the harm caused by the institution of slavery to slaveholders as well as to enslaved people shows a level of sophistication in thought, identifies the complexity and detriment of this historical period, and demonstrates an acute awareness of the rhetorical situation, especially for his audience for this text. The way that he articulates compassion for the slaveholders, despite their ill treatment of him, would create empathy in his readers and possibly provide a revelation for his audience. end annotated text

public domain text From this time I was most narrowly watched. If I was in a separate room any considerable length of time, I was sure to be suspected of having a book, and was at once called to give an account of myself. All this, however, was too late. The first step had been taken. Mistress, in teaching me the alphabet, had given me the inch , and no precaution could prevent me from taking the ell . end public domain text

annotated text Once again, Douglass underscores the value that literacy has for transforming the lived experiences of enslaved people. The reference to the inch and the ell circles back to Mr. Auld’s warnings and recalls the impact of that moment on his life. end annotated text

public domain text The plan which I adopted, and the one by which I was most successful, was that of making friends of all the little white boys whom I met in the street. As many of these as I could, I converted into teachers. With their kindly aid, obtained at different times and in different places, I finally succeeded in learning to read. When I was sent of errands, I always took my book with me, and by going one part of my errand quickly, I found time to get a lesson before my return. I used also to carry bread with me, enough of which was always in the house, and to which I was always welcome; for I was much better off in this regard than many of the poor white children in our neighborhood. This bread I used to bestow upon the hungry little urchins, who, in return, would give me that more valuable bread of knowledge. I am strongly tempted to give the names of two or three of those little boys, as a testimonial of the gratitude and affection I bear them; but prudence forbids;—not that it would injure me, but it might embarrass them; for it is almost an unpardonable offence to teach slaves to read in this Christian country. end public domain text

annotated text Douglass comments on the culture of the time, which still permitted slavery; he is sensitive to the fact that these boys might be embarrassed by their participation in unacceptable, though humanitarian, behavior. His audience will also recognize the irony in his tone when he writes that it is “an unpardonable offense to teach slaves . . . in this Christian country.” Such behavior is surely “unchristian.” end annotated text

public domain text It is enough to say of the dear little fellows, that they lived on Philpot Street, very near Durgin and Bailey’s ship-yard. I used to talk this matter of slavery over with them. I would sometimes say to them, I wished I could be as free as they would be when they got to be men. “You will be free as soon as you are twenty-one, but I am a slave for life ! Have not I as good a right to be free as you have?” These words used to trouble them; they would express for me the liveliest sympathy, and console me with the hope that something would occur by which I might be free. end public domain text

annotated text Douglass pursues and attains literacy not only for his own benefit; his knowledge also allows him to begin to instruct, as well as advocate for, those around him. Douglass’s use of language and his understanding of the rhetorical situation give the audience evidence of the power of literacy for all people, round out the arc of his narrative, and provide a resolution. end annotated text

Discussion Questions

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1.6: Inferences in Literature

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Inference vs. Guess

What is an inference? What's the difference between an inference and a guess? And what does any of this have to do with reading literature? Literature works largely on "showing" rather than "telling." The author shows through literary devices such as imagery, tone, figurative language and leaves it up to the reader to infer the meaning. This allows for active interpretation on the part of the reader and makes the reading dynamic rather than passive.

An inference is a conclusion you reach by applying logic to the evidence you are given. Making inferences while reading is a strategy that will help you learn, remember, and apply what you have read. When you make inferences you are "reading between the lines". This tactic is similar to what Sherlock Holmes does when he sees that Dr. Watson has a tan and makes a conclusion about where Watson has recently traveled. You already make inferences all of the time. For example, if you go over to a friend's house and they point at the sofa and say, "Don't sit there; Candy came over with her baby again", what could you logically conclude?

First, you know there must be a reason not to sit where your friend is pointing. Further, you know that the reason to not sit there is related to the fact that Cindy just visited with her baby. You don't know what exactly happened, but you can infer enough and don't need to ask any more questions to know that you do not want to sit there.

Other examples of inferences are when a doctor makes a diagnosis about why you are sick or when a mechanic figures out what is wrong with your car. Try some yourself. Imagine you witness each of the following – what can you infer about each situation?

• You see a woman pushing a baby stroller down the street.
• You are at a corner and see two cars stopped at an intersection. The rear car starts honking its horn.
• You are walking down the street, and all of a sudden a dog comes running out of an opened door with its tail between its legs.

For the first example, you probably came up with something simple, such as that there was a baby in the stroller. For the second, you could infer that the first car should have started moving or was waiting too long at the corner and holding up the second car. For the third, you could reasonably guess that the dog had done something wrong and was afraid of being punished. You do not know for certain that these inferences are true.

Just like Sherlock Holmes, you would have to test your theories. If you checked 100 strollers, 99 times you would find a baby, but maybe one time you would find something else, like groceries.

Exercise 1.5.1

Write a conclusion you could infer from the following:

• You see a man running and frantically waving at a bus that is pulling away from a bus stop.
• You are giving a speech in front of an audience and notice several people laughing and pointing at something on your pants.
• Your sister comes home from spending the evening with her friends, slams the front door and runs to her room while crying.

Making Inferences from Reading Material

To make inferences from reading material, take two or more details from the reading and see if you can draw a conclusion. Remember, making an inference is not just making a guess, even though the answer is not stated in the reading passage. You need to make a judgment that can be supported, just as you could reasonably infer there is a baby in a stroller, because even though you do not know for certain, it is the most likely possibility. For example, at the end of the story "The Five Orange Pips", you are not told what exactly happened to the Lone Star, but you can infer that it was wrecked in a storm based on the other details provided:

• There was a storm
• The ship did not arrive at its next destination
• Wreckage with the initials L.S. were seen by other sailors

You could claim that the ship was taken by pirates, was sunk by a whale, or even that it landed on a deserted island; however, the only reasonable explanation from the facts is the same one implied by Dr. Watson: the ship was destroyed by the storm.

When you are asked to make an inference, go back over the reading and look for hints within the text, such as words that are directly related to the question. Also check for tone: are there words or phrases that indicate whether something is positive or negative? For example, if someone is referred to as being, sharp, friendly, and loyal,you would know that those are positive attributes; whereas, if they were referred to as being slovenly, dull, and selfish, those are negative attributes.

In order to make reasonable inferences that help you better comprehend what you read, remember to do the following:

Understand the stated information. You don’t necessarily have to identify the main ideas to make a reasonable inference. However, you do need to understand the important vocabulary and facts in the text. So ask yourself, “What do these details seem to show? Is there enough evidence to support my inference?” "Are there any other possible ways to interpret this?"

Use your prior knowledge of the situation and your common sense. However, do not ignore the facts in favor of your own personal opinions.

Consider the alternatives so you don’t “jump to conclusions.” Inferences tend to be “reasonable” when they are the result of “reasoned” thinking, not emotional reactions. When you go to a doctor for advice, he or she will think of different possible diagnoses before settling on the one that is most likely, given your symptoms. If the doctor jumped too quickly to one conclusion, he might give you the wrong treatment. If, as a reader, you jump too quickly to one interpretation of the text, you may not understand what the writer intended to convey.

Example: Imagine that it is a sunny day and you decide to go see a movie. After the movie is over, you step back outside and see that the sky is now cloudy and the streets and sidewalks are all wet. What can we reasonably infer happened?

If you said that it rained while you were in the theater, you’re right! But what if you said that everything is wet because a water truck driving down the street was hit by a piano falling from an upper story window, causing the water truck to burst open and spill water all? This is a very unlikely scenario.

Questioning/responding (after you read): After you read a text, or part of a book, you will often be asked to respond to questions about the text. Just as you did when you annotated, you will often be asked to write down main ideas from the text as well as your own personal reactions to the text. Hint: Read these questions BEFORE you read the text as a pre-reading exercise. This will help you build more SCHEMA (representation of a theory in the form of an outline) about the text.

Exercise 1.5.2

Hybrid cars are good for the environment, but they may not perform as well as cars that run only on gasoline. The Toyota Prius gets great gas mileage and has low emissions, making it a good "green" option. However, many people think that it is unattractive. The Prius also cannot accelerate as quickly as other models and cannot hold as many passengers as larger gas-fueled SUVs. Although they save money on fuel, hybrid cars cost more up front than gas-fueled cars. A new hybrid car can cost almost $3,500 more than the same car configured to run just on gasoline.

Which of the following can you infer from the passage?

• Hybrid cars are more dangerous than other options.
• Toyota is making a lot of money from the Prius.
• Cars that use gasoline are going to destroy the environment.
• Hybrid cars may not be the best choice for everyone.

All four answers are about hybrid cars in some way, but none of the answers can be found directly from the text. Read through and see what hints you can find from the text. You will notice right away that there is nothing about car safety in the passage at all, so you can eliminate choice A. Choice B could be the answer, since the passage mentions that hybrids cost more to purchase. But is it the most reasonable conclusion?

To be sure, you need to go through all of the answers – don't just stop when you find one that looks okay. You may think that choice C is true; after all, many people want hybrid cars because emissions are harmful to the environment. Although this choice seems accurate, it does not follow from anything in the passage. Choice D could be inferred from the text. If a person had a large family, was short on money or needed a car that could accelerate quickly, then a hybrid might not be the best choice for them.

Now compare choice D with the other possible answer, choice B. Choice B might not be as good an answer because you don't know how much it costs Toyota to make the cars, and you don't know how many they sell, so you can't reasonably infer that they are making a lot of money. Choice D is the correct answer.

Exercise 1.5.3

Redwood trees are rare. They are found only on the coastal slopes of Northern California and Oregon, and in China. Redwoods were thought to be extinct in China, but they were rediscovered by a Chinese forester in 1948. These trees can grow hundreds of feet high and live to be thousands of years old. They are endangered due to logging, pollution, and global warming, which is reducing the amount of fog on the coast. Redwoods get their water from the fog.

Which of the following can you infer from the passage:

• The Chinese logged the Redwoods almost into extinction.
• Redwood trees will continue to grow taller throughout their whole lives.
• Using non-recyclable products will kill Redwood trees.
• Redwoods can only grow in places that get a lot of fog.

Paragraph 2:

Shannelle is a very good baker. Whenever there is a bake sale to raise money for a cause, Shannelle is always asked to make cupcakes or a pie. People say that they only come to the bake sales if they know that Shannelle is making something. She always agreed to bake things because she hated to say no to anyone. One week, her oven broke and she could not bake, so she decided to go for a hike instead. Shannelle enjoyed it so much that she realized she needed to learn to make time for herself, and not just donate all of her free time to charity.

• Shannelle is a generous person.
• Shannelle's mother did a good job teaching her how to bake.
• The people in the community were taking advantage of Shannelle.
• Shannelle's brother broke her oven so she would get a day off.

Building on Your Knowledge of Inferences

Previously, we covered the basics of inferences and reasonable conclusions . Now we are going to look at another strategy to help you make valid inferences: the if-then statement. To use an if-then statement, look at the information presented in the reading and see if you could rephrase it into a statement using the words "if" and "then", which establish a cause-and-effect relationship.

For example:

In the 1800s in England, laws were applied differently depending on the gender of the accused. Women could not own land or vote. Women were barred from receiving a death sentence for crimes that a man could be executed for because people thought it would be too shocking to see a woman hanged publicly. In some places, men could be fined for certain behaviors done in the presence of a woman, such as swearing or spitting.

What if-then statements could we make based on the paragraph above? Let's go through sentence-by-sentence.

• If we were back in England in the 1800's, then the laws would be applied differently for men and women.
• If we were back in England in the 1800's, then women could not own land or vote.
• If a woman committed a capital crime ("capital" meaning one that could earn a death sentence), then she would not be executed.
• If a woman were hung, then the public would be shocked.
• If a man swore in the presence of a woman, then he could be fined.

Broken down like this you can see how much easier it is to make logical inferences. Suppose you were asked if a woman who murdered her husband would be executed.

If-then statement #3 would tell you that the answer is "no", even though that information is not directly mentioned in the text. If you were asked if women were involved in government, you would say "no" because you know that they could not vote (#2). If you were asked if men could own real estate, you would say "yes" because #2 indicates that the fact that women could NOT own real estate was different from what men could do.

Exercise 1.5.4

Now do the same thing with the next paragraph. Write your answers first, and then check your work below.

Many people don't realize that our sun is actually a star. Our sun seems very large because it is so close to us; however, some stars are actually much larger than our sun. Betelguese (pronounced beetle-juice), a star located in the constellation Orion, is much larger than our own sun. In fact, if it were located where our sun is located, its surface would engulf both Earth and Mars. Because other stars are so distant, they appear to be fainter, which is why we cannot see them in the daytime. Betelguese is the 8th brightest star in the night sky. To find Betelguese, first locate the constellation Orion. This star forms his left shoulder.

These are just examples, but your answers should be similar to them.

From here, there are dozens of conclusions you could infer. For example, if you were asked why Star A appears smaller than Star B, you would know it might be because it is actually smaller. Then again, it might also be smaller because it is farther away. The if-then statement is a useful strategy that can help you make inferences and increase your reading comprehension.

• If a star is much larger than the sun, then it could be Betelguese.
• If a star is fainter than the sun, then it cannot be seen during the day.
• If a star is the 8th brightest in the night sky, then it is Betelguese.
• If you know which constellation a star is in, then it is easier to find.

Exercise 1.5.5

Write an if-then statement for each sentence in the following paragraphs.

• Nicaragua is the largest country in Central America. The population in Nicaragua, hovering at approximately 6 million, is multiethnic. Segments of the population include indigenous native tribes from the Mosquito Coast, Europeans, Africans, Asians, and people of Middle Eastern origin. The main language is Spanish; although, native tribes on the eastern coast speak their native languages, such as Miskito, Sumo, and Rama, as well as English Creole. The mixture of cultural traditions has generated substantial diversity in art, cuisine, literature, and music.
• Childhood obesity is a condition where excess body fat negatively affects a child's health or well-being. Since methods to directly determine the amount of body fat are difficult, the diagnosis of obesity is often based on the Body Mass Index (BMI). Due to the rising prevalence of obesity in children and its many adverse health effects, obesity is being recognized as a serious public health concern. The term "overweight" is often used instead of "obese" for children because it is less stigmatizing.
• If a country is the largest in Central America, then it must be Nicaragua.
• If a country is in Central America and it is multiethnic, it might be Nicaragua.
• If someone is of Middle Eastern origin, they might live in Nicaragua.
• If someone lives in Nicaragua and does not speak Spanish, then they may be a member of a native tribe that speaks their native language.
• If a culture has a mixture of cultural traditions, then it is likely to have substantial diversity in art, cuisine, literature, and music.
• If a child suffers from obesity, then she has excessive body fat that negatively affects her health or well-being.
• If someone has been diagnosed with obesity, then it is likely that their BMI was used to make this determination as determining the amount of body fat is difficult.
• If condition is rising in prevalence and has many adverse health effects, then it is likely to be recognized as a public health concern.
• If a child is described as being overweight, then it is likely that they are obese.

Contributors and Attributions

• Adapted from Making Inferences by Saylor Academy, license CC-BY
• Adapted from Adapted from Writing for Success by The Saylor Foundation, license CC-NC-SA 3.0

AP English Language Practice Test 3

Directions : The multiple choice portion of the AP English Language exam consists of passages from prose works along with questions about the content, form, and style of these passages. After reading this passage, choose the best answer to each question and click on the corresponding letter. Then click on the right arrow when you are ready to move on to the next question. Start your test prep now with our free AP English Language practice test.

What is the thesis or controlling opinion in this passage?

What is the philosophical dilemma in this passage, what rhetorical strategy is contained in the examples of the doctor, the priest, and the justice, which sentence best supports the writer's claim that a man should not live by an art, the author would be critical of a work of literature if it were, according to the author, what separates poets from other artists, how does the author view the idea of commerce as it is connected to the arts, the word “awaken” in the third paragraph most nearly means, which of the following is not true of literature, according to the writer, which of the following is the purpose of the fourth paragraph, who is the “unsophisticated witness” mentioned in the last paragraph, with which of the following sentiments about “human brotherhood” would the author most likely agree, the tone of the passage could best be described as.

Next Practice Test: AP English Language Practice Test 4 >>

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• Writing Samples

editing a thesis excerpt as a writing sample

By NoMoreABD November 11, 2011 in Writing Samples

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Hello everyone,

I'd like to get some of your wise advice concerning a thesis excerpt.

I'm submitting one chapter out of my thesis, which is translated into English. It's a chapter from the middle, and I chose it because it is written well and it's interesting. It has some references to other chapters, which I edited so they are understandable to someone who hasn't read the whole thing, so I think it's OK. It's still very obvious that it's something taken out of a larger academic work.

Here are my dilemmas:

Should I also include the table of contents for the whole thesis, so the reader can see what my thesis is about and the context of the sample chapter? I mean, it says "chapter 3: bla bla" in the headline so it seems weird not to have a list of all the chapters. Or should I just add a cover page or something explaining that? Or nothing at all - in which case I'll need to make a new table of contents just for this chapter (it's about 40 pages).

Also, I attached the whole bibliography as it appears in the thesis, so the reader can see what my sources were.

And I translated the front cover, with the name of the uni, my thesis adviser etc. Do you think it's the right thing to do, even though I'm submitting just one chapter?

Would highly appreciate any advice. If anyone's willing to take a look at it (you don't need to actually read the whole thing... just see what it looks like), that could be great!

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fuzzylogician

Instead of a front cover and table of contents, I would suggest using a cover sheet that briefly describes the content of the other chapters of the paper, the main argument(s) that are made there, and an explanation of how the chapter you are submitting fits into that. An abstract of sorts for the thesis as a whole and this chapter in particular.

Origin=Goal

I'm following the same route as the OP and I've heard this advice a lot. But I have to say that adequately summarizing a 60 page thesis and contextualizing a 10-15 page extract so as to render it comprehensible is easier said than done, especially "briefly." I doubt I could do so in less than 2-3 pages.

Easier said than done, yet a required skill in academia.

As a researcher you often have to summarize your work e.g. in 100 words for an abstract in the beginning of a paper, or in 500 word for a conference abstract, or several one-sentence punchlines for a (readable) poster, and so on. You also have to learn to synthesize the main take-away points from a paper in order to be able to teach it properly. Even very detailed papers usually have no more than 2-3 important main points, supported by a reasonable number of arguments. A thesis will also have an extensive lit review section; I am sure that one could distill a one-paragraph main point, although I understand that it may be difficult.

Thanks guys.

I think the abstract is a very good idea. After all, It's really not necessary that they understand every little detail of all the ideas in my thesis. I just need the context for the excerpt which in itself proves my writing skills. I plan to describe very, VERY, briefly the main argument of each chapter, and explain in this context the structure of the chapter I'm sending.

Thanks for the advice

although now I have more work to do.......

• 11 years later...

Hello @NoMoreABD , I am also writing an abstract for my thesis. Can you advise me on what did you end up doing? Did you include the whole bibliography and table of contents in your abstract or not. 

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StarTribune

She faced racism in class, while home-buying and in childbirth. these potent essays spill the tea.

Poet and educator Taiyon J. Coleman's essay collection, which arrives in stores June 4, is summed up by its subtitle: "Essays From a Black Woman Trying to Survive in America."

Opening with a piece that recalls London subways' "Mind the gap" signs and ponders other sorts of gaps, "Traveling Without Moving" includes essays about the St. Catherine University professor's childhood, the beauty of poetry and encounters with racism in classrooms, while trying to purchase a home in Minneapolis and elsewhere.

The following is a chapter titled "Sometimes I Feel Like Harriet Tubman":

I was invited to speak at a Twin Cities area school, and it wasn't until I arrived at the school that the administrator asked me to discuss the immediate challenges facing parents and children in education in Minnesota.

Initially, I was hesitant because I didn't know if I wanted to take a personal risk with the topic. Sure, I could talk about literature, culture and creative writing, but K-12 education in Minnesota is a sensitive topic freighted with anger, shame and blame on all sides. And with my own three kids attending Twin Cities area schools, I have skin in the game.

According to the New York Times, "Black students [nationally] are suspended three times as often as their white peers; in Minnesota, it is eight times as often." Another report pointed out that while Black students are 41% of the student population in Minneapolis, they make up 76% of the suspensions. Even the best quests for solutions on this issue are mired in the fact that racial disparities in Minnesota are some of the starkest in the nation.

A Brown parent, a mother, at the back of the room stood and asked, "Can you give an example of implicit bias that has affected your own child in school?"

Her question forced me out of the autopilot zone that most professionals slip into when our hubris is set on high.

"That's a good question," I said, buying time.

Looking at the mother, I recognized that her mother body, like many weary parent bodies in the room, was seemingly at ease but conditioned to brace at any moment for the dreaded expected unexpected. I recognized my own mother body and experience inside hers. This is what it feels like to be the parent of a child in Minnesota schools who is the victim of implicit bias. Powerless.

I told the audience about my Black children who attend schools in the Twin Cities. Like their momma, they have dark brown skin with beautiful tightly curled hair. They are physically bigger than their classroom peers, and their speech reflects a confidence and experience beyond their years as they hear two different languages at home. Natural leaders, my Black children are kind and charming, and like their Tanzanian Bibi (grandmother) who is a lawyer working for the rights of women and children, my Black children are intelligent, smart, competitive, analytical and protective. They have a keen sense of fairness and speak up if they sense inequity.

These unique qualities that make my Black children great are the very same qualities that are perceived by some teachers and administrators as aggressive, adult, disrespectful, loud and defensive.

I laughed and told the mother that as the parent of children experiencing implicit bias, I often feel like Harriet Tubman on the Underground Railroad, trying to help my marginalized children get free, get educated. I added that my husband and I feel incredible fear and guilt at the recognition that our own educational success does not protect the Brown bodies of our children from the consequences of implicit bias within Minnesota schools.

"Yes. That's just how it feels," she said to me.

In that moment, with those amazing and hopeful parents who had cared enough to show up, I had no choice but to do what most well-meaning professionals in education fail to do: validate the experiences of non-White students and their parents, so we all know that we are not alone. We are not the only ones struggling with this very real educational and human rights crisis. And there is strength, hope, and healing in telling our stories.

Excerpted from " Traveling Without Moving: Essays From a Black Woman Trying to Survive in America " by Taiyon J. Coleman. Published by the University of Minnesota Press. Copyright 2024 by Taiyon J. Coleman. All rights reserved. Used by permission.

Traveling Without Moving

By: Taiyon J. Coleman.

Publisher: University of Minn. Press, 151 pages, $18.95.

Event: 6 p.m. June 4 , Moon Palace Books, 3032 Minnehaha Av. S., Mpls. Free.

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Why Do People Make Music?

In a new study, researchers found universal features of songs across many cultures, suggesting that music evolved in our distant ancestors.

A research team that comprised musicologists, psychologists, linguists, evolutionary biologists and professional musicians recorded songs in 55 languages to find that songs share certain features not found in speech. Credit... Album/Alamy

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By Carl Zimmer

• May 15, 2024

Music baffled Charles Darwin. Mankind’s ability to produce and enjoy melodies, he wrote in 1874, “must be ranked amongst the most mysterious with which he is endowed.”

All human societies made music, and yet, for Darwin, it seemed to offer no advantage to our survival. He speculated that music evolved as a way to win over potential mates. Our “half-human ancestors,” as he called them, “aroused each other’s ardent passions during their courtship and rivalry.”

Other Victorian scientists were skeptical. William James brushed off Darwin’s idea, arguing that music is simply a byproduct of how our minds work — a “mere incidental peculiarity of the nervous system.”

That debate continues to this day. Some researchers are developing new evolutionary explanations for music. Others maintain that music is a cultural invention, like writing, that did not need natural selection to come into existence.

In recent years, scientists have investigated these ideas with big data. They have analyzed the acoustic properties of thousands of songs recorded in dozens of cultures. On Wednesday, a team of 75 researchers published a more personal investigation of music . For the study, all of the researchers sang songs from their own cultures.

The team, which comprised musicologists, psychologists, linguists, evolutionary biologists and professional musicians, recorded songs in 55 languages, including Arabic, Balinese, Basque, Cherokee, Maori, Ukrainian and Yoruba. Across cultures, the researchers found, songs share certain features not found in speech, suggesting that Darwin might have been right: Despite its diversity today, music might have evolved in our distant ancestors.

“It shows us that there may be really something that is universal to all humans that cannot simply be explained by culture,” said Daniela Sammler, a neuroscientist at the Max Planck Institute for Empirical Aesthetics in Frankfurt who was not involved in the study.

Databases of songs collected by ethnomusicologists sometimes lack important details. It can also be hard for researchers to make sense of the structure and lyrics of songs from other cultures. Computers, likewise, are not very good at recognizing many features of music.

“We thought we should involve the insiders,” said Yuto Ozaki, who earned his doctorate at Keio University in Japan by helping to lead the project.

Dr. Ozaki’s colleague, Patrick Savage, took on the job of recruiting the singers. “It was a combination of the network I’d already built up through the first decade of my career along with going to conferences and making small talk and meeting people,” said Dr. Savage, now a musicologist at the University of Auckland.

All of the team members picked traditional songs from their cultures to record.

Asabanabushi Song (Amami Island, Japan)

Petara Song (Brazil)

Éiníní Song (Ireland)

In addition to singing, they recited the lyrics of the songs without a melody so that the team could later compare the music and speech. And for a further point of comparison, the researchers played their songs on a wide range of instruments, including sitars and melodicas.

Petara on Bamboo Flute (Brazil)

In each recording, the researchers measured six features, such as pitch and tempo. Despite their variety, all of the songs shared a number of features that set them apart from speech. The pitch was higher and more stable, for example, and the tempo was slower.

Dr. Sammler cautioned that the singers in the new study were mostly academics, and that the songs they chose might have introduced some bias into the research. “It’s essentially academics singing material that may not be representative,” she said.

But she also noted that another study , not yet published in a scientific journal, came to a similar conclusion. In that study, researchers analyzed songs from 18 languages and pinpointed many of the same features.

It’s possible that songs have distinct features because they have a special role in human communication separate from speech, said Aniruddh Patel, a psychologist at Tufts University who was not involved in the study. What’s more, our brains appear to be sensitive to those features. In 2022, Dr. Patel pointed out, researchers discovered human neurons that only responded to singing — not speech or music played on instruments.

“There is something distinctive about song all around the world as an acoustic signal that perhaps our brains have become attuned to over evolutionary time,” Dr. Patel said.

What sort of evolutionary benefit would come from that signal is still a matter of debate.

“Maybe music was needed to improve group cohesion,” Dr. Ozaki said. Singing in choruses, sharing rhythms and melodies, could have brought people together whether as a community or in preparation for a battle.

But Dr. Sammler didn’t think that the new study ruled out other roles for music, such as helping parents bond with their children . “It could support a lot of theories,” she said.

Audio courtesy of Patrick Savage. Songs by Marin Naruse, Tutushamum Puri Teyxokawa and Tadhg Ó Meachair. Instrumental by Tutushamum Puri Teyxokawa.

Carl Zimmer covers news about science for The Times and writes the Origins column . More about Carl Zimmer

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W hile I have had numerous breakfasts at MTR, writing this essay was the perfect excuse for another one. I compared notes with my father and realized that the experience is by and large the same. Walking up the few concrete steps to MTR’s double door is like crossing the threshold into another period. Along the wall to your right is a bench for those waiting their turn. Over the bench are the many framed awards that MTR has been bestowed with over the years.

The cashier at the counter signals us, in the middle of his many ongoing transactions, to make our way upstairs to be seated. On the way, you see wooden panels of framed black and white photographs of famous personalities who have dined at MTR and of events the restaurant has catered. These frames are all over the many dining rooms across the upper floor of the restaurant. If you end up in the waiting area at the top of the staircase, there are large frames displaying multiple photographs—like one of the tenth anniversary of the Chamber of Commerce, Bangalore City, that MTR catered on 19 December 1946.

Once seated on the signature red plastic chairs, you either know what you want to order or you ask for the day’s menu. It will be recited, beginning with their popular dishes, and if you still haven’t ordered through the recital, then the rest of the menu. For breakfast that day, we started with the kesari bath. The version here is a mix of both semolina and vermicelli and is not cloyingly sweet. Studded with raisins and made in generous amounts of ghee, it sets the right tone for the rest of the meal. Next up was the rava idli, a MTR creation that harks back to World War II and speaks to Yagnappa’s ingenuity. Idlis, which are a highlight of their menu, are made from rice. However, during World War II, Japan invaded Burma, the largest producer of rice in the region and the chief supplier to South India. Naturally, this caused a shortage, and MTR was among the many affected eateries.

Yagnappa experimented with rava (semolina), soaking it in curd, mixing in curry leaves and coriander, giving it a tempering of mustard seeds and cashew nuts in ghee, and then steaming it as one would a regular idli. The result was a fluffy, lighter idli that people couldn’t get enough of long after the war was over. On our table that day, it came with a small steel container of molten ghee to pour over it and some chutney and sagu (a vegetable curry).

Those were not his only innovations. After his Europe sojourn, Yagnappa created the chandrahara. This pastry-like dessert consists of layers of flour that are deep-fried to a biscuity goodness and then topped with a sweet, thick sauce made from khoya. Available only on Sundays, this sweet was initially called ‘French sweet’, but it didn’t catch the interest of diners. That was until Yagnappa renamed it chandrahara after a hit film that was playing at a theatre nearby. People couldn’t get enough of it. I tried looking up this movie, and while I didn’t find a Chandrahara from that time there was N. T. Rama Rao’s Chandraharam released in 1954.

Yagnappa also came up with the French fruit mixture with American ice cream, a dish which is still served. ‘We have no clue why he called it that, but this Europe trip must have been inspiring,’ Hemamalini tells me, pointing out that even the word tiffin in the establishment’s name was a British term. ‘He did things his own way, and people took to it because it was so different,’ she adds.

‘In my grand-uncle’s time, once the restaurant closed for the day around 7.30 p.m., we had dinner parties for around 100 people. These took place about three times a week,’ she tells me, adding that these were forty-course dinners with seven types of sweets, appetizers, and main courses. And the amazing part? It was a sit-down service!

Coming back to our breakfast, two dosas came to the table. One was the pudi dosa—a thick open dosa with a blob of potato bhaji in its centre and smeared generously with pudi (powdered lentils and chilli that is added over a dosa with a layer of ghee to help spread it). The other was the classic MTR masala dosa—a well-roasted triangle which hides the bhaji. Both are served with a little container of ghee on the side. Accompaniments of chutney and sambar completed the dishes, and there was silence at the table till we were done eating. A filter coffee that is finished with some frothy milk foam on top signalled the end of breakfast.

Their filter coffee played a huge role in MTR’s legacy. It was a beverage that spurred conversations among freedom fighters, businessmen, and more. Yagnappa’s dedication to perfecting the brew was unparalleled. He would painstakingly select, roast, and grind beans every day to ensure he achieved the flavour he wanted. He used buffalo milk to enhance the taste. Back then, the coffee was served in silver cups with a precise quarter inch of froth on top. That froth we were sipping truly had a story behind it, and Hemamalini recounted how the family worked hard on preserving the integrity of their coffee.

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