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write an essay on gupta administration in 500 words

Governance and Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure and Function

The Gupta Empire emerged in ancient India around the 3rd century AD , following the decline of previous dynasties like the Satavahanas and Kushans . Despite not being as vast as the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas ruled with a strong central government , uniting North India for over a hundred years. Their administration, marked by political titles and a feudal system , played a crucial role in shaping the empire’s governance and stability.

Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure, Officials and Judicial System

A. emergence of the gupta empire.

Murundas were kinsmen of Kushans who ruled central India from 230 AD to 250 AD after the decline of Kushans in North India.
Guptas were possibly the feudatories of Kushans in Uttar Pradesh , with centre of power in Prayaga .
It is mostly believed that Guptas were of Vaisya origin.
Strong Central Governance: Though the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Mauryan Empire , it kept North India united for more than a century.

It featured a strong central government , bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
It also covered major parts of the West and Northwest and reached the East coast of Deccan as f ar as the Pallava Kingdom.
Reasons for the Rise of the Gupta Empire
Availability of fertile land in Madhyadesha region covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
They had access to iron ores from south Bihar and Central India.
They had proximity to areas in North India which were carrying Silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.

B. Administration of the Gupta Empire

Titles and Royal Authority: During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed the titles Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin .
Divine Claims of Gupta Kings: Some historians have suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed divine status . For example, Samudragupta was compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription .
Strong Central Government: It featured a strong central government , bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
Feudalism: as an institution began to take root during this period.
Recruitment: to various posts was not only confined to the upper varnas.
Most posts became hereditary, weakening royal control.
Kumaramatyas: The most important officers of the empire were Kumaramatyas, who were possibly paid in cash.
King was looked upon as God Vishnu, the protector and preserver.
They were connected with Gods through epithets like Parama-Daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and params-bhagavata (the foremost worshiper of Vasudeva Krishna) and Parameshvara.
Kingship was hereditary, but there was the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture.
Ministers and Officials
The king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister , a Senapati or commander-in-chief of the army and other important officials.
The king maintained close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas .
Kumaramatyas: The term ‘Kumaramatya’ occurs in six Vaishali seals, an d he was associa ted with an office (Adikarana) of his own.
He seems to be important among Amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.
Kumaramatyas were attached to the king , crown prince, revenue department or province
Individuals holding the rank of Kumaramatya had additional designations as well.
Example: Harisena (son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka) was a Kumaramatya, Sandhivigrahaka and Mahadandanayaka.

Officers in the Gupta Empire


	Council of ministers	Keeper of royal records.
	Executive officers in charge of various departments	Collector of customs and tolls
	Minister for foreign affairs, war and peace	Provincial Governor
	Superior posts in army	Chief of the palace guards
	Commander of Cavalry	Superintendent of the Royal kitchen.
	The chief officer of the police department.	Spies
	head of the elephants department.	Head of the horse department.
Head of footsoldiers

“ Lokpala ”, also possibly referred to as a provincial governor.
Standing Army and Feudatory Support: The king maintained a standing army, which was supplemented occasionally by the forces of feudatories.
Adoption of Kushan Military Techniques: The Guptas learned the use of saddle, reins, buttoned coats, trousers and boots from the Kushans. All these gave them mobility and made them excellent horsemen .
Emphasis on Cavalry and Horse Archery: In the Army, chariots and elephants took backstage. The cavalry and horse archery came to the forefront.
Military Designations: Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as Baladhikrita and Mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
Senapati: The standard term “ Senapati ” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
A Vaishali seal mentions the Ranabhandagar-Adhikarana , which was the office of the military storehouse .

C. Division of the Empire (Bhuktis →Vishyas→Vithi→Villages)

Provinces (Bhuktis)
The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as Deshas or Bhuktis (provinces), which were administered by Uparikas (governors).
Uparika carried on the administration with control over the military machinery as well.
Damodarpur Plates: mention Uparika with the title of maharaja, which indicates his high status and rank in the administrative hierarchy.
Eran pillar Inscription of Budhagupta : dated Gupta year 165 AD, refers to Maharaja Surashmichandra as a Lokpal, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
Division of Provinces: The bhuktis or provinces were divided into districts known as Vishayas , which were headed by officers known as Vishyapatis.
Sometimes, even the kings directly appointed the Vishyapatis.
Prominent members of the town assisted the Vishyapati with administrative duties.
Guilds looked after their own affairs.
They punished the members for violations of the law of the guild.
Ayuktakas and Vithi-Mahattaras: refer to officials in these areas.
Gramika and Gramadhyaksha : At the village level, villagers chose these functionaries.
Mahattara: The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an Ashtabula-Adhikarana (a board of eight members ) headed by the Mahattara or village headman (sometimes also referred as the head of a family community).
Sanchi Inscription: of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the Panchmandali, which may have been a corporate body .
The charters issued for vassals living on the fringe of the empire had the Royal ‘Garuda’ seal.
Feudatory Obligations: They had obligations like personal attendance to the king, paying him a tribute, and presenting daughters for marriage.

D. Judicial System

Legal Development: It was far more developed than earlier times, and for the first time, civil and criminal law were clearly demarcated.
Theft and Adultery: came under criminal law, and property disputes came under civil law.
Inheritance Laws: Elaborate Laws were laid down about inheritance.
Variety of Courts: There were different courts like Karana, Adhikarana, Aharmasana etc.
Role of the King in Justice: The King was the upholder of the law and tried the case with the help of Brahamana priests.
Guild Governance: The guilds of artisans, merchants, etc., were governed by their own laws.
Varna-Based Legal System: Laws were based on differences in varnas, and culprits belonging to a higher Varna got less punishment.
Emphasis on Mild Punishments: Punishments were not severe, and imposing a fine was a common punishment.

Conclusion

The Gupta Empire left a lasting legacy in ancient Indian history through its efficient administration and governance . With a centralized government structure , hierarchical titles, and a well-defined feudal system, the Guptas maintained order and stability across their realms. Their judicial system , advancements in governance, and innovative administrative practices set a benchmark for future dynasties, leaving behind a significant imprint on the political landscape of ancient India .

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Write an essay on Gupta administration.

The Gupta dynasty is widely regarded as one of the most prosperous and influential periods in ancient Indian history. This dynasty ruled from the 4th to the 6th century CE and was characterized by its remarkable achievements in various fields such as art, literature, science, and philosophy. Under the Gupta rulers, India experienced an unprecedented period of peace, stability, and economic growth, which contributed to the country’s cultural and intellectual prosperity.

One of the most significant aspects of the Gupta administration was its political organization. The Gupta kings implemented a centralized form of government that allowed for efficient administration and effective communication throughout the empire. They appointed governors to oversee the provinces, who were required to report regularly to the central government. Additionally, the Gupta kings maintained a well-organized system of taxation, which helped to fund their ambitious building projects and military campaigns.

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The Gupta administration was also marked by significant advancements in the arts and sciences. During this period, Indian literature and poetry flourished, and scholars made notable contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Prominent figures of the Gupta period include Aryabhata, a mathematician; Varahamihira, an astronomer; and Charaka, a physician. The Gupta era also witnessed the emergence of classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam and Kathak, which remain an essential part of Indian culture to this day.

The Gupta dynasty’s most enduring legacy, however, was its contributions to the field of art and architecture. The Gupta kings were patrons of the arts, and they commissioned some of the most iconic works of Indian art, such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves. These rock-cut temples and monasteries are considered masterpieces of Indian art and architecture and are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Gupta period also saw the emergence of the Gupta style of art, which was characterized by a focus on realism and naturalism.

Furthermore, the Gupta administration was renowned for its military strength. The Gupta kings were skilled warriors and expanded their empire through a series of successful military campaigns. They defeated their rivals in the northwest, including the Shakas and the Huns, and expanded their empire to encompass much of northern India. Additionally, the Gupta rulers maintained a strong navy, which allowed them to control trade routes and engage in maritime commerce with Southeast Asia.

One of the most notable aspects of the Gupta administration was its commitment to religious tolerance. The Gupta rulers were known for their liberal and inclusive approach towards different faiths. They supported and patronized various religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. This tolerance and acceptance of diversity contributed significantly to India’s social and cultural fabric.

Overall, the Gupta administration was a period of great prosperity and achievement for India. Under their rule, the country experienced a period of peace and stability, leading to exceptional advancements in various fields such as art, literature, science, and philosophy. The Gupta kings were skilled administrators who fostered the arts and sciences and expanded their empire through military conquest. The Gupta era’s legacy continues to shape Indian culture and society, making it one of the most significant and influential periods in Indian history.

Gupta Administration of Gupta Empire

With the imperial Guptas in power, once again there was a Brahamanic notion in the Kingship whereby King’s right was divinely ordained and it was sanctified by the ceremonies that priests performed on their behalf. As put by the Markendeya Purana , the primary duty of a King was to follow Rajdharma , which put the duty to protect his subjects foremost.

However, during Gupta era, there were certain changes made in the very style of exercise of the monarchical authority in the country. For at least one thousand years, the Indian monarchs whether imperial or regional, had aimed to concentrate all the power in their hands. This absolute power usually manifested in subjugation of the provinces and regions through their bureaucracies. Both Nandas and Mauryas, as we have discussed earlier, were the greatest centralists. However, the model of Guptas was different and this difference lied in decentralized administration .

Decentralisation and devolution of power – The Samanta System

The Guptas had intentionally devolved power on a variety of the people and authorities. Rather than bolstering the bureaucratic steel-frame, they developed political hierarchies. The most vital information about this tendency of the Guptas comes from the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, which discussed deeds of Samudragupta. It notes that Samudragupta did not want to kill or destroy his enemies for his own gratification, but rather, after defeating them, he kept their domains within the empire and would allow them to rule. They were to be protected by the empire.

This indicates that Samudragupta was basically developing a kind of contract between tributary kings {which were called Samantas } and himself as an overlord.

A Samanta literally meant a neighbour. In Gupta period, a Samanta was a neighbouring subsidiary ruler who was a friendly tributary of the Gupta overlords. The decentralization was also effected via various land grants, carrying varied immunities and concessions, to persons and institutions. This is one reason that we don’t find an over elaborate bureaucracy in Gupta period as was a case with Maurya period.

This arrangement worked extremely well till Skandgupta , and it helped to keep peace among the various ruling families. However, afterwards, it did not work for weaker Guptas. But nevertheless, this system got much deeper with the evolution of Indian Feudalism and remained in force until the end of British Rule in the country.

Guptas: Imperial Government

The Imperial Guptas did not have an over elaborate bureaucracy due to effective decentralisation of administrative authority by land grants and the friendly Samanta contracts with subdued neighbours.

At their imperial kingdom at Pataliputra, the King was advised by a Council of Ministers ( Mantriparishada ) led by a Pradhan Mantri. Pradhan Mantri headed the civil administration and there was a good number of other ministers and officials, who carried out the duties related to military and other matters. The Key officers of the Gupta machinery include the below:

We note here that in the central government, the major emphasis was on defense and security, which reflected the major concern of the state power and security of the people. Further, the imperial Guptas did not interfere in the administrations of those regions which accepted their suzerainty. However, there was a five tiered administration system in the regions which were under the direct control of the Gupta Kings.

The first tier was the King and his council as discussed above.
The second layer of administration dealt with the administration of the provinces {provinces were called Bhukti or Desa }. The provincial councils were headed by the Kumaraamatyas
The third layer of government was a district level. Each Bhukti or Desa was divided into various districts called Pradesha . The terms Adhisthana or Pattana was also used for this third tier. A Vishya was headed by Ayuktas or Vishyapatis.
The fourth layer of administration was at group or villages (Vithi) or town level. For each village there was a village assembly consisting of village elders, guided by a village headman. This Gram sabha was smallest administration unit. The head of the village was called Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha . Kutumbis and Mahattaras are other words used for similar village level officers.
In the towns there were city corporations, headed by a chairman, the nagarashreshthin , which consisted of many representatives of guild merchants including Sarthavaha who represented the trading communities, Prathamakulika who represented the crafting communities (artisans) and Prathamakayastha, who represented Government official community . Pustapala were junior (district level) record officers.

It’s worth note here that all substantive decisions, affecting each town or village, were taken at the local level, reflecting the decentralising policies of the state. The Kumaraamatyas and the ayuktakas functioned as serving intermediaries between the centre and the periphery. This model of organisation was also replicated by some of the Samantas.

Implications of Decentralization

In the long run, the Gupta policy of devolution of power helped to create layers of responsibility in the governance. It also allowed self-governing communities to progress within the framework of their jurisdiction. The Gupta rule exerted a cohesive and beneficial effect upon the social classes of India. It was a highly pluralist world that was being created, a world in which groups of people came together to define their common interests or activities; they formed associations, solicited patronage and proceeded with creating prosperity for themselves. The Gupta state was there to guide and help, not to coerce.

Guptas Land Policy and Seeds of Indian Feudalism

The idea of Samanta system of Gupta era becomes much clearer when we examine their land policy. In contrast with the Mauryas who acquired as much land as much possible, the Guptas actively gave as much land as much possible in the form of land grants. Land grants were prevalent in post-Vedic period in its infancies. However, it became widespread under Satavahanas in Deccan, Shakas in western India, and Pallavas in south India. However, Guptas went one step ahead and made land grants a substantive part of discharge of their responsibilities.

The Guptas made three types of grants.

First was the religious grants to brahmans , individually or collectively, known as brahmadeya grants
Second was the grants to institutions such as temples and monasteries known as devagrahara or devadana
Third were secular grants to crown officers, craft guilds or also military commanders in rare occasions.

The objective of giving land grants, in case of Brahmadeya might be religious. However, the more pressing reason for the same appears to be the contraction of the monetary economy mainly because of contraction of international trade.

This system of the land grants got further accelerated in Post-Gupta period and created ideal conditions for development of Indian feudalism.

Gupta Taxation

There were several types of taxes in Gupta era as follows:

Bali: Bali which was voluntary in Maurya era and was given to the King became compulsory in Gupta Era.
Bhaga: King’s share in all produce of the cultivators. It was 1/6 th part of produce.
Bhoga: Bhoga refers to the tax in kind of gifts, flowers, woods, fruits etc.
Hiranya: This was the tax paid in cash (Gold) {Hiranya means Gold}
Halivakara: Halivakra was a kind of tax slab, those who owned a plough used to pay tax.
Kara: It might have been some irregular tax charged from villagers.
Shulka: It was custom or toll tax very much similar to Chungi / Octroi in modern times.
Udinanga : It might be a social security kind of tax.
Klipta : It was related to sale and purchase of lands.

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Gupta Administration - Ancient India History Notes

Amruta Patil

Jun 19, 2024

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Gupta Empire covered much of the Indian subcontinent between 319 and 467 CE had top to bottom administrative hierarchy. The highest authority in the Gupta dynasty was the king, vested with political, military, and judicial powers. In this article, we will discuss Gupta Administration which will be significant in understanding the administrative structure of Gupta empire which is part of for UPSC Civil services exam syllabus.

Gupta Empire in brief

The Gupta Empire, one of the most influential dynasties in ancient Indian history, thrived during the Golden Age of India from the early 4th century CE to the early 6th century CE .
Founded by Gupta, the empire reached its zenith between 319 and 467 CE, covering a significant portion of the Indian subcontinent. The Gupta rulers, particularly Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and Skandagupta, played pivotal roles in shaping the empire's success.
This period is often regarded as the Golden Age due to the remarkable advancements in various fields, including art, science, literature, and philosophy.
The Gupta Empire witnessed a flourishing of Indian culture, marked by significant achievements in literature, particularly evident in the works of the renowned Sanskrit poet Kalidasa.
However, like many empires, the Gupta Empire eventually declined, with factors such as invasions, internal conflicts, and economic challenges playing a role in its downfall.
Despite its eventual decline, the legacy of the Gupta Empire left an indelible mark on the cultural and intellectual heritage of ancient India.
The empire, known by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi, and Avani , exhibited a complex system of provinces and subdivisions.
It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga .

Other Relevant Links

Gupta Administration - Features

King as highest authority.

The highest authority in the Gupta dynasty was the king, vested with political, military, and judicial powers. (Monarchy was the dominant form).

, and . (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).

, for example, is compared to (Supreme Being). .

The authority of the king was checked by the council of ministers known as mantri parishad., who advised the king to follow Rajya Dharma.
Mantri Parishad: Ministerial council was called Mantri Parishad . It was made up of high-ranking officials ( Amatyas )such as the kumaramatya and the sandhivigrahika .
The Gupta Empire was divided into Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, and Mandala. With these decentralized administrative divisions; the Guptas were able to command their domains efficiently. Under them, the northern territories of India were consolidated under one political entity.

Administrative divisions and governing Officers

Provincial administration

The empire was divided into provinces called 'bhuktis' .
The king directly appointed the uparika, who in turn frequently appointed the district administration and the district board.
Uparika continued to rule "with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses, and soldiers," implying control over military machinery as well.
The uparika's use of the title maharaja on three Damodarpur plates indicates his high status and position in the administrative hierarchy.
The bhuktis were further classified as 'Vishyas' .

District Administration

'Vishayas', were overseen by a Vishayapati.
Vishayapatis were appointed by the provincial governor or, in some cases, the king himself to control the vishayas.
The Vishayapati was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and overseeing local administration.
The vishyapatis were sometimes directly appointed by the kings. The vishyapati was assisted in administrative duties by prominent members of the town.
The Budhagupta Eran pillar inscription , dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to Maharaja Surashmichandra as a lokpala , ruling over the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
Lokpala appears to be a provincial governor in this context.

Administrative Unit Below district level

Clusters of settlements known as vithi, bhumi, pathaka, and peta were the administrative units below the district level.
Vithis: Multiple villages were grouped into ‘ Vithis ’,sub-dristricts or modern day blocks.
Gram: The bhuktis were further classified as villages 'Gram' .The village administration was overseen by the village headman ‘Gramika’. Unlike the Mauryan period, the administration in the Gupta period appears to have been managed from the ground up.
At the local level, the administration was carried out by village councils or Grama Sabhas. These councils were responsible for managing local affairs, resolving disputes, and ensuring the well-being of the community.
There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras . Villagers elected functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha .
The Damodarpur copper plate from the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara.
Mahattara has several meanings, including village elder, village headman, and head of a family community.
The panchmandali , which may have been a corporate body, is mentioned in a Sanchi inscription from the time of Chandragupta II.

Administration in cities

The administration of the cities was assigned to a Parishad headed by Nagararakshaka, who was subordinate to Purapala Uparika. The Avasthika was the superintendent of Dharamsalas.
From the Damodarpur copper plate, we get information about the local administration of the Guptas.
The district headquarters was Adhisthanas, and the court at this level was Adhikarnas.
The information on the administration at the Vithi level is provided in the Kalaikuri inscription. Some inscriptions from the time of the Skandagupta also tell us about the administration of that period.

Centralized Administration - Ministers and Other Officials

Mantri Mukhya - Prime Minister
Sandhivigrahika - Minister in Charge of Peace and War who was in charge of contact and correspondence with other states, including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.
Akshapataladhikrita - Minister in Charge of Records
Mahabaladhikrita - Minister in Charge of the Military
Mahadandanayaka or Dandanayaka - Senior Judicial
The Allahabad prashasti refers to the Sabha , a ministerial assembly or council.
High-ranking officials were referred to as dandanayakas , while mahadandanayakas were high-ranking judicial or military officers.
One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta . The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All of this suggests that these positions were hereditary in nature.
Another person was given the title mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), indicating military duties.
Official ranks and designations are mentioned on seals and inscriptions, but their precise meaning is often unknown.

Revenue Administration

The Gupta rulers implemented a sophisticated revenue system to ensure economic stability.
The land revenue, known as Bhaga, was collected from the peasants and was usually one-sixth or one-fourth of the agricultural produce.
The revenue administration was overseen by officers known as Samahartas or revenue collectors.
besides Bhaga other taxes during the period were terms Bhoga, Kara, and Sulka.
Udranga was a fixed tax (Kathiawad copper plate dated towards the end of the 6th century C.E informs us that the professions related to cloth, armor, dye, weaving, and shoemaking were taxed).
The taxes paid in cash were known as Hiranya.
It is generally believed that the common man was overloaded with taxes.
In the absence of cash salaries, land grants with hereditary rights were given to various administrators in this period.
Largely, the Brahmins who received lands were exempted from paying their taxes.
A large number of wastelands were brought under cultivation during this period. The rulers of this period also focused on irrigation methods to increase production.

Judicial Administration

The judicial system in the Gupta Empire was based on the principles of Dharma, and justice was dispensed through a well-organized legal system.
The king was the ultimate authority, but local judges known as Dharmadhyakshas presided over legal matters at the district level.
The legal system aimed to ensure fairness and uphold the principles of righteousness.
Vaishali seal mentions the dandapashika's adhikarana (office), which could have been a district-level police station.

Military administration

Military designations like baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry) are mentioned on seals and inscriptions.
The term "senapati" does not appear in Gupta inscriptions, but it may appear in some Vakataka epigraphs.
The ranabhandagar-adhikarana , or military storehouse office, is mentioned on a Vaishali seal.
The mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal kitchen) were two officials specifically connected with the royal establishment.
A Vaishali seal refers to a person as a mahapratihara as well as a taravara . The administrative structure's top layer also included amatyas and sachivas , who were executive officers in charge of various departments.
Spies known as dutakas were part of the espionage system. Another group of high-ranking officers were the ayuktakas .

Gupta Empire's administrative structure was characterized by a centralized hierarchy, with the king as the highest authority. Provinces, districts, and villages were efficiently governed through appointed officials, ensuring effective control over the vast territories. This administrative model, marked by decentralization and institutionalized practices, left a lasting impact on the subsequent periods of Indian history. The decentralization of power allowed for effective governance at various levels, and the emphasis on justice, economic management, and military strength contributed to the Gupta Empire's success during this period in Indian history.

Question: How was the administration of the Gupta Empire?

In the Gupta Empire, a community and group composed of a chief minister and a Senapati directed the king in the administration of his realm. Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi, and Avani were some of the empire's other names.

Question: What was the Gupta Empire's organisational structure?

There was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom, according to an analysis of the epigraphical documents of the Gupta empire. There were many names for the empire, including Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi, and Avani. There were 26 provinces with the names Bhukti, Pradesha, and Bhoga.

Question: How was the Gupta period governed?

The king's authority was increasingly constrained during the Gupta era, and he was counselled to rule with the aid of ministers and to respect the judgement of guilds and corporate bodies. On their coinage, the Gupta kings are typically shown.

Question: In the Gupta period, what was the correct rank of "Baladhikarana"?

(a) Head of Army

(b) Head of Police

(d) None of the above

Answer: (a) See the Explanation

During the Gupta period, the army was led by "Baladhikarana." The Gupta Empire is known as India's Golden Age because of the numerous inventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy that illuminated aspects of Hindu culture.

Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.

Question: Consider the following statements:

The provinces of the Gupta Empire were known as deshas or bhuktis. Governors, known as uparikas, were in charge of running them.

Which of the following is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) See the Explanation

The Gupta Empire's provinces were known as deshas or bhuktis. Uparikas, or governors, were in charge of running them. The uparika was directly appointed by the king, who also frequently appointed the district administration and the district board. On seals and inscriptions, military titles such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry) are mentioned. The term "senapati" is not found in Gupta inscriptions, but it may be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.

Therefore, option (d) is the correct answer.

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World history

Course: world history > unit 2.

The rise of empires in India
Gupta Dynasty

The Maurya and Gupta Empires

Empires in India
The history of Hinduism
The history of Buddhism
Key concepts: Hinduism and Buddhism
Indian cultures: focus on Hinduism and Buddhism

By employing a carefully organized bureaucratic system, the Maurya and Gupta Empires were able to maintain security and political unity across large parts of western and southern Asia.
This bureaucratic system included a common economic system that supported stable agriculture across vast land holdings and successful trade and commerce.
Through centralized authority, which included a powerful military, the rulers of these empires bound together the previously fractured regions of the Indian subcontinent.

Unification and military

Centralization and taxation, trade and commerce, dissolution of maurya and rise of the gupta empire, gupta empire expansion, gupta empire of chandragupta ii, want to join the conversation.

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Gupta Dynasty and Their Administration

Introduction

After the Mauryan empire, many small kingdoms rose and fell. In the period from c. 300 to 700 CE, a classical pattern of an imperial rule evolved, paving the way for state formation in many regions.
During this period, the Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power and achieved the political unification of a large part of the Indian subcontinent.
It featured a strong central government, bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
Feudalism as an institution began to take root during this period. With an effective guild system and overseas trade, the Gupta economy boomed.
Great works in Sanskrit were produced during this period and a high level of cultural maturity in fine arts, sculpture and architecture was achieved.
The living standards of upper classes reached a peak. Education, art
and study of science progressed, but the feudal system of governance put people in some form of hardship.
Although some historians proclaim that Gupta period was a golden age, it is not entirely accurate. Many scholars would, however, agree that it was a period of cultural florescence and a classical age for the arts.
Literary sources
Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and Katyayana smritis.
Kamandaka’s Nitisara , a work on polity addressed to the king (400 CE)
Devichandraguptam and Mudrarakshasam by Vishakadutta provide details about the rise of the Guptas.
Buddhist and Jaina texts
Works of Kalidasa
Accounts of the Chinese traveller Fahien
Epigraphical Sources
Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription àchievements of Chandragupta I.
Allahabad Pillar inscription àdescribing Samudragupta’s personality and achievements in 33 lines composed by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit in Nagari script.

Numismatic Sources

Coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends and figures.
These gold coins tell us about the titles the Guptas assumed and the Vedic rituals they performed.

Origins of the Gupta Dynasty

Evidence on the origin and antecedents of the Gupta dynasty is limited. The Gupta kings seem to have risen from modest origins.
Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of the Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a Lichchavi prince.
The marriage is mentioned in the records of his successors with pride indicating that that royal connection would have contributed to the rise of Guptas.
Lichchavi was an old, established gana-sangha and its territory lay between the Ganges and the Nepal Terai.
According to Allahabad pillar inscription Samudragupta , the illustrious son of Chandragupta I, had conquered the whole fertile plains west of Prayag to Mathura and launched a spectacular raid through Kalinga into the south as far as Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.
The Puranas mention Magadha, Allahabad and Oudh as the Gupta dominions.

Chandragupta

Chandragupta 1 and Empire Building:

The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri Gupta (240–280 CE) who was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE).
Both Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as Maharajas in inscriptions. Chandragupta I, the son of Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319 to 335 CE and is considered to be the first great king of the Gupta Empire.
Chandragupta held the title of maharaja-adhiraja (great king over other kings). His imperial position is inferred from the records of others. No inscriptions or coins have survived from his reign.

Samudragupta

Chandragupta I appointed his son Samudragupta to succeed him in 335 CE.
A lengthy eulogy on him, inscribed on an Ashokan pillar, suggests that he was claiming the legacy of the Mauryan kingdom.
This inscription gives an impressive list of kings and regions that succumbed to Samudragupta’s march across the country.
Four northern kings were conquered mainly in the area around Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh.
The kings of the south and the east were forced to pay homage, and from the places mentioned, it appears that Samudragupta campaigned down the eastern coast as far as Kanchipuram.
Nine kings of the western half of the Ganges Plain were violently uprooted. The forest kings (tribal chiefs of Central India and the Deccan) were forced to pay tribute.
The kings of Assam and Bengal in eastern India and those of small kingdoms in Nepal and the Punjab also paid tribute by submission.
Nine Republics in Rajasthan, including the Malavas and Yaudheyas, were forced to accept Gupta’s suzerainty.
In addition, foreign kings, such as the Daivaputra Shahanushahi (a Kushana title), the Sakas and the king of Lanka also paid tribute, as mentioned in the eulogy.
Though this statement is exaggerated, it is undeniable that the southern kings paid tribute, while the northern kingdoms were annexed to the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta.
His direct control was confined to the Ganges valley, since the Sakas remained unconquered in western India.
The tribes of Rajasthan paid tribute, but the Punjab was outside the limits of his authority. Samudragupta’s campaign broke the power of the tribal republics in those regions that led to repeated invasions from the Huns.
The relationship with Kushanas is not certain, but with regard to Lanka, its ruler Meghavarman sent presents and requested permission from Samudragupta to build a Buddhist monastery at Gaya.
Samudragupta’s reign lasted for about 40 years, which must have given him ample time to plan and organise these campaigns.
He performed the horsesacrifice ritual to proclaim his military conquests.
Samudragupta patronised scholars and poets like Harisena and thus promoted Sanskrit literature.
Though an ardent follower of Vaishnavism, he also patronised the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
As a lover of poetry and music, he was given the title “Kaviraja”.
His coins bear the insignia of him playing the vina (lute).

Chandragupta II

Named after his grandfather, Chandragupta II was a capable ruler, who ruled for 40 years from c. 375 to 415 CE.
He came to power after a succession struggle with his brother Rama Gupta.
He is also known as Vikramaditya.
With the capital at Pataliputra, Chandragupta II extended the limits of the Gupta Empire by conquest and matrimonial alliances.
He married off his daughter Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, who ruled the strategic lands of Deccan.
This alliance was highly useful when he proceeded against the Saka rulers of western India.
Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat by defeating the Saka rulers who had reigned for about four centuries in the region.
The kingdom’s prosperity grew out of its trade links with Roman Empire.
After establishing himself in eastern and western India, Chandragupta II defeated northern rulers like the Huns, Kambojas and Kiratas.
He was a great conqueror and an able administrator as well. His other names (as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama, Vikramaditya and Sakari.
His court had nine jewels or navaratnas , that is, nine eminent people in various fields of art, literature and science.
This included th e great Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar Harisena, the lexicographer Amarasimha, and the physician Dhanvantari.
Fahien, the Buddhist scholar from China, visited India during his reign. He records the prosperity of the Gupta Empire.
Chandragupta II was the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins. His rule thus formed the peak period of Gupta’s territorial expansion.

Successors

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumara Gupta I, who founded the Nalanda University.
He was also called Sakraditya. The last great king of the Gupta dynasty, Skanda Gupta, was the son of Kumara Gupta I.
He was able to repulse an attack by the Huns, but the recurrence of Huns’ invasion strained his empire’s coffers.
The Gupta Empire declined after the death of Skanda Gupta in 467 CE.
He was followed by many successors who hastened the end of the Gupta Empire.
The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnu Gupta who reigned from 540 to 550 CE.

Gupta’s Administrative

Gupta Administration :

During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja , parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara .
They were also connected with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna).
Some historians have suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed divine status. For example, Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription.
These assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt to claim divine status by the king.

Ministers and Other officials

Seals and inscriptions make a mention of official ranks and designations, whose precise meaning is often uncertain.
The term “ kumaramatya ” occurs in six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title represented a high-ranking officer associated with an office ( adikarana ) of his own.
The designation “ amatya ” occurs on several Bita seals, and the “ kumaramatya ” seems to have been pre-eminent among amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal Kumaramatyas were attached to the king, crown prince, revenue department or a province.
One of the Vaishali seals refers to a kumaramatya who seems to have been in charge of the maintenance of the sacred coronation tank of the Lichchavis. Individuals holding the ranks of kumaramatya sometimes had additional designations as well, and such ranks were hereditary.
For example,Harisena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti (inscriptions of praise), was a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka, and was the son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.

Council of Ministers

The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers).
The Allahabad prashasti refers to an assembly or council, presumably of ministers, which was known as the Sabha.
The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who seems to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other states, including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.
High-ranking officials were called dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were high-ranking judicial or military officers.
One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta.
The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these suggest that these posts were hereditary by nature.
Another person had a designation mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry),indicating military functions.

Division of the Empire

The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas or bhuktis .
They were administered by governors who were usually designated as uparikas .
The uparika was directly appointed by the king and he, in turn, frequently appointed the head of the district administration and the district board.
Uparika carried on the administration “with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses and soldiers”, indicating his control over the military machinery as well.
The fact that the uparika had the title maharaja in three of the Damodarpur plates indicates his high status and rank in the administrative hierarchy.
The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta , dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja Surashmichandra as a lokpala, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
Lokpala here seems to refer to a provincial governor.
The provinces of the Gupta Empire were divided into districts known as visayas, which were controlled by officers known as vishyapatis .
The vishyapatis seems to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor.
Sometimes, even the kings directly appointed the vishyapatis. Prominent members of the town assisted the vishyapati in administrative duties.

Administrative Units below the District level

The administrative units below the district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta.
There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras.
At the village level, villagers chose functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha.
The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara .
Mahattara has a range of meanings including village elder, village headman, and head of a family community.
The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the panchmandali, which may have been a corporate body.
Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
The standard term “senapati” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the office of the military storehouse.
Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which may have been a district-level police office.
The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included the mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal kitchen).
A Vaishali seal mentions a person both as a mahapratihara and a taravara.
The top layer of the administrative structure also included amatyas and sachivas, who were executive officers in charge of various departments.
The system of espionage included spies known as dutakas .
The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking officers.

Economic Condition

Nitisara , written by Kamandaka , is a text like Arthasastra . It emphasises the importance of the royal treasury and mentions various sources of revenue.
The many ambitious military campaigns of kings like Samudragupta must have been financed through revenue surpluses.
Gupta inscriptions reveal some details about the revenue department.
The akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of royal records.
Gupta inscriptions mention the terms klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara, and iranyavesti meant forced labour.

Agriculture and Agrarian Structure

Agriculture flourished in the Gupta period due to establishment of irrigation works.
Apart from the state and individual cultivators, Brahmins, Buddhists and Jain sanghas brought waste lands under cultivation when they were donated to them as religious endowments.
Cultivators were asked to maintain their crops properly from damages and those who indulged in damaging the crops were punished. Likewise, crops and fields were fenced.
The crops cultivated during the Gupta period were rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane and oil seeds.
From Kalidasa, we come to know that the south was famous for pepper and cardamom.
Varahamihira gives elaborate advice on the plantation of fruit trees.
The Paharpur copper plate inscription indicates that the king was the sole proprietor of the land.
Even when he made land grants, he reserved his prerogatives over it.
The location and boundaries of individual plots were marked out and measured by the record keepers and influential men in the locality.
As stated in Paharpur plates, an officer called ustapala maintained records of all the land transactions in the district and the village accountant preserved records of land in the village.
During the Gupta period, the land was classified as detailed below.

1.Kshetra Cultivatable land

2.Khila Waste land

3.Aprahata Jungle or waste land

4.Vasti Habitable land

5.Gapata Sarahaà Pastoral land

Different Land Tenures

Types of Tenures Nature of Holding

1.Nivi dharmaà ..->Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North and Central India and Bengal.

2.Nivi dharma aksayana -> A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived from it.

3.Aprada dharmaà ->Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.

4.Bhumi chchidranyaya –>àRight of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.

Other Land Grants

1 .Agrahara grantsà–> Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.

2.Devagrahara grantsà –>A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants for the repair and worship of temples.

3.Secular grants–> àGrants made to feudatories of Guptas

The importance of irrigation to agriculture was recognised in India from the earliest times.
From the Narada Smriti , we understand that there were two kinds of
dykes: the bardhya , which protected the field from floods, and the khara , which served the purpose of irrigation.
To prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) were constructed, which is mentioned by Amarasimha.
Canals were constructed not only from rivers but also from tanks and lakes. The most famous lake was the Sudarsana lake at the foot of Girnar Hills in Gujarat.

Position of Peasantry

The position of peasantry was undermined. They were reduced to the position of serfs due to the caste classification and also due to the granting of various privileges and lands to others.
The practice of lease-holding reduced the permanent tenants to tenants at will (which means tenants could be evicted without notice).
The farmers were required to pay various taxes.

List of Different Kinds of Taxes

1.Bhaga à King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of the produce paid by cultivators

2.Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to

provide to the king

3.Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax)

4.Bali A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory. It was an oppressive tax.

5.Udianga Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.

6.Uparikara Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was collected for.

7.Hiranya Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.

8.Vata-Bhuta Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds ( vata ) and the spirits ( bhuta )

9.Halivakara A plough tax paid by every cultivator owning a plough

10.Sulka A royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants. Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls.

11.Klipta and Upakilpta àrelated to sale and purchase of lands.

Industry: Mining and Metallurgy

Mining and metallurgy was one of the most flourishing industries during the Gupta period.
Amarasimha, Varahamihira and Kalidasa make frequent mention of the existence of mines.
The rich deposits of iron ore from Bihar and copper from Rajasthan were mined extensively during this period.
The list of metals used apart from iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell-metal, mica, manganese, antimony, red chalk ( sanssilajata ) and red arsenic.
Blacksmiths were next only to agriculturists in importance in the society.
Metal was used for the manufacture of various domestic implements, utensils and weapons.
The improvement in the ploughshare, with the discovery of iron, for deep ploughing and for increasing cultivation happened during this period.
The most important and visible evidence of the high stage of development
in metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex in Delhi, identified with Chandragupta II.
This monolith iron pillar has lasted through the centuries without rusting. It is a monument to the great craftsmanship of the iron workers during the Gupta period.
Coin casting, metal engraving, pottery making, terracotta work and wood carving were other specialised crafts.
A significant development of the period in metal technology was the making of the seals and statutes of Buddha and other gods.
It was laid down that the people had to pay for the loss arising out smelting of iron, gold, silver, copper, tin and lead.

Trade and Commerce

The contribution of traders to the soundness of the Gupta economy is quite impressive.
Two distinctive types of traders called sresti and sarthavaha Sresti was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position by virtue of his wealth and influence in the commercial life and administration of the place.
The sarthavaha was a caravan trader who carried his goods to different places for profitable sale.
Trade items ranged from products for daily use to valuable and luxury goods.
They included pepper, sandalwood, elephants, horses, gold, copper, iron and mica.
The abundant inscriptions and seals mentioning artisans, merchants and guilds are indicative of the thriving crafts and trade. (Guild is a society or other organisation of people with common interests or an association ofmerchants.)
There are several references in several sources to artisans, traders and occupational groups in the guilds.
Guilds continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise.
They remained virtually autonomous in their internal organisation, and the government respected their laws.
These laws were generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each guild was a member.
The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds.
They mention that the guild had a chief and two, three or five executive officers.
Guild laws were apparently laid down in written documents. The

Brihaspati Smriti refers to guilds rendering justice to their members and suggests that these decisions should, by and large, be approved by the king. There is also mention of the philanthropic activities of guilds, for instance, providing shelter for travellers and building assembly houses, temples and gardens.

The inscription also records that the chief of the guilds played an important role in the district-level administrative bodies.
There is also mention of joint corporate bodies of merchant-bankers, caravan merchants and
The guilds also acted as banks. The names of donors are mentioned in this inscription.
Usury (the lending of money at an exorbitant rate of interest) was in practice during the Gupta period.
The detailed discussion in the sources of that period indicates that money was used, borrowed and loaned for profit.
There were many ports that facilitated trade in the western coast of India such as Calliena (Kalyan), Chaul port in ruin sixty kilometres south of Mumbai, and the markets of Male(Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore), Salopatana, Nalopatana and Pandopatana on the Malabar coast.
Fahien refers to Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre of trade on the eastern coast.
These ports and towns were connected with those of Persia, Arabia and Byzantium on the one hand and Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on the other.
Fahien describes the perils of the sea route between India and China. The goods traded from India were rare gems, pearls, fine textiles and aromatics. Indians bought silk and other articles from China.

Art and Architecture

By evolving the Nagara and the Dravida styles, the Gupta art ushers in a formative and creative age in the history of Indian architecture with considerable scope for future development.

Rock-cut and Structural Temples

The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a great extent but possess striking novelty by bringing about extensive changes in the ornamentation of the facade and in the designs of the pillars in the interior.
The most notable groups of the rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (Madhya Pradesh).
The Udayagiri caves (Orissa) are also of this type.

The structural temples have the following attributes:

(1)flat-roofed square temples;

(2) flat-roofed square temple with a vimana (second storey);

(3) square temple with a curvilinear tower ( shikara ) above;

(4) rectangular temple; and

(5) circular temple.

The second group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the Dravida style.
The importance of the third group lies in the innovation of a shikhara that caps the sanctum sanctorum, the main feature of the Nagara style.

Stupas were also built in large numbers but the best are found at Samat (Uttar

Pradesh), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur Khas (Sind).

Sculpture: Stone Sculpture

A good specimen of stone sculpture is the well-known erect Buddha from Sarnath.
Of the puranic images, perhaps the most impressive is the great Boar (Varaha) at the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.

Metal statues

The technology of casting statues on a large scale of core process was practised by the craftsmen during the Gupta period with great workmanship.
Two remarkable examples of Gupta metal sculpture are

( 1) a copper image of the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Nalanda in Bihar

(2) the Sultanganj Buddha of seven-and-a-half feet in height.

The art of painting seems to have been in popular demand in the Gupta period than the art of stone sculptures.
The mural paintings of this period are found at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places.
From the point of technique, the surface of these paintings was perhaps
done in a very simple way.
The mural paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, for frescoes is painted while the plaster is still damp and the murals of Ajanta were made after it had set.
The art of Ajanta and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School of painting at its best.

Terracotta and Pottery

Clay figurines were used both for religious and secular purposes. We have figurines of Vishnu, Karttikeya, Durga, Naga andother gods and goddesses.
Gupta pottery remains found at Ahchichhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and Bashar afford proof of excellence of pottery. The most distinctive class of pottery of this period is the “red ware”.

Sanskrit Literature

The Guptas made Sanskrit the official language and all their epigraphic records were written in it. The period saw the last phase of the Smriti literature.

Sanskrit Grammar

The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who wrote Mahabhashya on the topic.
This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosa , a thesaurus in Sanskrit, by Amarasimha.
A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandrogomia, composed a book on grammar named Chandravyakaranam .

Puranas and Ithihasas

The Puranas, as we know them in their present form, were composed during this time.
They are the legends as recorded by the Brahmins. They were originally composed by bards (professional storytellers), but now, having come into priestly hands, they were rewritten in classical Sanskrit.
Details on Hindu sects, rites and customs were added in order to make them sacrosanct religious documents.
The succession of dynasties was recorded in the form of prophesies.
Thus what began as popular memories of the past were revived and rewritten in prophetic form and became the Brahmanical interpretation of the past.
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana also got their final touches and received their present shape during this period.

Buddhist Literature

The earliest Buddhist works are in Pali, but in the later phase, Sanskrit came to beused to a great extent.
Most of the works are in prose with verse passages in mixed Sanskrit. Arya Deva and Arya Asanga of the Gupta period are the most notable writers.
The first regular Buddhist work on logic was written by Vasubandhu .
Vasubandhu’s disciple, Dignaga, was also the author of many learned works.

Jaina Literature

The Jaina canonical literature at first took shape in Prakrit dialects . Sanskrit came to be the medium later.
Within a short time, Jainism produced many great scholars and by their efforts the Hindu itihasa and puranas were recast in Jaina versions to popularise their doctrines.
Vimala produced a Jaina version of Ramayana.
Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas.

Secular Literature

Samudragupta himself had established his fame as Kaviraja.
It is widely believed that his court was adorned by the celebrated navaratnas like Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Visakadatta and Dhanvantri.
Kalidasa’s famous dramas are Sakunthalam , Malavikagnimitram and Vikramaurvashiyam .
The works of Sudraka ( Mrichchhakatika ), Visakhadatta ( Mudraraksasa and Devichandraguptam ) and the lesser known dramatists and writers also contributed to the literary and social values in the classical age.
An interesting feature of the dramas of this period is that while the elite spoke in Sanskrit, the common people spoke Prakrit.

Prakrit Language and Literature

In Prakrit, there was patronage outside the court circle.
The Gupta age witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardh Magadhi spoken in Awadh and Bundelkhand and Magadhi in modern Bihar.

Nalanda University

Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha in India.
The site is located about ninety five kilometres southeast of Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif and was a centre of learning from the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The highly formalised methods of Vedic learning helped inspire the establishment of large teaching institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila, which are often characterised as India’s early universities.
Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kanauj.
The liberal cultural traditions inherited from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth and prosperity until the ninth century.
The subsequent centuries were a time of gradual decline, a period during which Buddhism became popular in eastern India patronised by the Palas of Bengal.
At its peak, the Nalanda attracted scholars and students from near and far with some travelling all the way from Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia.
Archaeological findings also confirm the contact with the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a monastery in the complex.
Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in c. 1200 CE.
While some sources note that the Mahavihara continued to function in a makeshift fashion for a little longer, it was eventually abandoned and forgotten.
The site was accidentally discovered when the Archaeological Survey of India surveyed the area.
Systematic excavations commenced in 1915, which unearthed 11 monasteries and 6 brick temples situated on 12 hectares (30 acres) of land.
A trove of sculptures, coins, seals and inscriptions have also been discovered since then and all of them are on display in the Nalanda Archaeological Museum situated nearby.
Nalanda is now a notable tourist destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism circuit.
Recently, the government of India, in cooperation with other South and South-east Asian countries, has revived this university.

Gupta Sciences

Mathematics and Astronomy

The invention of the theory of zero and the consequent evolution of the decimal system are to be credited to the thinkers of this age.
In the Surya Siddanta , Aryabhatta (belonging to late fifth and early sixth century CE) examined the true cause of the solar eclipses.
In calculation of the size of the earth, he is very close to the modern estimation.
He was the first astronomer to discover that the earth rotates on its own axis. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam , which deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita (sixth century CE) is an encyclopaedia of astronomy, physical geography, botany and natural history.
His other works are Panch Siddhantika and Brihat Jataka .
Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh century CE) is author of important works on mathematics and astronomy, namely Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka .

Medical Sciences

Metallic preparations for the purpose of medicine and references to the use of mercury and iron by Varahamihira and others indicate that much progress was made in chemistry.
The Navanitakam was a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formulation and prescriptions. Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science authored by Palakapya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period.

Decline of the Gupta

The last recognised king of the Gupta line was Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550 CE.
Internal fighting and dissensions among the royal family led to its collapse. During the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the Vakataka ruler Narendrasena of western Deccan, attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala.
Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the Guptas.
During Skanda Gupta’s reign, the grandson of Chandragupta II, the Huns invaded northwest India.
He was successful in repulsing the Huns, but consequently his empire was drained of financial resources.
In the sixth century CE, the Huns occupied Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara.
As the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold in the country, independent rulers emerged all over the north like Yasodharman of Malwa, the Maukharis of Uttar Pradesh, the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and others in Bengal.
In time, the Gupta Empire came to be restricted to only Magadha.
They did not focus on empire building and military conquests. So, weak rulers along with incessant invasions from foreign as well as native rulers caused the decline of the Gupta Empire.
By the beginning of the sixth century, the empire had disintegrated and was ruled by many regional chieftains.

The Gupta Age: Dynasty, Political Unity and Administration

The Gupta Age of the Indian history is compared to the Periclean Age of ancient Greece, the Augustan Era of ancient Rome, and the Elizabethan Age of medieval England for its splendor and excellence in the realms of culture.

It was an age of all-round cultural progress. In the spheres of religion, literature, philosophy, science, architecture, sculpture, art, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, education and industry, the Gupta Age made remarkable advance. India passed through a phase of mental upsurge, spectacular in character.

Rightly, therefore, that the Gupta Age has been described as the Golden Age of ancient India.

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Several factors were responsible to make the Gupta Age glorious. Among these factors, the following are noteworthy, namely, a powerful imperial dynasty, political unity of the country, internal peace and security, strong but benevolent administration, economic prosperity, contact with outside world, and the royal encouragement of culture. A brief account of these factors is given below.

The Gupta Dynasty:

The Guptas gave to India a powerful imperial dynasty. From Chandragupta I to Skandagupta, the dynasty contained five emperors who ruled one after another, covering a period of one century and a half. During this continuous rule of five generations of monarchs, the Gupta Empire enjoyed a political stability of higher order. After these great Guptas, the dynasty also continued for a few more generations, enjoying considerable influence. On the whole, the Gupta dynasty, for its longer duration than many other dynasties in history, served India better by giving her administrative continuity and stability.

The Gupta monarchy assumed a divine pretension in order to establish its hold on popular imagination. In the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is described as equal to Kuvera, Varuna, Indra and Yama, and a God on earth. These concepts of monarchy added glamour to the dynasty for a vigorous rule.

Political Unity of the Country:

The political unification of northern India under one powerful government was the most significant feature of the Gupta Age. The Gupta power also extended its influence to the south. The unity of the country developed a spirit of oneness among the Indian people. Small boundaries of petty territories disappeared from the political map. As a result, people came under greater cohesion. The destruction of the foreign powers added further strength to Indian unity.

For all-round cultural upheaval, this unity became a tremendous source of inspiration. Cultural exchanges between remote corners of the country became rapid. The political unity encouraged the people to manifest their creativity in a better way.

Internal Peace :

During the Gupta Age India enjoyed a long period of peace. The powerful monarchs were capable enough to protect their subjects from internal disorder and external invasions. The suppression of lawlessness created a sense of social security. This feeling of safety supplied incentive for cultural activities. Culture, in fact, grows in an atmosphere of peace. The Gupta Age having been a period of fearlessness, the people made the best use of that peaceful epoch in promoting their talent.

Benevolent Administration:

The Gupta rulers gave to their empire not only a stable system of government but also a benevolent administration. Punishment was far from being severe. The people were free to carry on their activities without fear or restraint. Fa-Hien, the famous pilgrim from China who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, was full of praise for the Gupta administration. According to his description: “The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households, or attend to any magistrates and their rulers. The King governs without decapitation or other corporal punishments.”

From various evidences it is known that the Gupta administration was liberal and lenient. Taxes were fixed according to the richness of the place. Officers and soldiers were paid regularly. Crime was rare. Most offenders were punished only by fines. Capital punishment was rare. Under the Gupta benevolence, all religions and faiths received liberal treatment. There was no intolerance on part of the administration towards any creed or cult. It was in this kind of liberal atmosphere that the cultures of different areas and of peoples received proper incentive to grow.

Economic Prosperity:

The Gupta Age was an age of general prosperity. Internal trade and commerce developed greatly because of internal peace and security. External trade and commerce also grew manifold when the Guptas conquered the western territories and extended their sway to the Arabian seacoast. Commerce with the Western countries brought immense wealth to India. The numerous gold coins of the time prove the economic prosperity of the state.

It is known from the accounts of Fa-Hien that the general richness of the people made them charitable in their habits. The wealthy persons competed among themselves in benevolent and virtuous deeds. As he states: “people of various sects set up houses of charity where rooms, couches, beds, food and drink are supplied to travellers.” There were large number of hospitals and charitable institutions which the Chinese pilgrim saw to his surprise.

India of the Gupta Age abounded with many prosperous cities. Among them were the centres of trade, holy places, as well as political headquarters. These cities represented wealth and affluence. Though the general economic condition of the country was prosperous, yet the people were far from the vices associated with wealth. As Fa-Hien says: “There were no shambles or wine-shops in their market-places.”

The large-scale architectural and sculptural activities all over the country were possible because of the general economic prosperity of the people. The Gupta culture represented the creative faculties of a people who were economically self-sufficient.

Contact with Outside World:

The culture of India has shown its greater splendor during the ages when the doors of India were open to a wider world. As in the Maurya and the Kushana period, so also in the period of the imperial Guptas, India’s contact with the outside world was well-established. While the contact with the Western countries was mainly commercial in character, contact with the Eastern world was mostly cultural. These contacts enlarged the mental vision of the people, as well as encouraged them in spreading their culture outside.

It is said that during the Gupta period, the whole region of South-East Asia came under the deep influence of Indian religious thought and custom. The benevolent Gupta rulers encouraged contacts with outside countries. A notable example of this was Samudragupta’s permission to the King of Ceylon to erect a magnificent monastery in Bodh-Gaya. The external contact of the Gupta Age was thus meaningful because of the wealth it imported and the culture it exported.

Encouragement of Culture:

The Gupta Age, in its cultural resurgence, found its rulers as active patrons of culture. Far from being dogmatic or sectarian, the kings, their ministers, and the nobles showed extraordinary zeal in promoting various facets of art and literature.

The courts of the Gupta kings contained some of the best poets, philosophers, and scientists of that age. By their active interest in building and developing cities, monuments, and the centres of religions, the Gupta Emperors properly utilised their resources. They patronised music, art and literature as best as they could. They showed a sense of personal involvement in the creative achievements of their people. For all these reasons, the culture of India saw its high water-mark in the golden age of the Guptas. A brief account of the various features of the Gupta culture is presented below.

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COMMENTS

Governance And Administration Of The Gupta Empire: Structure ...
The Gupta Empire left a lasting legacy in ancient Indian history through its efficient administration and governance. With a centralized government structure , hierarchical titles, and a well-defined feudal system, the Guptas maintained order and stability across their realms.
Write an essay on Gupta administration. - Shoutmore
The Gupta kings were skilled administrators who fostered the arts and sciences and expanded their empire through military conquest. The Gupta era’s legacy continues to shape Indian culture and society, making it one of the most significant and influential periods in Indian history.
The Gupta period (article) | South Asia | Khan Academy
During the Gupta period (c. 320–647 C.E., named for the Gupta dynasty) there were tremendous advances in poetry, prose, and drama as well as important discoveries in mathematics and astronomy.
Gupta Administration of Gupta Empire - GKToday
The Gupta state was there to guide and help, not to coerce. Guptas Land Policy and Seeds of Indian Feudalism. The idea of Samanta system of Gupta era becomes much clearer when we examine their land policy.
Gupta Administration - Ancient India History Notes - Prepp
Gupta Empire covered much of the Indian subcontinent between 319 and 467 CE had top to bottom administrative hierarchy. The highest authority in the Gupta dynasty was the king, vested with political, military, and judicial powers.
The Maurya and Gupta Empires (article) | Khan Academy
Overview: By employing a carefully organized bureaucratic system, the Maurya and Gupta Empires were able to maintain security and political unity across large parts of western and southern Asia. This bureaucratic system included a common economic system that supported stable agriculture across vast land holdings and successful trade and commerce.
System of Administration During Gupta Age - History Discussion
The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local administration. The empire was divided into divisions called bhukth, and each bhukti was placed under the charge of an uparika. The bhuktis were divided into districts (vishayas), which were placed under the charge of a vishayapati.
Gupta Dynasty and Their Administration – Rishi Upsc
Introduction. After the Mauryan empire, many small kingdoms rose and fell. In the period from c. 300 to 700 CE, a classical pattern of an imperial rule evolved, paving the way for state formation in many regions.
The Gupta Age: Dynasty, Political Unity and Administration
On the whole, the Gupta dynasty, for its longer duration than many other dynasties in history, served India better by giving her administrative continuity and stability. The Gupta monarchy assumed a divine pretension in order to establish its hold on popular imagination.
Gupta Administration - Civil Service India
The two hundred years of Gupta rule may be said to mark the climax of Hindu imperial tradition. From the point of view of literature, religion, art, architecture, commerce and colonial development, this period is undoubtedly the most important in Indian history.