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Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine research paper topics encompass a wide range of subjects that contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare. This page provides a comprehensive guide for students studying veterinary medicine who are tasked with writing research papers. Explore the intricacies of this field, delve into diverse categories, and discover a multitude of compelling topics to delve into. Whether you’re interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, or veterinary surgery, this guide will help you navigate the realm of veterinary medicine research paper topics. By offering expert advice on topic selection and providing valuable insights on how to write an impactful research paper, we aim to empower students to make significant contributions to the field of veterinary medicine. Furthermore, iResearchNet’s writing services ensure that students receive top-quality, customized research papers tailored to their unique requirements. Let us help you unleash your academic potential and make a lasting impact in the world of veterinary medicine.

100 Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Introduction: The field of veterinary medicine encompasses a vast array of disciplines and areas of study, offering a wealth of research opportunities for students. This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics is divided into 10 categories, each containing 10 unique topics. By exploring these topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of various aspects of veterinary medicine and contribute to the advancement of animal healthcare.

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Animal Behavior and Psychology:

• The impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare
• Behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs
• Understanding the role of animal cognition in training and behavior modification
• The relationship between human-animal interaction and animal behavior
• Investigating stress and coping mechanisms in companion animals
• The effects of socialization on the behavior and development of puppies and kittens
• Exploring the psychological well-being of captive animals in zoos
• Behavioral indicators and management strategies for pain in animals
• Understanding the behavior and welfare of farm animals in intensive production systems
• Investigating the impact of fear and anxiety on animal welfare in veterinary settings

Infectious Diseases:

• Emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on public health
• Antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine: challenges and strategies
• The role of vaccination in preventing infectious diseases in companion animals
• Epidemiology and control measures for common bacterial infections in livestock
• Investigating the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases in animals
• Diagnostic methods and advancements in the detection of viral infections in animals
• One Health approach: addressing the link between animal and human infectious diseases
• The impact of climate change on the prevalence and distribution of infectious diseases in wildlife
• Surveillance and control measures for emerging viral diseases in aquaculture
• Exploring the impact of biosecurity measures in preventing the spread of infectious diseases in veterinary clinics and hospitals

Pharmacology and Therapeutics:

• Investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies
• Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice
• Adverse drug reactions and drug interactions in veterinary medicine
• Exploring alternative therapies in veterinary medicine: acupuncture, herbal medicine, and more
• The role of personalized medicine in veterinary practice
• Drug-resistant parasites and strategies for their control in companion animals
• Investigating the use of pain management protocols in veterinary surgery
• The impact of nutraceuticals and dietary supplements on animal health
• Pharmacogenomics in veterinary medicine: implications for personalized treatment
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary drug development

Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia:

• Advancements in minimally invasive surgery in veterinary medicine
• Anesthetic management and monitoring in exotic animal species
• Investigating surgical techniques for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in companion animals
• Complications and management of anesthesia in geriatric patients
• Exploring the role of regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery
• Surgical interventions for the management of oncological conditions in animals
• Investigating novel approaches for pain management in postoperative veterinary patients
• Surgical techniques and rehabilitation strategies for the treatment of spinal cord injuries in animals
• Exploring the use of robotic surgery in veterinary medicine
• Investigating the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals

Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology:

• Advancements in imaging techniques for the early detection of cancer in animals
• Investigating the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in veterinary neurology
• The role of ultrasound in diagnosing and managing cardiovascular diseases in animals
• Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of musculoskeletal disorders in small animals
• Investigating the use of computed tomography (CT) in veterinary oncology
• Diagnostic imaging in avian and exotic animal medicine
• The impact of advanced imaging modalities on the diagnosis of gastrointestinal diseases in animals
• Exploring the role of nuclear medicine in veterinary diagnostics
• Radiographic evaluation and interpretation of respiratory disorders in large animals
• Investigating the use of contrast-enhanced imaging techniques in veterinary medicine

Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology:

• One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases
• Investigating foodborne pathogens and their impact on animal and human health
• The role of veterinarians in disaster preparedness and response
• Veterinary epidemiology: studying disease patterns and risk factors in animal populations
• Investigating the impact of environmental factors on animal health and well-being
• Exploring the relationship between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance
• Veterinary public health interventions for the prevention of zoonotic diseases
• The role of wildlife in the transmission of infectious diseases to domestic animals
• Investigating the impact of climate change on vector-borne diseases in veterinary medicine
• Surveillance and control measures for emerging and re-emerging diseases in veterinary public health

Animal Nutrition and Feed Science:

• Investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health
• The role of nutritional interventions in the management of obesity in animals
• Exploring the nutritional requirements and feed formulations for exotic animal species
• Nutritional strategies for the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in livestock
• Investigating the impact of feed additives on animal performance and health
• The role of probiotics and prebiotics in promoting gut health in animals
• Nutritional management of common gastrointestinal disorders in companion animals
• Exploring sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for livestock
• Investigating the impact of nutrition on reproductive performance in animals
• Nutritional considerations for the optimal growth and development of neonatal animals

Veterinary Education and Professional Development:

• Evaluating the effectiveness of veterinary education programs in preparing students for practice
• Investigating the role of simulation-based training in veterinary education
• Exploring innovative teaching methods in veterinary schools
• Assessing the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills
• Investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students
• The impact of telemedicine on veterinary practice and client communication
• Exploring the challenges and opportunities in veterinary entrepreneurship
• Veterinary leadership and management skills for effective practice management
• Investigating the role of mentorship in veterinary education and professional development
• Exploring the ethical considerations in veterinary practice and research

Equine Medicine and Surgery:

• Investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness
• Management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses
• The impact of nutrition and exercise on the prevention and management of metabolic diseases in horses
• Exploring the use of regenerative therapies in equine orthopedics
• Investigating the impact of respiratory diseases on the performance and welfare of horses
• Equine dentistry: advancements in dental care and oral health management
• Exploring novel surgical interventions for the treatment of orthopedic conditions in horses
• The role of physical therapy and rehabilitation in equine medicine
• Investigating the impact of exercise physiology on performance enhancement in horses
• Infectious diseases and vaccination strategies in equine healthcare

Wildlife Medicine and Conservation:

• Investigating the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health and conservation
• Wildlife forensic medicine: techniques for investigating wildlife crimes
• The role of veterinarians in wildlife rehabilitation and release programs
• Exploring the impact of emerging infectious diseases on wildlife populations
• Investigating the use of contraception in wildlife population management
• Wildlife anesthesia and immobilization techniques for veterinary interventions
• Exploring the role of veterinary medicine in endangered species conservation
• Investigating the impact of pollution and environmental contaminants on wildlife health
• Wildlife diseases and their potential for spillover to domestic animal populations
• Conservation genetics: utilizing molecular techniques in wildlife management

This comprehensive list of veterinary medicine research paper topics provides students with a wide range of subjects to explore within the field. Whether you are interested in animal behavior, infectious diseases, pharmacology, surgery, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are countless opportunities for research and innovation. By selecting a topic that aligns with your interests and career goals, and following the expert advice on how to choose and write a research paper, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine and make a lasting impact on animal health and welfare.

Veterinary Medicine: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Veterinary medicine plays a vital role in the health and well-being of animals, from beloved pets to livestock and wildlife. As a student studying veterinary medicine, you have the opportunity to delve into various research areas and contribute to advancements in animal healthcare. This article will explore the diverse range of research paper topics available within the field of veterinary medicine, offering you insights into the exciting and impactful areas of study.

• Animal Nutrition and Feed Science : Proper nutrition is fundamental to the health and well-being of animals. Research topics in this area could include investigating the impact of diet and nutrition on companion animal health, exploring nutritional interventions for managing metabolic diseases in livestock, and examining sustainable and environmentally friendly feed options for animals.
• Infectious Diseases : Infectious diseases pose significant challenges to animal health and public health. Research paper topics in this category could encompass emerging zoonotic diseases and their impact on human health, antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine, vaccination strategies for preventing infectious diseases in animals, and exploring the transmission dynamics of vector-borne diseases.
• Animal Behavior and Psychology : Understanding animal behavior and psychology is essential for providing optimal care. Research topics in this field may involve studying the impact of environmental enrichment on animal behavior and welfare, behavioral interventions for managing aggression in dogs, investigating the cognitive abilities of animals, and exploring the role of human-animal interaction in animal behavior.
• Pharmacology and Therapeutics : Pharmacology plays a critical role in treating and preventing diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this area could include investigating the efficacy and safety of new veterinary drugs and therapies, exploring alternative therapies such as acupuncture and herbal medicine, and studying the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of commonly used drugs in veterinary practice.
• Veterinary Surgery and Anesthesia : Surgical interventions are often necessary for diagnosing and treating various conditions in animals. Research topics in this category could focus on advancements in minimally invasive surgery, investigating anesthesia management and monitoring in different animal species, exploring regenerative medicine in veterinary surgery, and studying the impact of surgical interventions on the quality of life in animals.
• Diagnostic Imaging and Radiology : Diagnostic imaging techniques play a crucial role in diagnosing and monitoring diseases in animals. Research paper topics in this field may include advancements in imaging techniques for detecting cancer in animals, exploring the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) in veterinary diagnostics, and investigating the application of radiography and ultrasound in diagnosing specific conditions.
• Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology : Veterinary medicine intersects with public health in various ways. Research topics in this area could involve the One Health approach in the surveillance and control of zoonotic diseases, studying the impact of environmental factors on animal and human health, and investigating the link between animal agriculture and antimicrobial resistance.
• Equine Medicine and Surgery : Horses require specialized veterinary care due to their unique physiology and performance demands. Research paper topics in this category may include investigating advancements in diagnostic imaging techniques for equine lameness, studying the management strategies for musculoskeletal disorders in performance horses, and exploring the impact of respiratory diseases on horse performance and welfare.
• Wildlife Medicine and Conservation : The health and conservation of wildlife are essential for maintaining biodiversity. Research topics in this field could include studying the impact of habitat loss on wildlife health, investigating wildlife rehabilitation and release programs, exploring the role of veterinarians in wildlife conservation, and understanding the diseases that affect wildlife populations.
• Veterinary Education and Professional Development : Ensuring the competency and continuous development of veterinary professionals is crucial. Research paper topics in this area may involve evaluating veterinary education programs, exploring innovative teaching methods, studying the impact of continuing education on veterinary professionals’ knowledge and skills, and investigating the factors influencing career choices among veterinary students.

The field of veterinary medicine offers a wide range of research opportunities, spanning various disciplines and species. Whether you are interested in animal nutrition, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, public health, or any other aspect of veterinary medicine, there are numerous fascinating topics to explore. By selecting a research paper topic that aligns with your interests and goals, you can contribute to the advancement of veterinary medicine, improve animal health and welfare, and make a meaningful impact in the field.

Choosing Veterinary Medicine Research Paper Topics

Selecting the right research paper topic is crucial for your success as a student of veterinary medicine. It allows you to delve into an area of interest, contribute to existing knowledge, and explore the latest advancements in the field. In this section, we will provide you with expert advice on how to choose veterinary medicine research paper topics that align with your interests and academic goals.

• Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your personal interests within the field of veterinary medicine. Consider the areas that fascinate you the most, such as animal behavior, infectious diseases, surgery, diagnostic imaging, wildlife medicine, or public health. Identifying your passions will make the research process more enjoyable and rewarding.
• Consult Your Professors and Mentors : Seek guidance from your professors and mentors who have expertise in different veterinary medicine disciplines. They can provide valuable insights into current research trends, emerging topics, and areas that need further exploration. Discuss your interests with them, and they can help you narrow down potential research paper topics based on their knowledge and experience.
• Stay Updated with Current Literature : Stay abreast of the latest research publications, scientific journals, and conference proceedings in the field of veterinary medicine. Regularly reading scientific literature will expose you to new research findings, innovative techniques, and emerging topics. This will help you identify gaps in the existing knowledge that you can address through your research paper.
• Consider Relevance and Impact : When selecting a research topic, consider its relevance and potential impact on veterinary medicine. Look for topics that address current challenges, emerging issues, or areas where advancements are needed. Research that can contribute to animal health, welfare, conservation, or public health will not only be academically fulfilling but also have real-world implications.
• Analyze Feasibility : Assess the feasibility of your chosen research topic in terms of available resources, time constraints, and access to data. Consider the availability of research materials, laboratory facilities, animal populations, or specialized equipment required for your study. Ensure that your chosen topic is practical and achievable within the given timeframe and available resources.
• Collaborate with Peers : Consider collaborating with your peers or fellow researchers who share similar research interests. Collaborative research projects can broaden your perspective, enhance the quality of your research, and facilitate knowledge sharing. Engaging in interdisciplinary collaborations can also help you explore topics that combine veterinary medicine with other fields, such as biology, ecology, or public health.
• Seek Inspiration from Case Studies and Clinical Experience : Drawing inspiration from case studies, clinical experiences, or real-world scenarios can lead to intriguing research topics. Reflect on challenging cases you have encountered during clinical rotations, unique observations, or clinical questions that have piqued your interest. These experiences can spark ideas for research that address practical veterinary medicine issues.
• Consider Ethical Considerations : When choosing a research topic, consider ethical considerations related to animal welfare and human subjects. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines and regulations. If your research involves animal subjects, be mindful of the ethical treatment and use of animals, and obtain necessary approvals from relevant ethics committees.
• Explore Emerging Technologies and Techniques : Advancements in technology and techniques have a significant impact on veterinary medicine. Consider topics that explore the application of emerging technologies such as genomics, telemedicine, artificial intelligence, or novel diagnostic tools in veterinary practice. Research in these areas can contribute to the evolution of veterinary medicine and improve animal healthcare outcomes.
• Seek Practical Relevance and Application : Choose research topics that have practical relevance and application in the veterinary field. Look for topics that address challenges faced by veterinarians, animal owners, or the industry. Research that can provide evidence-based solutions, improve clinical practices, or enhance disease prevention and management will have a direct impact on veterinary medicine.

Selecting a suitable research paper topic is a crucial step in your journey as a veterinary medicine student. By identifying your interests, seeking guidance, staying updated with current literature, considering relevance and impact, and analyzing feasibility, you can choose a research topic that is both intellectually stimulating and practically valuable. Remember to consider ethical considerations, collaborate with peers, and explore emerging technologies. By following these expert tips, you will be well-equipped to embark on a research project that contributes to the advancement of veterinary medicine and makes a positive impact on animal health and welfare.

How to Write a Veterinary Medicine Research Paper

Writing a research paper in veterinary medicine allows you to contribute to the field, explore new knowledge, and develop critical thinking and scientific communication skills. In this section, we will guide you through the process of writing a veterinary medicine research paper, from selecting a topic to crafting a compelling paper that effectively communicates your findings.

• Define Your Research Objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research paper. Determine what you aim to accomplish and the specific research questions you want to answer. This will provide a clear focus and direction for your study.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Begin by conducting a comprehensive literature review to gather existing knowledge and identify gaps in the research. Analyze and critically evaluate relevant studies, articles, and scientific literature to establish the context for your research.
• Refine Your Research Question : Based on your literature review, refine your research question or hypothesis. Ensure that your question is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART). This will guide your research and help you stay focused.
• Design Your Study : Select an appropriate research design and methodology that aligns with your research question and objectives. Determine the sample size, data collection methods, and statistical analyses required. Ensure that your study design is rigorous and ethically sound.
• Gather and Analyze Data : Collect relevant data using appropriate research methods, whether it involves conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, or analyzing existing datasets. Ensure that your data collection is thorough, reliable, and accurately recorded. Use appropriate statistical tools to analyze your data and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Organize Your Paper : Structure your research paper in a logical and organized manner. Include sections such as the introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Follow a clear and coherent flow of information that guides the reader through your research process.
• Write an Engaging Introduction : Start your paper with an engaging introduction that provides background information on the topic, states the research problem, and highlights the significance of your study. Clearly articulate your research objectives and hypotheses to set the stage for the rest of the paper.
• Present a Comprehensive Literature Review : Incorporate a thorough literature review in the body of your paper. Summarize and critically analyze relevant studies, theories, and findings that inform your research. Identify gaps in the literature and highlight the unique contribution of your study.
• Describe Your Methods and Results : Clearly explain the methods you employed to conduct your research and gather data. Provide sufficient detail for others to replicate your study. Present your results objectively, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to support your findings. Interpret the results and discuss their implications.
• Engage in a Thoughtful Discussion : In the discussion section, interpret your findings in the context of existing knowledge and theories. Discuss the implications of your results, their limitations, and any future directions for research. Address any unanswered questions and propose areas for further investigation.
• Write a Strong Conclusion : Summarize your main findings and their significance in a concise and impactful conclusion. Restate your research objectives and hypotheses, and emphasize how your study contributes to the field of veterinary medicine. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Cite Sources Accurately : Ensure that you cite all the sources used in your research paper accurately. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, and adhere to the specific guidelines for referencing scientific literature and other relevant sources.
• Revise and Proofread : After completing the initial draft, revise your paper for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Check for grammatical and spelling errors, and ensure that your writing is concise and precise. Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or professors to improve the quality of your paper.

Writing a veterinary medicine research paper requires careful planning, attention to detail, and effective communication skills. By defining your research objectives, conducting a thorough literature review, designing a rigorous study, and organizing your paper coherently, you can produce a high-quality research paper. Remember to write an engaging introduction, present a comprehensive literature review, describe your methods and results accurately, engage in thoughtful discussion, and provide a strong conclusion. Cite your sources properly and revise your paper meticulously. Through this process, you will contribute to the field of veterinary medicine and advance knowledge in the domain.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges that students face when it comes to writing research papers in veterinary medicine. We are here to provide you with professional writing services that cater to your specific needs. Our team of expert writers and researchers are well-versed in the field of veterinary medicine and can assist you in producing high-quality research papers. In this section, we will outline the range of services we offer and the benefits of choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : Our team consists of expert writers with advanced degrees in veterinary medicine and related fields. They have a deep understanding of the subject matter and can deliver well-researched and meticulously written research papers.
• Custom Written Works : We provide custom written works that are tailored to your specific requirements. Whether you need a research paper from scratch or assistance with specific sections, our writers can create unique and original content that meets your academic standards.
• In-Depth Research : Our writers conduct extensive research to gather the most relevant and up-to-date information for your research paper. They have access to reputable sources and scientific databases to ensure the accuracy and validity of the information presented in your paper.
• Custom Formatting : We understand the importance of adhering to specific formatting styles required by academic institutions. Our writers are well-versed in various citation styles, including APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. They will format your paper according to the specific guidelines provided.
• Top Quality : Quality is our utmost priority. We strive to deliver research papers that meet the highest standards of academic excellence. Our writers pay attention to every detail, ensuring that your paper is well-structured, coherent, and free from grammatical errors.
• Customized Solutions : We recognize that each research paper is unique. Our writers work closely with you to understand your specific research objectives, requirements, and preferences. They can customize their approach to meet your specific needs and deliver a paper that aligns with your expectations.
• Flexible Pricing : We offer flexible pricing options to accommodate the budgetary constraints of students. Our pricing is competitive and transparent, ensuring that you receive the best value for your investment. We offer affordable rates without compromising on the quality of our services.
• Short Deadlines : We understand that students often face tight deadlines. Our team is equipped to handle urgent requests and can deliver high-quality research papers within short timeframes, even as tight as 3 hours. You can rely on us to meet your deadlines without compromising on quality.
• Timely Delivery : We prioritize timely delivery to ensure that you have sufficient time to review and submit your research paper. Our writers work diligently to complete your paper within the agreed-upon timeframe, allowing you ample time for any revisions or modifications you may require.
• 24/7 Support : We provide round-the-clock support to address any queries or concerns you may have. Our customer support team is available 24/7 to assist you with any questions regarding our services, order placement, or ongoing projects. Feel free to reach out to us at any time.
• Absolute Privacy : We understand the importance of confidentiality. Your personal information and the details of your research paper are treated with the utmost privacy and confidentiality. We adhere to strict data protection protocols to ensure the security of your information.
• Easy Order Tracking : Our user-friendly platform allows you to easily track the progress of your research paper. You can communicate with your assigned writer, provide additional instructions or clarifications, and monitor the status of your order throughout the writing process.
• Money Back Guarantee : We are committed to customer satisfaction. In the unlikely event that you are not satisfied with the quality of the research paper or the services provided, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your investment is protected, and we strive to ensure your complete satisfaction.

Choosing iResearchNet for your veterinary medicine research paper needs ensures that you receive professional, reliable, and customized writing services. Our team of expert writers, in-depth research capabilities, adherence to formatting guidelines, and commitment to quality will ensure that your research paper meets the highest academic standards. With flexible pricing options, timely delivery, 24/7 support, absolute privacy, and easy order tracking, we strive to make your experience with iResearchNet seamless and rewarding. Place your trust in us and let our expertise guide you towards academic success.

Achieve Excellence with iResearchNet!

Are you struggling with your veterinary medicine research papers? Do you find it challenging to choose the right topics, conduct in-depth research, and meet the high academic standards of your institution? Look no further! iResearchNet is here to provide you with the professional support you need to excel in your veterinary medicine studies. Our team of expert writers and researchers is ready to assist you in crafting top-quality research papers that will impress your professors and elevate your academic performance.

By choosing iResearchNet, you gain access to a range of benefits that will make your research paper writing experience smooth, efficient, and stress-free. Our team consists of highly qualified writers with expertise in veterinary medicine and related fields. They are equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to tackle even the most complex research topics. Whether you need assistance in selecting research paper topics, conducting thorough research, or structuring your paper, our experts are here to guide you every step of the way.

iResearchNet is your trusted partner in veterinary medicine research paper writing. With our experienced team, commitment to quality, customer-oriented approach, and range of services, we are dedicated to helping you succeed in your academic journey. Place your trust in us and experience the difference that professional assistance can make. Take the first step towards veterinary medicine research paper excellence and unlock your full potential with iResearchNet.

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45+ Veterinary Dissertation Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On May 3, 2024

Veterinary medicine is a broad area of study, so there are many potential issues you can base your dissertation or thesis on. You may want to consider veterinary science comparable to human health care, such as laboratory animal medicine, animal welfare, and law so that you can come up with an impactful veterinary dissertation topic.

Choose an interesting but focused research topic that enables you to contribute to your field of study. Choosing a topic for a paper or dissertation is one of the most crucial decisions students must make. So, avoid writing about an idea that is so narrow that you end up having no academic sources to use in the res earch. 

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Veterinary Dissertation Topics and Ideas

• Animals used for fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC)
• Necropsy’s significance in veterinary medicine
• The value of veterinarians to the retail industry
• Examination of contemporary pet vaccinations
• Why not crocodiles or zebras? – investigating contemporary quirks in pet selection
• Investigating the components of natural animal feeds as the pet food business transitions to natural
• Rural locations with poor veterinary care: cause and remedies
• Fear or the dominance theory? – investigating the behavioural issues with dogs
• The best remedies for thunderstorm anxiety
• Why do the majority of pets have this phobia? Is it treatable?
• Is it a myth that animals act poorly because they want to rule the pack?
• Why do owners of sick animals need to be on guard?
• Environmental influences on chickens’ egg-laying productivity
• When do some chickens produce more eggs than others? What are the ideal circumstances to maintain their high levels of productivity?
• Cardiovascular changes in canine leishmaniasis
• Relevant clinical alterations in breast cancer in stage 3 females
• Cancer patients’ nutritional needs and metabolic changes are managed
• Review of the literature on alternative methods for treating canine atopic dermatitis
• Analysis of the primary epidemiological traits present in a buck with a breast tumour
• Cost-benefit analysis of supplemental mineral feeding to beef cattle
• Little ones frequently experience heart disorders
• Breast cancer reconstruction procedures for female dogs and cats
• Laws and public education about animal abuse
• An outline of the veterinary nurse’s responsibility in stopping owner maltreatment of animals
• Following surgery, the animals get rehabilitation
• What part does the veterinary nurse play in addressing the psychological effects of animal abuse? Is there any way to make it better?
• Illnesses that are extremely contagious and harm domestic animals
• Veterinary students are taught about public health as part of their training
• Treatment of sporty horses with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications
• Effectiveness of homoeopathic medication in controlling ticks in dairy cattle
• A case study of bitches treated at the university veterinary hospital for breast cancer
• Study of sporotrichosis and visceral leishmaniasis notifications in the CCZ
• Investigation of the anaesthesia procedure death rate in tiny animals undergoing surgery
• Ways to improve how domestic animals are treated in the public network
• The significance of electrocardiography in dogs before surgery
• Neoplasms in an animal’s reproductive system
• The relevance of veterinarians in meeting retail needs
• Factors affecting milk quality in family farm settings
• As a technique for sustainability in agriculture, rotated grazing
• Prevalence of breast cancers in women and examination of their clinical and epidemiological features
• Cigarette carcinogens bring on principal tumours in dogs and cats
• Carcinogen-related cancer types manifested in dogs and cats exposed to smoke
• Gentamicin intramammary therapy in lactating cows with clinical and subclinical mastitis
• Aloe vera and arnica Montana as natural remedies for horse pythiosis
• Examine the veterinary nursing policies and practices of various nations and any potential working circumstances for nurses there
• An Investigation on how changing climate patterns affect the distribution of animal diseases and the practice of veterinary medicine.
• An Analysis of different approaches to prevent and control zoonotic diseases in animals and humans
• Exploring recent advancements in surgical techniques for veterinary procedures
• Examining the relationship between animal behaviour, welfare, and veterinary care and proposing strategies to improve the well-being of animals in clinical settings.
• Investigating the development of new drugs for veterinary use
• The concept of One Health and its application in managing complex health issues at the intersection of human and animal health
• Study newly emerging infectious diseases in animals and implications for veterinary practice and public health.
• A Comparative study on different diagnostic imaging techniques used in veterinary medicine
• The effectiveness of veterinary education and training programs in preparing graduates for professional practice

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These topics will help you get motivated to start working on your dissertation. You should also check out our list of biology dissertation topics for more inspiration. 

If the topic you choose is interesting and reflects your passion for the subject, it will be much easier for you to complete the dissertation in due time. However, if you face difficulties due to lack of knowledge, time or any other reason, now is the time to use our professional dissertation services ! Hiring a professional writer can help you achieve your desired academic grade from the comfort of your bed. 

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• Investigate emerging animal health issues.
• Explore gaps in current research.
• Consider ethical concerns.
• Review recent advancements.
• Consult experts and faculty.
• Select a topic aligning with your passion and career aspirations.

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American Journal of Veterinary Research

The mission of AJVR is to disseminate throughout the world the highest-impact, rigorously reviewed veterinary science research across the spectrum of species, using an online-only, open access format for maximum accessibility. The AJVR converted to a fully open access platform 6/1/22. Open access articles are licensed under the Creative Commons CC BY-NC license. CC BY licensing is available upon request. Archival material is freely available. All rights are reserved in archival material.

Online ISSN: 1943-5681

Volume 85 (2024): Issue 6 (Jun 2024)

The importance of teamwork in independent publishing, current understanding and knowledge gaps regarding wildlife as reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance, university of missouri's ganta team develops vaccine to combat a deadly tick-borne disease, changes in thyroid hormone concentrations over time in dogs with autoimmune thyroiditis, postprandial effects following a semielemental critical-care diet lead to changes in uric acid, bile acids, and glucose in the central bearded dragon ( pogona vitticeps ), feeding dogs a high-fat diet induces metabolic changes similar to natural aging, including dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, and peripheral insulin resistance, doppler ultrasound is more accurate than pulse oximeter plethysmography in the measurement of systolic arterial pressure from the median caudal artery in anesthetized dogs, two lateral flow assays for detection of anti-coccidioidal antibodies show similar performance to immunodiffusion in dogs with coccidioidomycosis, foot-and-mouth disease seroprevalence is higher in young female crossbred sheep and goats compared to their counterparts in the border area between pakistan and afghanistan, a lentivirus-vectored feline erythropoietin gene therapy strategy in tissue culture and rodent models for the potential treatment of chronic renal disease-associated anemia, equine gamma herpesvirus presence and viral load are not associated with equine glandular gastric disease, hepatic lipid accumulation is associated with multiple metabolic pathway alterations but not dyslipidemia and insulin resistance in central bearded dragons ( pogona vitticeps ), myxomatous mitral valve disease and associated pulmonary hypertension might increase serum angiopoietin-2 in dogs, prevalence of elbow dysplasia in 13 dog breeds in france: a retrospective radiographic study (2002–2022), k-wire is more damaging than standard or acrylic drill bits when evaluating torsional properties of rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculi ) femurs, serial injections of 4% polyacrylamide hydrogel have no detrimental effects in equine joints following clinical, histologic, and synovial biomarker evaluation, hemadsorption extracorporeal therapy removes cytokines ex vivo in horses, transmucosal administration of pentobarbital and phenytoin solution induces euthanasia in bearded dragons ( pogona vitticeps ), faster perfusate instillation time results in more systemic leakage of amikacin sulfate when performing intravenous regional limb perfusion in horses, ameliorative potential of galangin in murine model of ovalbumin-induced allergic rhinitis: a role of pi3k-pkb pathway, mechanical evaluation of a threaded interference interlocking mechanism for angle-stable intramedullary nailing, piezoelectric device use in sinus osteotomy for equines is feasible but may extend time to accomplish frontonasal bone flap, computed tomography findings of nasal cryptococcosis in australia (2008–2020): 12 dogs and 9 cats, the radiographic appearance of the canine femoral nutrient foramen for dogs undergoing total hip replacement is consistent, with some variations, multistrain probiotics fail to modulate the asthmatic phenotype, respiratory microbiota, and immune responses in cats, achieving temperature stability for storage of biological samples in an autodefrost freezer, ex vivo biomechanical evaluation and comparison of lateral femoro-fabella ligament suture and lateral suture with bone anchor for cranial cruciate ligament repair in cats, comparison of subarachnoid administration of low-dose bupivacaine and lidocaine in healthy goats, how to plan and provide general anesthesia for a troop of 98 hamadryas baboons ( papio hamadryas ) for contraceptive and preventative health interventions, plasma and interstitial fluid antibiotic levels of subcutaneously implanted compounded florfenicol calcium sulfate beads in new zealand white rabbits ( oryctolagus cuniculus ), timed up and go demonstrates strong interrater agreement and criterion validity as a functional test in geriatric dogs, evaluation of trypsin-like immunoreactivity, pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity, cobalamin, and folate in zoo-housed african painted dogs ( lycaon pictus ) at a north american zoological facility, radiographic analysis in thoroughbreds reveals morphological changes in healthy maturing stifle joints and possible association between subchondral lesions and femoral condyle width, validation of a bupropion, dextromethorphan, and omeprazole cocktail for simultaneous phenotyping of cytochrome p450 2b11, 2d15, and 3a12 activities in dogs, owner survey suggests cats may be undertreated for pain compared to dogs after an elective ovariohysterectomy or orchiectomy, penciclovir pharmacokinetics after oral and rectal administration of famciclovir in african elephants ( loxodonta africana ) shows that effective concentrations can be achieved from rectal administration, despite lower absorption, tissue oxygen saturation is positively correlated with oxygen delivery and cardiac output in a canine hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation model, atlantoaxial joint stabilization using patient-specific 3-d–printed drill guides and 3-d–printed titanium plates or polymethyl methacrylate is effective in toy-breed dogs, pulmonary-vein-to-pulmonary-artery ratio can be utilized to evaluate myxomatous mitral valve disease progression in dogs, saline, chlorhexidine, and povidone-iodine alone or in combination with iodine povacrylex are effective antiseptics in chickens ( gallus gallus domesticus ), comparative digital study using four methods of measurements of the tibial distal anatomical axes for determining the anatomical-mechanical angle in dogs with cranial cruciate ligament rupture, kinematic performance of a novel temporomandibular joint replacement prosthesis under bite-force conditions in dogs and cats, microvasculature of the suspensory ligament of the equine hind limb, measuring tissue oxygen saturation in the orad intestinal segment during equine colic surgery may aid in predicting the occurrence of postoperative ileus, the pharmacokinetics of single-dose oral atorvastatin and its metabolites support therapeutic use in cockatiels ( nymphicus hollandicus ), blood cardioplegia reduces intraoperative ventricular fibrillation and transfusion requirements compared to crystalloid cardioplegia in canine mitral valve repair, radiographic identification of challenging gastrointestinal tract foreign bodies: a descriptive study of how appearance varies in air versus water to aid interpretation.

Aims and Scope 

AJVR is a monthly, peer-reviewed, veterinary medical journal owned by the American Veterinary Medical Association that publishes reports of original research and review articles in the general area of veterinary medical research.

The mission of the AJVR is to publish, in a timely manner, peer-reviewed reports of the highest-quality research that has the clear potential to enhance the health, welfare, and performance of animals and humans. The journal will maintain the highest ethical standards of scientific journalism and promote such standards among its contributors. In addition, the journal will foster global interdisciplinary cooperation in veterinary medical research.

AJVR supports the collaborative exchange of information between researchers and clinicians by publishing novel research findings that bridge the gulf between basic research and clinical practice or that help to translate laboratory research and preclinical studies to the development of clinical trials and clinical practice. The journal welcomes submission of high-quality original studies and review articles in a wide range of scientific fields, including anatomy, anesthesiology, animal welfare, behavior, clinical pathology, epidemiology, genetics, infectious disease, microbiology, molecular biology, oncology, pharmacology, pathogenic mechanisms, physiology, surgery, theriogenology, toxicology, and vaccinology. Species of interest include production animals, companion animals, equids, exotic animals, birds, reptiles, and wild and marine animals. Reports of laboratory animal studies and studies involving the use of animals as experimental models of human diseases are considered only when the study results are of demonstrable benefit to the species used in the research or to another species of veterinary interest. Other fields of interest or animal species are not necessarily excluded from consideration, but such reports must focus on novel research findings. Submitted papers must make an original and substantial contribution to the veterinary medicine knowledge base; preliminary or pilot studies are not appropriate.

Business Model

Open access

AJVR converted to a fully open access journal in June 2022 to better serve the interests of researchers and funders. Open access means that all content is freely available without charge to the user or the user’s institution. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles, or use them for any other purpose permitted under the applicable License, without asking for prior permission from the publisher or the author. Under this model, authors or their research funders or institutions pay an article processing charge (APC) in order to make the article immediately free to access, download, and share anywhere in the world. Archival material (ie, pre-June 2022) is freely available. All rights are reserved in archival material.

Publication fees

The APC for AJVR is $1,250 for newly submitted articles effective January 1, 2024.

APC waivers may be granted at the Editor-in-Chief’s discretion.

License to publish

Articles published starting with the June 2022 issue are licensed for publication under the CC BY-NC Creative Commons License. Authors retain copyright in their work, which others may copy, redistribute, and transform, provided users give appropriate attribution to the original author(s) and do not use the content for commercial purposes. CC BY licensing is available upon request.

An article prepared by a U.S. federal government employee as part of the employee's official duties, or which is an official U.S. government publication, is called a "U.S. Government work" and is in the public domain in the United States. This does not mean that the article is automatically open access; rather, it means there is no copyright to transfer under U.S. law. AJVR makes such articles freely available at publication.

Editorial Policies

Peer review

AJVR uses a single anonymized review process. Reviewer identities are not, and should not be, disclosed to the authors or other reviewers. In addition, authors should not contact those whom they presume to be reviewers of their manuscripts. Each submitted manuscript is initially assessed by the Editor-in-Chief for suitability for the journal and may be assigned to an Associate Editor to initiate peer review by a minimum of 2 independent experts. When reviews are received, the Associate Editor recommends further revisions or rejection without further review, and the Editor-in-Chief, who may include additional comments, sends the decision to the authors.

Individuals should be listed as authors only if they:

• Made a substantial contribution to the conception or design of the study, acquisition of the data used in the study, or analysis and interpretation of that data, AND
• Were involved in drafting or revising the manuscript critically for important intellectual content, AND
• Will have the opportunity to approve the submitted and all subsequent versions, AND
• Agree to be accountable for the validity of the data and results.

Individuals who contributed to the study but do not meet all 4 of these criteria should not be listed as authors but should be included in the Acknowledgments section. Requests to list a working group or study group in the byline will be handled on a case-by-case basis.

• Authors are responsible for ensuring that their manuscripts are written clearly in English and formatted in accordance with these author instructions.
• Manuscripts should be carefully reviewed prior to submission for format, clarity, spelling, and grammar.
• A manuscript deemed by the editorial team to require extensive revisions prior to further consideration will be rejected with the option to resubmit after reformatting and/or editing has been performed.
• The journal does not endorse any specific editing service and provides these examples of suitable services that authors might consider: Cactus ,  Bioscience Writers , American Journal Experts , and the Nature Research Editing Service . Please note that when working with a professional language-editing service, authors should choose full medical editing with journal formatting, rather than simply proofreading, and that changes should comply with these instructions for authors.

Acknowledgments, disclosures, and funding

Authors will be required to address these 3 statements during submission. This information does not need to be included in the manuscript document.

• Acknowledgments: Identify individuals who made important contributions to the study but who do not meet the  criteria for authorship . If none , include the statement “None reported.”
• Include any conflicts of interest related to the manuscript. Include relevant financial interests (eg, ownership, employment, consultancies, honoraria, paid expert testimony, grants, patent-licensing arrangements, equity interests, and service as an officer or board member), activities, relationships, and affiliations (other than those listed on the title page of the manuscript). If none , include the statement “The authors have nothing to disclose.”
• Include the use of any artificial intelligence (AI)–assisted technology such as ChatGPT or another large language model in the writing of the manuscript or production of images. If none were used, include the statement “No AI-assisted technologies were used in the generation of this manuscript.” If an AI tool was used, the authors must be transparent in disclosing here, in the disclosures section, which AI tool was used and how the AI tool was used. AI tools cannot be listed as an author of a manuscript.
• Funding: Include all funding, other financial support, and material support obtained directly or indirectly from any third party in connection with information included in the manuscript or with the writing or publishing of the manuscript. If none , include the statement “The authors have nothing to disclose.”

Copyright permissions

• Permissions for use of figures, tables, or other content owned by another party: If your manuscript contains previously published material (text, images, tables, photographs, drawings, etc), you are responsible for providing proof of permission for reuse from the original copyright holder. At the time of submission of your manuscript to our journal, please include (1) permission for reuse of figures or tables and (2) a full citation for the previous publication. We cannot publish any previously published illustration or table without written permission from the original copyright holder.

Commercial availability, compounding, and extralabel drug use

• If a manuscript reports results of a study that involved evaluating a pharmaceutical, biologic, or other product that is not legally available in the US for use in that species, then a clear disclaimer is needed in the Methods section describing where the drug is commercially available and that the drug is neither FDA approved nor commercially available in the US.
• If compounded products/drugs were used in a study, an explanation in the Discussion section should include why the authors chose to use compounded products and what key factors should be considered by veterinarians interested in prescribing similarly prepared products.
• The Methods section should contain a complete description of the compounded products.
• Extralabel drug use must comply with the provisions of the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act .
• Extralabel drug use was performed with owner consent and complied with provisions of AMDUCA and 21 CFR §530.
• Compounded products were prepared from bulk substances because [provide reason]. Veterinarians should adhere to compounding regulations and be aware that pharmacokinetic properties may differ between compounded and FDA-approved products.
• Compounded products were prepared from FDA-approved products because [provide reason]. Veterinarians should adhere to compounding regulations and be aware that pharmacokinetic properties may differ between compounded and FDA-approved products.

Humane animal care and use

• Research studies involving animals must have been performed in compliance with guidelines outlined in the US Animal Welfare Act , US Public Health Service Policy on the Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals , National Research Council’s Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals , or Guide for the Care and Use of Agricultural Animals in Research and Teaching or in compliance with equivalent guidelines. If animals were euthanized, the method of euthanasia must be indicated in the manuscript. Methods of euthanasia must comply with the AVMA Guidelines for the Euthanasia of Animals of jav.ma/GEA . If a method not recommended by the AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia was used, a justification for use of this method must be provided.

Institutional oversight and owner consent

• With the exception of reports of retrospective studies based solely on historical data, manuscripts describing studies that involved the use of animals, including studies that involved the use of privately owned animals (eg, animals owned by clients, staff members, students, or private entities), must include a statement that the study protocol was reviewed and approved by an appropriate oversight entity (eg, an animal care and use committee or institutional review board) or was performed in compliance with institutional or other (eg, governmental or international) guidelines for research on animals.
• Prospective studies that involved privately owned animals must also include a statement indicating that informed owner consent was obtained.
• Research involving human subjects, including surveys of human subjects, must include a statement that the research was performed under appropriate institutional review board oversight.

NIH Public Access Policy

AJVR  is in compliance with the NIH Public Access Policy and with the open access policies of other research funders.

Patient confidentiality and the right to privacy

• Authors have an obligation to protect the personal privacy of patients and clients and to maintain the confidentiality of patient-client information.
• For any manuscript containing patient information (eg, patient descriptions, photographs, or pedigrees) that would allow specific animals or their owners to be identified, the authors must obtain a signed statement of informed consent to publish the information (in print and online) from the owners. Generally, such consent should include an opportunity for the owner to read the manuscript to be submitted for publication. If necessary, nonessential identifying data can be removed, unless clinically or epidemiologically important. However, identifying data may not be altered or falsified.
• Cropping or altering photographs to remove nonessential identifying information is acceptable, so long as the photographs are not otherwise altered. Patient identifiers may not appear in photographs.
• Authors must also obtain informed consent to publish from any identifiable person appearing in photographs. Importantly, these guidelines also apply to any materials (eg, text, photographs, or videos) submitted for posting as supplementary materials.

Prior publication

• Manuscripts are considered with the understanding that they have not been published previously and will not be submitted for publication elsewhere while under consideration by AJVR .
• Manuscripts submitted to the journal following or prior to presentation at a scientific meeting or publication of preliminary findings elsewhere, such as in abstract form, will be considered for publication. Publication of abstracts and posting of slides or videos of the scientific presentation in a print or online conference proceedings is acceptable.
• Posting preprints of research manuscripts in progress or in submission on a public server is not considered prior publication and is also acceptable. Preprints are defined as research manuscripts that have not undergone formal peer review by a journal. Preprints may also be posted at any time during the review process.
• Authors should disclose preprint posting, including DOI, URL link, and license details, at the time of manuscript submission or during the review process. Authors are requested to update any prepublication versions with a link to the final published article.
• Media coverage of presentations at scientific meetings will not jeopardize consideration, but direct release of results beyond what was included in the abstract through press releases or news media briefings may preclude consideration of the manuscript by this journal.

Plagiarism Policy

At the time of submission, similarity detection software (iThenticate) is used. If the similarity score is less than 25%, no further action is taken. If it’s over 25%, iThenticate is run again with title, author list, affiliations, methods, and references hidden from the check. If it’s still over 25%, authors are informed of the findings and directed to revise the language or provide a reference if the text is recycled from one of their previously published articles.

For Librarians

AJVR ceased print production in June 2022 and became fully open access as an online-only journal. You and your patrons may now access AJVR online, which includes copyedited, typeset articles before they are assembled into an issue as well as all online content from 2000 to the present.

One of the AVMA’s strategic initiatives for the journal is the digitization of pre-2000 content ( AJVR was launched in 1940). In 2024, you will have free access to the digital archive of the 1990s JAVMAs, and it is our plan to digitize 1 decade of archival content each of the next 3 years going back to the 1970s. For further information about the archive digitization, please see Editor-in-Chief Dr. Lisa Fortier’s November 2023 editorial .

AVMA is committed to the longterm preservation of all content published in our journals, whether open access or subscribed ( JAVMA only). We collaborate with digital archive provider CLOCKSS, a sustainable, geographically distributed dark archive that builds on the LOCKSS enabling technology.

If your institution is interested in negotiating a “Read and Publish” agreement with AVMA, whereby for a single annual fee your faculty, students, and staff gain free access to JAVMA and waiver of open access article processing charges (CC BY-NC license), please contact Editor-in-Chief Dr. Lisa Fortier at [email protected] for further information.

AJVR is owned and published by the AVMA.

How to Submit

General information

To submit manuscripts, please visit https://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/ajvr . Note, an article processing charge of $1,250 will apply to accepted manuscripts. For author and presubmission inquiries, please contact [email protected] . For details on AVMA news, conferences, or other AVMA information, please visit avma.org .

Submission checklist—ensure the following:

• If accepted, the authors agree to pay an open access article processing charge of $1,250.
• Email address.
• Full postal address.
• The manuscript has been checked for spelling and grammar.
• Abbreviations and preferred pharmacologic and pharmacokinetics terminology, pulmonary and respiratory terminology, and radiographic projection naming are used in accordance with journal guidelines .
• All references mentioned in the reference list are cited in the text.
• Footnotes are not used (review the instructions on citing special materials for information on citing materials previously included as footnotes).
• Permission has been obtained for use of copyrighted material from other sources.
• Journal policies detailed in this guide have been reviewed.
• Manuscript.
• Figures (include relevant captions), with the same figure names (eg, Figure 1) as used in the manuscript.
• Supplementary files (where applicable).
• Why is this study important? (2 or 3 sentences)
• What did you find? (2or 3 sentences)
• Why is this study of wide interest? (2 or 3 sentences)
• Is the manuscript for resident credentialling or promotion?
• Suggested 6-10 reviewers with their names and email addresses.

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Instructions for Journal Award Nominations

       .

The annual AVMA Journal Awards recognize contributions of students, interns, and residents for manuscripts published in JAVMA or AJVR . Nominations are accepted year-round.

Qualifications

• Nominee is the first or corresponding author
• Work supporting the manuscript was performed when the nominee was a student, intern, or resident
• Manuscripts are assessed for potential impact and clinical relevance, and winners are selected by an Associate Review Board Panel

Nomination Instructions

• Nominations close on March 15 for the preceding year
• Name of nominee
• Nominee category (student, intern, or resident)
• Attestation sentence confirming that the work was done by the nominee
• Manuscript title and name of the journal ( JAVMA or AJVR )
• Nominee’s current email address
• Winners will be announced during the AVMA Annual Convention
• Certificate of achievement
• Cash prize of $500
• Extensive social media exposure
• A waiver of open access fees ($1,250 value) for each winner’s next paper in JAVMA or AJVR  

Click on an issue cover below to read more. For information about images on the cover, contact Stacey Geelan at [email protected] .

May 2022 AJVR Vol. 83 - Issue 5

This month’s cover image displays a multi-omics approach for machine learning (ML) in veterinary medicine. The last decade has brought tremendous growth in the use of artificial intelligence (AI) in veterinary medicine. This has been accompanied by rapid evolution in -omics technologies in veterinary practice. With the use of ML technologies, the combination of these disparate -omics datatypes, like genomics, image features (radiomics), and radiation dose distribution features (dosiomics), offers the potential for a deeper understanding of diseases, their detection and expression, and better treatments for them. This image was obtained as part of the “Currents in One Health Study.” Am J Vet Res . 2022;83(5):385–392. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.22.03.0038

April 2022 AJVR Vol. 83 - Issue 4

The cover illustration depicts the oromaxillofacial region as a potential and promising model for a ‘One Health’ global approach in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Translating discoveries of regenerative therapeutics in veterinary species to novel, effective human therapies using a One Health approach provides a fundamental link between basic biomedical research and medical clinical practice, with the goal of developing strategies for curing or preventing disease and ameliorating pain and suffering in companion animals and humans alike. Am J Vet Res . 2022;83(4):291–297. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.21.12.0208

March 2022 AJVR Vol. 83 - Issue 3

This month’s cover images show blood smears from a Jack Russell Terrier presented with very severe pulmonic stenosis (peak systolic trans-stenotic = 340 mmHg). On the blood smear before valvuloplasty (A), severe schistocytosis (arrowheads) and polychromasia (asterisk) are present, suggestive of regenerative hemolytic anemia due to abnormal blood flow. The schistocytosis completely resolved 2 months after pulmonary balloon valvuloplasty (B). This study concluded that poikilocytosis (schistocytosis, acanthocytosis, keratocytosis) is common in dogs with congenital ventricular outflow tract obstruction associated with hemolytic anemia in a few cases with severe or very severe pulmonic stenosis. These results indicate the importance of serial blood smear analysis from canine patients with severe or very severe ventricular outflow tract obstruction. The images were obtained as part of the following study: Passavin P, Chetboul V, Poissonnier C, et al. Red-blood cell abnormalities occur in dogs with congenital ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Am J Vet Res . 2022;83(3):198–204. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.21.11.0188

February 2022 AJVR Vol. 83 - Issue 2

This month's cover image shows the bacterial pathobiome map of canine oral health and disease. Dogs were assigned to one of four different stages of periodontal disease and their microbiome was analyzed. Several bacterial species were identified that were significantly associated with the different stages of periodontitis. This pathobiome map can provide a guidance to veterinarians to understand their patient’s periodontal microbiome and health status. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Niemiec BA, Gawor J, Tang S, Prem A, Krumbeck JK. The bacteriome of the oral cavity in healthy dogs and dogs with periodontal disease. Am J Vet Res . 2022;83(1):50–58. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.21.02.0027

January 2022 AJVR Vol. 83 - Issue 1

This month's cover images are shear-wave elastographic images of the color map and propagation map of the mandibular lymph node from a healthy adult beagle to measure shear-wave velocities (SWVs). This study concluded that SWE could be used to non¬invasively evaluate changes in the elastic properties of lymphatic tissues. Ultimately, SWE could be applied to increase the diagnostic accuracy of tumor staging. Intra- and interobserver reliability were excellent suggesting that SWV of lymph nodes could be used in practice settings.

The images were obtained as part of the following study: Kang YR, Lee SH, Seo IM, et al. Comparison of shear-wave velocities obtained with shear-wave elastography of various peripheral lymph nodes in healthy Beagles. Am J Vet Res . 2021;82(12):981–987. DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.82.12.981

December 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 12

This month's cover (top photomontage) depicts a series of sodium fluorescein angiographic images exhibiting various degrees of vascular abnormalities (dye leakage) present within the iris of diabetic canines. A standard color, near-infrared, indocyanine green and sodium fluorescein angiographic image of an age-matched control is also shown below. Venular dilation, in the absence of dye leakage, is illustrated. The presence and severity of vascular changes (dye leakage) noted in diabetic canines appear to be associated with disease duration and blood glucose regulation. Anterior segment angiography could be employed to identify the severity of these vascular disruptions present, in addition to, monitoring disease progression and potential response to therapeutic interventions. These images were obtained as part of the following study: Pirie CG, Shelnutt LM, Langlois DK. Assessment of iris vasculature abnormalities in dogs with diabetes mellitus. Am J Vet Res 2021;82(10):829–839. doi: 10.2460/ajvr.82.10.829

November 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 11

This month's cover images are micro-CT and photomicrographs of proximal sesamoid bones (PSB) of Thoroughbred racehorses following catastrophic PSB fracture. Osteophyte size at the apical and basilar margins was scored and found to positively correlate with accrued total career high-speed furlongs and with catastrophic PSB fracture. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Cresswell EN, Ruspi BD, Wollman CW, et al. Determination of correlation of proximal sesamoid bone osteoarthritis with high-speed furlong exercise and catastrophic sesamoid bone fracture in Thoroughbred racehorses. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:467–477.

October 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 10

This month's cover image is a photograph of multiple cross sections of the prostate gland from a canine cadaver in which microwave ablation with cooling urethral perfusion was performed in 2 zones (white outline and arrow). The median percentage of prostate gland ablation for this and 7 other cadavers in this group was 73%, and urethral mucosal injury was limited. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Traverson M, Lin S, Kendall A, et al. Investigation of the use of microwave ablation with and without cooling urethral perfusion for thermal ablation of the prostate gland in canine cadavers. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:395–404.

September 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 9

This month's cover image is a composite photograph of the bottom of an equine foot that was shod with 5 different types of shoes to determine which one provided the best hoof protection and traction for horses on paved surfaces. Results suggest that shoes coated with a thin layer of tungsten carbide (Panel E), and plastic-steel composite shoes (Panel F) offered the best protection and traction. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Wang P, Takawira C, Taguchi T, et al. Assessment of the effect of horseshoes with and without traction adaptations on the gait kinetics on nonlame horses during a trot on a concrete runway. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:292–301.

August 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 8

Echocardiographic image obtained from a modified apical 4-chamber view used to measure right atrial longitudinal strain (RALS) indices (left), and curves obtained from 120 healthy dogs (right). The right atrial wall is divided into 6 color-coded segments, and the colors correspond to the strain curves, with the average color in white.The authors concluded that age should be considered in the interpretation of RALS indices in clinical settings. Morita T, Nakamura K, Osuga T, et al. Repeatability, reproducibility, and reference intervals for indices of right atrial longitudinal strain derived from speckle-tracking echocardiography in healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:274–279.

July 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 7

This month's cover image is a photograph of a mature (> 18 months old) domestic laying hen ( Gallus domesticus ) during ovariectomy performed with a vessel and tissue–sealing device through a left lateral celiotomy. Notice the ovary with multiple follicles and yolks of various sizes. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Sullivan JL, Wakamatsu N, Yin J-H et al. Assessment of a vessel and tissue–sealing device for ovariectomy in chickens to evaluate the potential application of the procedure to other avian species. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:310–317.

June 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 6

This month's cover image is a photograph depicting explants harvested from fibrocartilage on the dorsal surface of the deep digital flexor tendon of the forelimb of a horse. To obtain these explants, the navicular bone was dissected from the foot en bloc, and the deep digital flexor tendon segment directly opposing the navicular bone was harvested with aseptic technique. The explants were obtained with a 4-mm biopsy punch. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Sullivan SN, Cole SL, Stewart MC, et al. Ex vivo effects of corticosteroids on equine deep digital flexor and navicular fibrocartilage explant cell viability. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:125–131.

May 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 5

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph depicting the results of immunohistochemical staining for insulin expression in isolated canine insulinoma cells after 48 hours of culture. Insulin content (red stain) varies among individual insulinoma cells (arrowheads). Intact insulinoma cells approximately 10 µm in diameter are enlarged after processing with the cytocentrifuge. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Suwitheechon O, Schermerhorn T. Evaluation of the expression of hexokinase I, glucokinase, and insulin by canine insulinoma cells maintained in short-term culture. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:110–117.

April 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 4

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a section of placentome obtained at 80 days of gestation from a pregnant yearling Katahdin ewe that was experimentally inoculated with 4 X 107 TCID50 of a noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus type lb isolate (NY-I strain), intranasally, at 65 days of gestation. The chorioallantois is lined by plump trophoblastic epithelium that contains multifocal areas of intracytoplasmic immunoreactivity for bovine viral diarrhea virus antigen (red-stained tissue). The image was obtained as part of the following study: Lear A, Pohler K, Sula M-JM, et al. Alterations in pregnancy-associated glycoprotein concentrations of pregnant sheep experimentally infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus. Am J Vet Res 2021;82:63–70.

March 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 3

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a section of liver tissue from a dog that was euthanized because of development of clinical signs of liver failure 12 weeks after being treated with lomustine (75 mg/m2, PO, q 21 d for 5 doses). Notice that the portal vein profiles are diminished, prominent pigmented macrophages are present in the portal tract and adjacent parenchyma, and persistent biliary hyperplasia is evident. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Dedeaux AM, Flesner BK, Reinhart JM, et al. Biochemical, functional, and histopathologic characterization of lomustine-induced liver injury in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:810–820.

February 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 2

This month's cover image is a laparoscopic image obtained during microwave ablation of the ovary in a healthy dog. The dog was positioned in dorsolateral recumbency for the procedure, and laparoscopic forceps were used to grasp the proper ligament and elevate and stabilize the ovary. The microwave ablation probe was placed percutaneously through the ventrolateral aspect of the abdominal wall at an orientation parallel to the long axis of the ovary after complete dissection of the ovarian bursa. Notice how dissection of the ovarian bursa improved the visibility of the ovary and facilitated correct positioning of the probe in the central longitudinal axis of the ovary. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Verpaalen VD, Case JB, Dark MJ, et al. Feasibility and efficacy of ultrasonographic and laparoscopic guidance for microwave ablation of clinically normal canine ovaries. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:747–754.

January 2021 AJVR Vol. 82 - Issue 1

This month's cover features color-coded transverse abdominal MRI images illustrating hepatic apparent diffusion coefficient and hepatic fat fraction in a healthy neutered male cat (top) and a neutered male cat that underwent 40 weeks of dietary intervention to achieve and maintain a body condition score of 7/9 (bottom). Notice the bright violet component in the liver and increased subcutaneous and visceral fat tissue in the bottom cat. The color scale bar depicts approximate percentage fat. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Steger G-L, Salesov E, Richter H, et al. Evaluation of the changes in hepatic apparent diffusion coefficient and hepatic fat fraction in healthy cats during body weight gain. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:796–803.

December 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 12

This months cover image is a perfusion CT image of the abdomen of a healthy Beagle. A region of interest (dotted circle) has been placed over the body of the pancreas, and blood flow is expressed as a color map. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Park S, Jung J-W, Je H, et al. Effect of slice thickness on computed tomographic perfusion analysis of the pancreas in healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:732–738.

November 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 11

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a section of neoplastic lymph node from a dog illustrating expression of luteinizing hormone receptors, as determined with an immunohistochemical, LH receptor–specific stain and hematoxylin counterstain. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Ettinger AM, Gust SK, Kutzler MA. Luteinizing hormone receptor expression by nonneoplastic and neoplastic canine lymphocytes. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:572–577.

October 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 10

This month's cover image consists of a series of median plane T2-weighted spin-echo magnetic resonance images and corresponding anatomic sections of cervical intervertebral disks in cadaveric cats. From left to right, the images illustrate increasing stages of intervertebral disk degeneration. The images were obtained as part of the following study: Alisauskaite N, Bitterli T, Kircher PR, et al. Evaluation of agreement and correlation of results obtained with MRI-based and macroscopic observation-based grading schemes when used to assess intervertebral disk degeneration in cats. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:309–316.

September 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 9

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph depicting qualitative histologic scoring of neutrophil infiltration (in this instance, rare neutrophils, or a score of 1 on a scale from 1 to 5) at local injection sites in equids after SC administration of ReqIL-4, ReqIL-8, or a negative control solution, each mixed with a biopolymer carrier. A 6-mm-diameter biopsy punch was used to collect cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues, including the biopolymer plug, at the injection sites. The biopolymer is pink, and the host tissue is saffron-yellow to orange. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Godbout M, Vargas A, Hélie P, et al. Use of a biopolymer delivery system to investigate the influence of interleukin-4 on recruitment of neutrophils in equids. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:344–354.

August 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 8

This month's cover image is a lateromedial radiographic view illustrating locations of soft tissue attachments in the tarsal region of horses. Illustrated locations represent composite findings based on dissection and radiographic imaging of 8 hind limbs from healthy adult horses. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Casillas JM, Jacobs CC, Manfredi JM. Radiographic localization of the attachments of soft tissue structures in the tarsal region of horses. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:406–415.

July 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 7

This month's cover features an endoscopic image of the coelomic cavity in a male bearded dragon ( Pogona vitticeps ). The endoscope was inserted in a cranial direction through an incision just lateral to the umbilicus. In this image, the gallbladder can be seen between lobes of the liver. The location of the skin incision for the ventral approach was chosen to avoid the ventral abdominal vein and pelvic veins. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Frei S, Sanchez-Migallon Guzman D, Kass PH, et al. Evaluation of a ventral and a left lateral approach to coelioscopy in bearded dragons ( Pogona vitticeps ). Am J Vet Res 2020;81:267–275.

June 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 6

This month's cover image is a transverse computed tomographic image of the cranial abdominal region in a healthy dog showing placement of regions of interest for evaluation of perfusion of the pancreas (T1 and T2) and liver (T3 and T4). Colors indicate the scale from the lowest (blue) to highest (red) amount of perfusion. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Kloer TB, Rao S, Twedt DC, et al. Computed tomographic evaluation of pancreatic perfusion in healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:131–138.

May 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 5

This month's cover image is a 5-chamber view obtained by use of multidetector computed tomography of the left side of the heart in a healthy adult hound-type dog. The lumen of the left atrium is shaded pink. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Owens EJ, LeBlanc NL, Scollan KF. Comparison of left and right atrial volumes determined by two- and three-dimensional echocardiography with those determined by multidetector computed tomography for healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res 2020;81:33–40.

April 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 4

This month's cover image is an endoscopic image (with the endoscope positioned in a caudal-to-cranial direction) of the abdomen of a rabbit obtained during evaluation of working space achieved with CO2 insufflation to an intra-abdominal pressure of 8 mm Hg. The diaphragm and liver are shown. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Kabakchiev CM, zur Linden AR, Singh A, et al. Effects of intra-abdominal pressure on laparoscopic working space in domestic rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ). Am J Vet Res 2020;81:77–83.

March 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 3

This month's cover image is a contrast-enhanced ultrasonographic image of the left kidney of a Beagle obtained at the time of peak enhancement. Notice the placement of 3 regions of interest (black circles) in the renal cortex and 2 regions of interest (white circles) in the renal medulla. Each region of interest area was 0.11 cm 2 . The image was obtained as part of the following study: Hwang J, Kang K, Kang J, et al. Effect of catheter diameter and injection rate of flush solution on renal contrast-enhanced ultrasonography with perfluorobutane in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:825–831.

February 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 2

This month's cover image is a dorsal-plane, maximum-intensity CT image, displayed in a bone window, of a cat after injection of contrast medium into a popliteal lymph node. Notice the caudal extent of thoracic duct branching. No other abnormalities were identified during evaluation of baseline CT lymphangiography images. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Dickerson VM, Grimes JA, Secrest SA, et al. Abdominal lymphatic drainage after thoracic duct ligation and cisterna chyli ablation in clinically normal cats. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:885–890.

January 2020 AJVR Vol. 81 - Issue 1

This month's cover image consists of a 3-D model (left) and a heat map (right) illustrating deviations from the articular surface of the radius of a feline cadaver. The 3-D model illustrates positive differences between models created by use of laser-scanned images and images obtained with CT in a transverse orientation. For the heat map, negative deviations (light to dark blue) indicate that the CT model overestimated the articular surface, and positive deviations (yellow, orange, or red) indicate that the CT model underestimated the articular surface. The image was part of the following study: Webster CE, Marcellin-Little DJ, Koballa EM, et al. Evaluation of the geometric accuracy of computed tomography and microcomputed tomography of the articular surface of the distal portion of the radius of cats. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:976–984.

December 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 12

This month's cover image is a photograph of the ground surface of a bovine hind foot with toe-tip necrosis. The photograph was obtained during application of a static load of 3 kN, and a region-growing technique involving a stylus and tablet was used to process the image to highlight regions of white line separation (yellow areas). The image was part of the following study: Johnston JD, Eichhorn DJR, Kontulainen SA, et al. Investigation of white line separation under load in bovine claws with and without toe-tip necrosis. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:736–742.

November 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 11

This month's cover image is an illustration of the cranial aspect of a bovine stifle joint depicting placement of a prosthesis for extracapsular stabilization in cattle with cranial cruciate ligament rupture. For this prosthesis, 800-lb-test monofilament nylon leader line would be threaded through bone tunnels and secured with three 316 stainless steel crimping sleeves on the lateral aspect of the joint. The illustration was created as part of the following study: Lozier JW, Niehaus AJ, Hinds CA, et al. Investigation of a novel prosthesis technique for extracapsular stabilization of cranial cruciate ligament-deficient stifle joints in adult cattle. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:779–786. ©The Ohio State University, Tim Vojt.

October 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 10

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a section of neoplastic lymph node from a dog illustrating expression of luteinizing hormone receptors, as determined with an immunohistochemical, LH receptor–specific stain and hematoxylin counterstain. The image was obtained as part of the following: Ettinger AM, Gust SK, Kutzler MA. Luteinizing hormone receptor expression by nonneoplastic and neoplastic canine lymphocytes. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:572–577.

September 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 9

This month's cover image is a volume rendering of the intracranial arteries in a 21-month-old 5-kg mixed-breed dog with idiopathic epilepsy; the image was obtained in the dorsal plane by use of 1.5-T, 3-D, time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography. Bilaterally, the caudal communicating artery (green) and rostral cerebellar artery (pink) overlap the internal carotid artery (blue), which is located ventral to the caudal communicating artery. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Ishikawa C, Ito D, Tanaka N, et al. Use of three-dimensional time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography at 1.5 Tesla to evaluate the intracranial arteries of 39 dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:480–489.

August 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 8

This month's cover features an echocardiographic image obtained during longitudinal strain analysis in a dog with tricuspid valve dysplasia. The image shows a left apical 4-chamber image that was analyzed with 2-D speckle tracking echocardiography software. The left ventricle is outlined in red by the software. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Santarelli G, Toaldo MB, Bouvard J, et al. Variability among strain variables derived from two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography in dogs by use of various software. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:347–357.

July 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 7

This month's cover image represents a propagation map of the right liver lobe of a healthy dog obtained by means of 2-D shear wave elastography in elasticity mode. Notice the consistent parallel contour lines. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Tamura M, Ohta H, Nisa K, et al. Evaluation of liver and spleen stiffness of healthy dogs by use of two-dimensional shear wave elastography. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:378–384.

June 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 6

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a skin sample obtained from the incision site of a koi 2 weeks after coelioscopy. The image depicts poor healing; the epithelium is incomplete, and the wound surface is partially covered by a layer of serofibrinous crust and cellular debris. The sides of the incision have separated, and severe pyogranulomatous inflammation extends transmurally through the section, which severely disrupts the normal tissue architecture. Suture material is visible. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Stevens BN, Sanchez-Migallon Guzman D, Phillips KL, et al. Evaluation of diagnostic coelioscopy in koi ( Cyprinus carpio ). Am J Vet Res 2019;80:221–229.

May 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 5

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a portal region in a section of a hepatic biopsy sample from a cat with lymphocytic cholangitis. Bile duct proliferation has been made obvious through immunohistochemical staining of proliferative epithelial progenitors. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Chandler AM, Center SA, Randolph JF, et al. Reference limits for hepatic bile duct-to-arteriole and bile duct-to-portal tract ratios in healthy cats. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:15–23.

April 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 4

This month's cover image is a representative 3-D reconstruction of the entire renal volume in a healthy dog. The image was created by combining CT attenuation values of the entire renal volume (including renal parenchyma) in all transverse planes. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Wallimann M, Richter H, Sieber-Ruckstuhl NS, et al. Influence of injection protocol and measurement technique on computed tomographic assessment of glomerular filtration rate in healthy Beagles. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:1298–1305.

March 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 3

This month's cover image was generated during finite element modeling depicting the minimum principal strain at the bone-pin interface for a 2 transfixation pin–cast construct applied to an equine forelimb. The insert represents a higher magnification of the bone-pin interface outlined by the white line in the main image. Notice that local bone strain at the bone-pin interface was quite high, reaching approximately –15,000 microstrain. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Thomas KL, Carmalt JL, Burnett WD, et al. In vitro mechanical evaluation of three transfixation pin–cast constructs applied to equine forelimbs. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:1287–1297.

February 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 2

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of equine lamellar tissue following extracorporeal perfusion of the limb with lipopolysaccharide. The section was immunostained for total (active and latent) matrix metalloproteinase-9 (brown). Notice the moderate reaction in fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and suprabasal epidermal cells and intense reaction in basal epidermal cells. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Patan-Zugaj B, Gauff FC, Egerbacher M, et al. Endotoxin-induced changes of type VII collagen–cleaving matrix metalloproteinases in lamellar tissue of extracorporeally perfused equine limbs. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:986–994.

January 2019 AJVR Vol. 80 - Issue 1

This month's cover image is a scanning electron micrograph of the surface of a cast stainless steel tibial plateau leveling osteotomy plate that had been explanted from a dog. Notice the circular areas of corrosion that can be seen between scratches on the surface of the plate. The image was part of the following study: Sprecher CM, Milz S, Suter T, et al. Retrospective analysis of corrosion and ion release from retrieved cast stainless steel tibia plateau leveling osteotomy plates in dogs with and without peri-implant osteosarcoma. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:970–979.

December 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 12

This month's cover image is a sagittal proton-density fast spin echo image of the supraspinatus tendon of a nonlame 2-year-old sexuallty intact male Beagle. Notice that the collagen-dense fibers of the superficial and deep margins of the supraspinatus tendon have a hypointense signal, whereas the thick water-rich central substance has a hyperintense signal. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Pownder SL, Caserto BG, Hayashi K, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and histologic features of the supraspinatus tendon in nonlame dogs. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:836–844.

November 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 11

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of cultured primary canine aortic endothelial cells. Endothelial cells were grown to confluency and fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, then stained for vascular endothelial–cadherin with rabbit polyclonal anti-CD144 antibody. Fluorescent-labeled goat anti-rabbit lgG was used as the secondary antibody, and cell nuclei were stained with blue fluorescent bisbenzimide stain. The image was obtained as part of the following study: König ML, Lettry SC, Marti E, et al. Validation of a human angiopoietin-2 ELISA for measurement of angiopoietin-2 concentrations in canine plasma samples and supernatant of primary canine aortic endothelial cell cultures. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:803–810.

October 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 10

This month's cover image is a photograph of the left eye of a 24-year-old female horse that was obtained during anterior segment indocyanine green angiography. The image was obtained 18 seconds after injection of indocyanine green and illustrates filling of the radial iris veins. The image was part of the following study: Pirie CG, LoPinto AJ, Tenney WA. Comparison of angiographic dyes and injection techniques for ocular anterior segment angiography in horses. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:562–567.

September 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 9

This month's cover image is a color-coded map created by postprocessing of delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance images of the distal sagittal medial midcondylar region of the second phalanx of a horse obtained after injection of gadolinium into the dorsal recess of the distal interphalangeal joint. Different colors represent different cartilage relaxation times, with light green and blue pixels representing articular cartilage. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Bischofberger AS, Fürst AE, Torgerson PR, et al. Use of a 3-Telsa magnet to perform delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the distal interphalangeal joint of horses with and without naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:287–298.

August 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 8

This month's cover image consists of photomicrographs of representative cytologic preparations of neutrophils isolated from equine blood samples and cultured for 12 hours with (top) and without (bottom) lipopolysaccharide (1 µg/mL). Treatment with LPS delayed apoptosis of neutrophils for up to 24 hours. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Anderson SL, Townsend HGG, Singh B. Role of toll-like receptor 4 and caspase-3, -8, and -9 in lipopolysaccharide-induced delay of apoptosis in equine neutrophils. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:424–432.

July 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 7

This month's cover image is a transverse CT image of a clinically normal Holstein calf. The calf was anesthetized and received an IV injection of iodinated contrast medium, with dynamic CT scanning of the head initiated at the time of contrast medium injection. The image was created by merging a perfusion CT color map of cerebral blood flow with a conventional CT image of the same slice, and was obtained as part of the following study: Kishimoto M, Kushida K, Yamada K. Perfusion computed tomographic measurements of cerebral blood flow variables in live Holstein calves. Am J Vet Res 2018;79:177–180.

June 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 6

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph depicting the distribution of Helicobacter -like organisms on the mucosal surface of the gastric antrum in a healthy dog. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Suárez-Esquivel M, Alfaro-Alarcón A, Guzmán-Verri C, et al. Analysis of the association between density of Helicobacter spp and gastric lesions in dogs. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:1414–1420.

May 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 5

This month's cover image is a photograph from the caudal aspect of a canine cadaver larynx after bilateral ventriculocordectomy performed via ventral laryngotomy. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Regier PJ, McCarthy TC, Monnet E. Effect of bilateral ventriculocordectomy via ventral laryngotomy on laryngeal airway resistance in larynges of canine cadavers. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:1444–1448.

April 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 4

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of a tissue section obtained from a horse 120 days after unicortical ostectomy of the third metacarpal bone and filling of the defect with a castor oil polyurethane polymer containing calcium carbonate. There is a degenerating clot on the bone tissue in a pore of the polymer and focal areas of bone matrix. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Nóbrega FS, Selim MB, Arana-Chavez VE, et al. Histologic and immunohistochemical evaluation of biocompatibility of castor oil polyurethane polymer with calcium carbonate in equine bone tissue. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:1210–1214.

March 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 3

This month's cover image is a photomicrograph of equine hematopoietic cells after culturing for B-cell differentiation and immunostaining with antibodies against B-cell signature transcription factor E2A/TCF3 (green) and cell surface molecule CD19 (red); nuclei were stained blue with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Schwab UE, Tallmadge RL, Matychak MB, et al. Effects of autologous stromal cells and cytokines on differentiation of equine bone marrow–derived progenitor cells. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:1215–1228.

February 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 2

This month's cover features an endoscopic image of the upper respiratory tract of a horse after nasopharyngeal administration of contrast medium. The contrast medium is visible on the surfaces of the nasopharynx, laryngopharynx, and larynx. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Colbath AC, Valdés-Martinez A, Leise BS, et al. Evaluation of two methods for topical application of contrast medium to the pharyngeal and laryngeal region of horses. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:1098–1103.

January 2018 AJVR Vol. 79 - Issue 1

This month's cover features a photomicrograph of a cytologic preparation of bone marrow from a healthy juvenile female New Zealand White rabbit showing large granulocyte precursor cells. The myeloid precursor cells are 2 to 3 times the diameter of mature heterophils. The image was obtained as part of the following study: Riedel RM, de Matos R, Schaefer DMW. Bone marrow cell composition and morphology in healthy juvenile female New Zealand White rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ). Am J Vet Res 2017;78:910–918.

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In vitro phenotypic characterisation of two genotype I African swine fever viruses with genomic deletion isolated from Sardinian wild boars

African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes a devastating disease affecting domestic and wild pigs. ASF was first introduced in Sardinia in 1978 and until 2019 only genotype I isolates were identified. A remarkabl...

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Machine learning approach as an early warning system to prevent foodborne Salmonella outbreaks in northwestern Italy

Salmonellosis, one of the most common foodborne infections in Europe, is monitored by food safety surveillance programmes, resulting in the generation of extensive databases. By leveraging tree-based machine l...

Neuropathological lesions in intravenous BCG-stimulated K18-hACE2 mice challenged with SARS-CoV-2

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, questions emerged about the potential effects of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine on the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection, including the ...

FdeC expression regulates motility and adhesion of the avian pathogenic Escherichia coli strain IMT5155

Adaptation of avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC) to changing host environments including virulence factors expression is vital for disease progression. FdeC is an autotransporter adhesin that plays a role in uropath...

Interferon-gamma producing CD4 + T cells quantified by flow cytometry as early markers for Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection in cattle

Current diagnostic methods for Johne’s disease in cattle allow reliable detection of infections with Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) not before animals are 2 years of age. Applying a flow cytometr...

Pseudorabies virus hijacks the Rab6 protein to promote viral assembly and egress

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is recognized as the aetiological agent responsible for Aujeszky’s disease, or pseudorabies, in swine populations. Rab6, a member of the small GTPase family, is implicated in various m...

Ursonic acid from medicinal herbs inhibits PRRSV replication through activation of the innate immune response by targeting the phosphatase PTPN1

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS), caused by the PRRS virus (PRRSV), has caused substantial economic losses to the global swine industry due to the lack of effective commercial vaccines and ...

Effect of oral administration of microcin Y on growth performance, intestinal barrier function and gut microbiota of chicks challenged with Salmonella Pullorum

The lasso peptide microcin Y (MccY) effectively inhibits various serotypes of Salmonella in vitro, but the antibacterial effect against S . Pullorum in poultry is still unclear. This study was the first to evaluat...

Pathogenicity and escape to pre-existing immunity of a new genotype of swine influenza H1N2 virus that emerged in France in 2020

In 2020, a new genotype of swine H1N2 influenza virus (H1 av N2–HA 1C.2.4) was identified in France. It rapidly spread within the pig population and supplanted the previously predominant H1 av N1-HA 1C.2.1 virus. To ...

A scoping review on bovine tuberculosis highlights the need for novel data streams and analytical approaches to curb zoonotic diseases

Zoonotic diseases represent a significant societal challenge in terms of their health and economic impacts. One Health approaches to managing zoonotic diseases are becoming more prevalent, but require novel th...

HSP70 positively regulates translation by interacting with the IRES and stabilizes the viral structural proteins VP1 and VP3 to facilitate duck hepatitis A virus type 1 replication

The maintenance of viral protein homeostasis depends on the interaction between host cell proteins and viral proteins. As a molecular chaperone, heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) has been shown to play an importan...

Classical BSE dismissed as the cause of CWD in Norwegian red deer despite strain similarities between both prion agents

The first case of CWD in a Norwegian red deer was detected by a routine ELISA test and confirmed by western blotting and immunohistochemistry in the brain stem of the animal. Two different western blotting tes...

MiR-320 inhibits PRRSV replication by targeting PRRSV ORF6 and porcine CEBPB

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS), a highly contagious disease caused by Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), results in huge economic losses to the world pig industr...

Identification of ClpB, a molecular chaperone involved in the stress tolerance and virulence of Streptococcus agalactiae

Bacterial ClpB is an ATP-dependent disaggregate that belongs to the Hsp100/Clp family and facilitates bacterial survival under hostile environmental conditions. Streptococcus agalactiae , which is regarded as the ...

Therapeutic efficacy of a K5-specific phage and depolymerase against Klebsiella pneumoniae in a mouse model of infection

Klebsiella pneumoniae has become one of the most intractable gram-negative pathogens infecting humans and animals due to its severe antibiotic resistance. Bacteriophages and protein products derived from them are...

The haemagglutinin–neuraminidase protein of velogenic Newcastle disease virus enhances viral infection through NF-κB-mediated programmed cell death

The haemagglutinin–neuraminidase (HN) protein, a vital membrane glycoprotein, plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Previously, we demonstrated that a mutation in the HN pr...

Immune response induced by a Streptococcus suis multi-serotype autogenous vaccine used in sows to protect post-weaned piglets

Streptococcus suis is a bacterial pathogen that causes important economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. Since there are no current commercial vaccines, the use of autogenous vaccines applied to gilts/so...

Porcine cis-acting lnc-CAST positively regulates CXCL8 expression through histone H3K27ac

The chemokine CXCL8, also known as the neutrophil chemotactic factor, plays a crucial role in mediating inflammatory responses and managing cellular immune reactions during viral infections. Porcine reproducti...

Correction: Emergence and genomic characterization of Proteus mirabilis harboring bla NDM-1 in Korean companion dogs

The original article was published in Veterinary Research 2024 55 :50

Interactions between avian viruses and skin in farm birds

This article reviews the avian viruses that infect the skin of domestic farm birds of primary economic importance: chicken, duck, turkey, and goose. Many avian viruses (e.g., poxviruses, herpesviruses, Influen...

Evaluation of Th1/Th2, regulatory cytokines and transcriptional factor FoxP3 in sheep immunized with a partially protective and non-protective vaccine and challenged with Fasciola hepatica

Gene expression for Th1/Th2 cytokines (IL-4 and IFN-ɣ), regulatory cytokines (TGF - β and IL - 10) and the transcriptional factor FoxP3 was analyzed in the liver and hepatic lymph nodes (HLN) from sheep immunized wit...

STING-dependent trained immunity contributes to host defense against Clostridium perfringens infection via mTOR signaling

Clostridium perfringens ( C. perfringens ) infection is recognized as one of the most challenging issues threatening food safety and perplexing agricultural development. To date, the molecular mechanisms of the int...

Genome analysis of Streptococcus spp. isolates from animals in pre-antibiotic era with respect to antibiotic susceptibility and virulence gene profiles

Lyophilized Streptococcus spp. isolates ( n  = 50) from animal samples submitted to the diagnostic laboratory at the University of Connecticut in the 1940s were revivified to investigate the genetic characteristics...

Emergence and genomic characterization of Proteus mirabilis harboring bla NDM-1 in Korean companion dogs

Proteus mirabilis is a commensal bacterium dwelling in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of humans and animals. Although New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase 1 (NDM-1) producing P. mirabilis is emerging as a threat, its e...

The Correction to this article has been published in Veterinary Research 2024 55 :55

Occludin and collagen IV degradation mediated by the T9SS effector SspA contributes to blood–brain barrier damage in ducks during Riemerella anatipestifer infection

Riemerella anatipestifer infection is characterized by meningitis with neurological symptoms in ducklings and has adversely affected the poultry industry. R. anatipestifer strains can invade the duck brain to cau...

Serotype diversity and antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae isolated in Italian pig farms from 2015 to 2022

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (APP) is a bacterium frequently associated with porcine pleuropneumonia. The acute form of the disease is highly contagious and often fatal, resulting in significant economic losse...

Correction: Interleukin-22 facilitates the interferon-λ-mediated production of tripartite motif protein 25 to inhibit replication of duck viral hepatitis A virus type 1

The original article was published in Veterinary Research 2023 54 :53

Pasteurella multocida activates apoptosis via the FAK-AKT-FOXO1 axis to cause pulmonary integrity loss, bacteremia, and eventually a cytokine storm

Pasteurella multocida is an important zoonotic respiratory pathogen capable of infecting a diverse range of hosts, including humans, farm animals, and wild animals. However, the precise mechanisms by which P. mul...

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus Nsp1 suppresses IFN-λ1 production by degrading IRF1 via ubiquitin–proteasome pathway

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV) is a novel porcine enteric coronavirus that causes acute watery diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration in newborn piglets. The type III interferon (IFN-λ) resp...

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus nucleocapsid protein antagonizes the IFN response through inhibiting TRIM25 oligomerization and functional activation of RIG-I/TRIM25

Swine acute diarrhea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), an emerging Alpha-coronavirus , brings huge economic loss in swine industry. Interferons (IFNs) participate in a frontline antiviral defense mechanism triggeri...

circRNA_8521 promotes Senecavirus A infection by sponging miRNA-324 to regulate LC3A

Senecavirus A (SVA) causes outbreaks of vesicular disease in pigs, which imposes a considerable economic burden on the pork industry. As current SVA prevention measures are ineffective, new strategies for cont...

A porcine kidney-derived clonal cell line with clear genetic annotation is highly susceptible to African swine fever virus

African Swine Fever virus (ASFV), the causative agent of African swine fever, is a highly lethal hemorrhagic virus affecting domestic pigs and wild boars. The primary target cells for ASFV infection are porcin...

Non-specific effects of inactivated Mycobacterium bovis oral and parenteral treatment in a rabbit scabies model

Tuberculosis BCG vaccination induced non-specific protective effects in humans led to postulate the concept of trained immunity (TRAIM) as an innate type of immune mechanism that triggered by a pathogen, prote...

Interleukin-2 enhancer binding factor 2 negatively regulates the replication of duck hepatitis A virus type 1 by disrupting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity of 3D polymerase

The interaction between viral components and cellular proteins plays a crucial role in viral replication. In a previous study, we showed that the 3′—untranslated region (3′—UTR) is an essential element for the...

Correction: Fasciola hepatica soluble antigens ( FhAg ) induce ovine PMN innate immune reactions and NET formation in vitro and in vivo

The original article was published in Veterinary Research 2023 54 :105

Epidemiological characterization and risk assessment of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus 2 (RHDV2/b/GI.2) in the world

A novel variant of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus, designated RHDV2/b/GI.2, was first discovered in France in 2010. Subsequently, RHDV2 rapidly spread to Africa, North America, Australia, and Asia. RHDV2 ou...

The spontaneously produced lysogenic prophage phi456 promotes bacterial resistance to adverse environments and enhances the colonization ability of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli strain DE456

In the last decade, prophages that possess the ability of lysogenic transformation have become increasingly significant. Their transfer and subsequent activity in the host have a significant impact on the evol...

Genomic characterization of equine influenza A subtype H3N8 viruses by long read sequencing and functional analyses of the PB1-F2 virulence factor of A/equine/Paris/1/2018

Equine influenza virus (EIV) remains a threat to horses, despite the availability of vaccines. Strategies to monitor the virus and prevent potential vaccine failure revolve around serological assays, RT-qPCR a...

Antibacterial activity of the antimicrobial peptide PMAP-36 in combination with tetracycline against porcine extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli in vitro and in vivo

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An equine iPSC-based phenotypic screening platform identifies pro- and anti-viral molecules against West Nile virus

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Pasteurella multocida is an opportunistic zoonotic pathogen that primarily causes fatal respiratory diseases, such as pneumonia and respiratory syndromes. However, the precise mechanistic understanding of how P. ...

A matter of differentiation: equine enteroids as a model for the in vivo intestinal epithelium

Epithelial damage due to gastrointestinal disorders frequently causes severe disease in horses. To study the underlying pathophysiological processes, we aimed to establish equine jejunum and colon enteroids (e...

Correction: Comparative analysis of the interactions of different Streptococcus suis strains with monocytes, granulocytes and the complement system in porcine blood

The original article was published in Veterinary Research 2024 55 :14

A chimeric porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 1 strain containing synthetic ORF2-6 genes can trigger T follicular helper cell and heterologous neutralizing antibody responses and confer enhanced cross-protection

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Molecular mechanism of bovine Gasdermin D-mediated pyroptosis

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Equine enteroid-derived monolayers recapitulate key features of parasitic intestinal nematode infection

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New threats in the recovery of large carnivores inhabiting human-modified landscapes: the case of the Cantabrian brown bear ( Ursus arctos )

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How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example

Published on August 7, 2022 by Courtney Gahan . Revised on August 15, 2023.

A research paper outline is a useful tool to aid in the writing process , providing a structure to follow with all information to be included in the paper clearly organized.

A quality outline can make writing your research paper more efficient by helping to:

• Organize your thoughts
• Understand the flow of information and how ideas are related
• Ensure nothing is forgotten

A research paper outline can also give your teacher an early idea of the final product.

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Table of contents

Research paper outline example, how to write a research paper outline, formatting your research paper outline, language in research paper outlines.

• Definition of measles
• Rise in cases in recent years in places the disease was previously eliminated or had very low rates of infection
• Figures: Number of cases per year on average, number in recent years. Relate to immunization
• Symptoms and timeframes of disease
• Risk of fatality, including statistics
• How measles is spread
• Immunization procedures in different regions
• Different regions, focusing on the arguments from those against immunization
• Immunization figures in affected regions
• High number of cases in non-immunizing regions
• Illnesses that can result from measles virus
• Fatal cases of other illnesses after patient contracted measles
• Summary of arguments of different groups
• Summary of figures and relationship with recent immunization debate
• Which side of the argument appears to be correct?

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
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See an example

Follow these steps to start your research paper outline:

• Decide on the subject of the paper
• Write down all the ideas you want to include or discuss
• Organize related ideas into sub-groups
• Arrange your ideas into a hierarchy: What should the reader learn first? What is most important? Which idea will help end your paper most effectively?
• Create headings and subheadings that are effective
• Format the outline in either alphanumeric, full-sentence or decimal format

There are three different kinds of research paper outline: alphanumeric, full-sentence and decimal outlines. The differences relate to formatting and style of writing.

• Alphanumeric
• Full-sentence

An alphanumeric outline is most commonly used. It uses Roman numerals, capitalized letters, arabic numerals, lowercase letters to organize the flow of information. Text is written with short notes rather than full sentences.

• Sub-point of sub-point 1

Essentially the same as the alphanumeric outline, but with the text written in full sentences rather than short points.

• Additional sub-point to conclude discussion of point of evidence introduced in point A

A decimal outline is similar in format to the alphanumeric outline, but with a different numbering system: 1, 1.1, 1.2, etc. Text is written as short notes rather than full sentences.

• 1.1.1 Sub-point of first point
• 1.1.2 Sub-point of first point
• 1.2 Second point

To write an effective research paper outline, it is important to pay attention to language. This is especially important if it is one you will show to your teacher or be assessed on.

There are four main considerations: parallelism, coordination, subordination and division.

Parallelism: Be consistent with grammatical form

Parallel structure or parallelism is the repetition of a particular grammatical form within a sentence, or in this case, between points and sub-points. This simply means that if the first point is a verb , the sub-point should also be a verb.

Example of parallelism:

• Include different regions, focusing on the different arguments from those against immunization

Coordination: Be aware of each point’s weight

Your chosen subheadings should hold the same significance as each other, as should all first sub-points, secondary sub-points, and so on.

Example of coordination:

• Include immunization figures in affected regions
• Illnesses that can result from the measles virus

Subordination: Work from general to specific

Subordination refers to the separation of general points from specific. Your main headings should be quite general, and each level of sub-point should become more specific.

Example of subordination:

Division: break information into sub-points.

Your headings should be divided into two or more subsections. There is no limit to how many subsections you can include under each heading, but keep in mind that the information will be structured into a paragraph during the writing stage, so you should not go overboard with the number of sub-points.

Ready to start writing or looking for guidance on a different step in the process? Read our step-by-step guide on how to write a research paper .

Cite this Scribbr article

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Gahan, C. (2023, August 15). How to Create a Structured Research Paper Outline | Example. Scribbr. Retrieved June 7, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/outline/

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UKnowledge > Martin-Gatton College of Agriculture, Food and Environment > Veterinary Science > Theses & Dissertations

Theses and Dissertations--Veterinary Science

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY IMAGE ANALYSIS: MODELING SKELETAL INJURIES IN THOROUGHBRED RACEHORSES , Grace Louise Camp

MOLECULAR GENETIC STUDIES OF HORSES, ESPECIALLY WITH REFERENCE TO AGGRECAN AND DWARFISM , John Edmund Eberth

Effects of High-Speed Training on Messenger RNA Expression in Two-Year-Old Thoroughbred Racehorses , Mackenzie Grace Johnson

Equine Fecal Microbiota Response to Short Term Antibiotic Administration , Jordan Lacey Parker

RECEPTOR USAGE AND INFECTION BIOLOGY OF INFLUENZA D VIRUS , Tirth Uprety

USE OF MOLECULAR GENETICS TO INVESTIGATE POPULATION STRUCTURE AND SWAYBACK IN HORSES , Navid YousefiMashouf

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

The microbiome of the equine roundworm, Parascaris spp. , Jennifer Lynn Cain

The Effect of Intra-Articular Corticosteroids on the Systemic Messenger RNA Response in an Equine Experimental Inflammation Model , Emma Elaine Partridge

Identifying Bisphosphonate Protein Biomarkers in Equine Sera Using Mass Spectrometry Methods , Malinda Jayne Alison Porter

DISSECTING THE ROLE OF ACTIN-MYOSIN MOTOR AND CALCIUM – BASED ORGANELLE SECRETION IN MOTILITY OF SARCOCYSTIS NEURONA , Parul Suri

The Effects of Cannabidiol on Senior Equine Health , Shelley Turner

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION OF EQUINE PROXIMAL SESAMOID BONES TO HIGH-SPEED EXERCISE , Kathryn Mary Babiarz

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CARRIER STATE AND A NOVEL MARKER OF LEPTOSPIRA AND ABORTION IN CENTRAL KENTUCKY HORSES , Gloria Louise Gellin

MUSCLE MASS AND IMMUNE FUNCTION IN THE SENIOR HORSE , Alisa Christina Herbst

Effects of Season and Nutrition on Insulinemic Responses in Insulin Dysregulated Horses , Erica Lyn Macon

MATURATION OF EQUINE PROXIMAL SESAMOID BONES IN THOROUGHBRED HORSES , Angela Maria Mangine

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Donor Age Effects on the Proliferative and Chondrogenic/Osteogenic Differentiation Performance of Equine Bone Marrow- and Adipose Tissue Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Culture , Jasmin Bagge

Evaluation of Rhodococcus equi Susceptibility to Silver Nanoparticle Antimicrobials , Elizabeth Boudaher

COMPARATIVE CHONDROGENESIS OF INTERZONE AND ANLAGEN CELLS IN EQUINE SKELETAL DEVELOPMENT , ChanHee Mok

Host-Parasite Interaction in Horses: Mucosal Responses to Naturally Acquired Cyathostomin Infections and Anthelmintic Treatment , Ashley Elaine Steuer

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

MODULATION OF INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINE, CHEMOKINE, AND TOLL-LIKE RECEPTOR GENES AND TRANSCRIPTOME ANALYSIS OF EQUINE ENDOTHELIAL CELLS FOLLOWING INFECTION WITH EQUID HERPESVIRUS-1, AND EQUINE ARTERITIS VIRUS. , Saranajith Wangisa Dunuwille

ANTHELMINTIC RESISTANCE IN EQUINE PARASITES: MECHANISMS AND TREATMENT APPROACHES , Jessica Scare Kenealy

DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION OF NONRADIOACTIVE METHODS FOR MONITORING T LYMPHOCYTE RESPONSE TO EQUINE ARTERITIS VIRUS (EAV) IN HORSES , Annet Kyomuhangi

EFFECTS OF A SYSTEMIC HIGH UREA CONCENTRATION ON THE ENDOMETRIAL AND EMBRYONIC TRANSCRIPTOMES OF THE MARE , Yatta Linhares Boakari

EFFECTS OF PITUITARY PARS INTERMEDIA DYSFUNCTION AND PRASCEND ® TREATMENT ON ENDOCRINE AND IMMUNE FUNCTION IN SENIOR HORSES , Ashton B. Miller

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• Search It All WSU Doctoral dissertations, and those Master's Theses that have been entered by schools, departments or individuals, are searchable in the library catalog by title, subject, or author. Limit your search by subject to Type Dissertations and Theses in the left hand side bar. To search for Masters theses by college, limit search to WSU Libraries - Summit. Do a keyword search on: Washington State University Master Name of Department. Limit to years after 2008.
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Veterinary professional identity: Conceptual analysis and location in a practice theory framework

Emma scholz.

1 School of Animal, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia

Franziska Trede

2 Institute for Interactive Media and Learning, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Professional, social, and cultural issues and phenomena of veterinary practice are now established areas of commentary and interest in research, education, professional publications and even in the mainstream media. Despite the availability of theoretically informed literature in diverse relevant domains and disciplines including professional practice, workplace learning, and medical sociology and anthropology, commentary and research on veterinary practice issues and phenomena remains dominated by clinician-educators and clinician-policymakers. Reflecting the clinical disciplinary traditions, there is a resulting over-representation of individualistic, positivist perspectives and under-theorized research studies. In this paper we provide an interdisciplinary theoretical framework for veterinary practice and veterinary professional identity grounded in a practice theory perspective. We begin by arguing for the need for such a framework by scoping veterinary practice in its contemporary social context. We go on to provide a sociocultural framing of veterinary practice, underlining the mutual constitution of individuals and the social world through participation in practices and taking into consideration important concepts including knowledge, institutions, ethics, and embodiment. We assert the importance of professional identity as a core phenomenon of veterinary practice, constituted by making meaning of professional practice experiences, especially through narrative and dialogue. This practice theory framework for veterinary practice and veterinary professional identity development provides rich opportunities for understanding, researching, and enacting diverse activities and phenomena, especially learning, development and change within and beyond formal educational settings.

1. Introduction

In this paper, we offer a narrative conceptual framework grounded in sociocultural and practice theories for understanding and exploring veterinary professional identity as a core dimension of veterinary practice. The analysis is contextualized at different levels, beginning by characterizing contemporary societal conditions and then focusing on veterinary practice specifically, exploring issues that impact on veterinarians.

There are multiple reasons to value a detailed articulation and a rich conceptualization of veterinary professional identity, and here we mention three. Firstly, when a term like identity is used casually and repeatedly in everyday life, it can take on an all-encompassing character that paradoxically strips it of meaning. Providing a conceptually rigorous and coherent account of identity as a phenomenon makes a strong case for placing professional identity at the heart of veterinary practice, restoring its importance and worthiness of resourcing to explore and develop. Secondly, this framework points to novel research questions to pose, and innovative research approaches that can fruitfully explore veterinary practice and its associated dimensions as human activities grounded in specific times and places. Others may be emboldened to explore diverse disciplines for other conceptual frameworks that can provide useful insights. Finally, a careful theoretical conception provides tools with which to rigorously and critically evaluate and explore claims or interventions that purport to impact on professional identity and its development within and beyond formal educational settings.

We begin the paper by contextualizing our analysis with an outline of contemporary social conditions and how they impact on veterinarians. We then provide a sociocultural practice theory perspective of veterinary practice, drawing on the theory of practice architectures to underline the mutual constitution of individuals and the social world through participation in practices and taking into consideration important concepts including knowledge, institutions, ethics, and embodiment. Making meaning of professional practice experiences is highlighted as a crucial dimension of being a veterinarian, and the way in which professional identity is made visible and developed. We highlight narrative and dialogue as key cultural tools through which veterinarians make meaning of their experiences, enable agency, and author themselves.

2. Veterinary practice in a changing world: Being veterinarians in conditions of supercomplexity

Veterinary practice is associated with health, welfare, production, and performance in a diverse range of nonhuman animal species across the globe. It occurs in the ubiquitous interface between humans and animals, being linked with domestication in a wide variety of species for different purposes such as food, fiber, labor, economic security, entertainment and companionship. Contemporary global conditions have been characterized as comprising supercomplexity , reflecting unprecedented change and uncertainty ( 1 , 2 ). Supercomplexity constitutes a qualitative distinction from conditions of complexity. Under complexity, sufficient resources can solve problems that arise, whereas supercomplexity is characterized by competing and incommensurable frameworks for understanding ( 1 ). That means that even if infinite resources were available, problems associated with supercomplexity would not be amenable to resolution. The defining conditions for supercomplexity are described as contestability, challengeability, unpredictability, and uncertainty. They signpost that we have given up on control and predictability. Professions, including medicine, have suggested they function in an age of complexity, uncertainty, and reflection ( 3 ). Under those conditions, professionalism is challenged by competing discourses of managerialism, entrepreneurialism, and consumerism and there are calls for criticality and creativity in order to retain independence, standards, and an ethical grounding ( 2 ). Veterinarians, collectively and individually, perceive the impacts of supercomplexity through their experience of changes that include advances in technologies and knowledge, demographic and political shifts, globalization of agricultural markets, and environmental and climatic changes.

In the following section, we draw attention to some of the contemporary issues with which the veterinary profession is concerned, based on scholarly literature and commentary within the profession. There is a predominance of voices from developed nations, particularly North America, Europe, the United Kingdom and Australia. Global influences impact veterinarians in all parts of the world, but we acknowledge that there is much yet to be understood and heard from under-researched colleagues in developing nations.

2.1. Professionalization: An ongoing struggle for position and reward

Professionalization refers to ways in which an occupational group, in this case veterinarians, comes to see themselves and to be accepted by the community as a profession. The emergence of professions in general, and the veterinary profession in particular, can be linked to wider global trends associated with the development of the institutions and structures of modernity, including the development of nation-states, the rise of the rule of law, and the evolution of financial instruments ( 4 ). For those involved with animal health, specific processes of agricultural and economic development, property rights, concerns with public health, and changing legal and cultural status of animals also played a major role ( 5 , 6 ). Professionalization represents the process by which a group comes to recognize itself and be recognized by its community as having some coherence, by means of shared ways of understanding, standards, and responsibilities ( 7 ). Processes of professionalization trace diverse trajectories across different geographical, political and cultural settings. Being accepted as a profession carries significant benefits such as public status, economic reward, claims to self-determination and trustworthiness, which appears to be a designation to be pursued and guarded assiduously ( 4 ). Veterinary history, as told from within, can be cast as a steady advance, with inevitable and smooth progress through stages marked by the work of founding fathers—who were, until very recent years, mostly male with a few notable exceptions—in creating structures and institutions, and in advancing knowledge ( 8 , 9 ). Alternative accounts present a struggle for recognition, status, and reward in which powerful countervailing voices, chance events, and human frailties all played their roles ( 5 , 10 ).

In developed economies, professions and economics make somewhat uncomfortable bedfellows, with one of the features of achieving the status of a profession in the eyes of the community being the expectation that professionals will place their duty to their clients or patients above their own financial interests. On the other hand, there is a reciprocal expectation that professionals will be rewarded for that trust, both financially and in terms of prestige and autonomy. Veterinarians perceive a significant mismatch between their clients' perceptions of high veterinary costs and their own experience of modest financial reward for long hours of often arduous work, expectations of competency across multiple species, frequently high levels of study debt, and responsibility to provide 24-h emergency care ( 11 – 13 ). The economic tensions alive within the profession are linked in complex ways to ideas about professionalism but also to community understandings of responsibility for animals' welfare and health in circumstances of changing human–animal relations. There is a tension between community desires for animal welfare to be prioritized and the lack of a social safety net when the user-pays system fails.

2.2. Changing human-animal relations

Development of practices associated with animal survival, health, production, and performance follow changes in the conduct of human social life. Utilization by humans confers a value on animals, whether material, economic, cultural, or emotional, and notions of ownership or stewardship locate responsibility for husbandry tasks ( 14 , 15 ). The human- animal bond is an ancient and established feature of human animal relations, but its characteristics change as societies change. In the contemporary developed world, veterinarians' responsibilities toward animals are located at the interface of animal welfare science, codified regulatory frameworks, and ethical considerations about responsibilities to other people and the moral status of animals. As a result, veterinarians go about their daily work in a complex and contested philosophical landscape with concrete implications for their practice ( 16 – 18 ).

Mounting empirical evidence of animal sentience and intelligence supports a philosophical view of veterinary ethics as a focus of conflicting interests ( 18 ), with animals and humans each having legitimate interests and moral claims that are not easily balanced. In developed countries, an increasingly urbanized population with unprecedentedly high standards of living but experiencing disturbing levels of loneliness ( 19 ) has fuelled an increase in companion animal ownership. At the same time, urban populations are almost entirely unconnected with the livestock industries that produce their food, a phenomenon that has been described as “post-domestication” ( 20 ), meaning that the majority of the general population have little to no direct experience with, or understanding of, farming practices. The closeness and love that people feel toward their pets supports a discourse that portrays companion animals as part of the family ( 21 , 22 ). There are economic opportunities for veterinarians in harnessing the willingness of companion animal owners to invest in health care for pets, an investment that may extend to costly interventions, preventative health care, and extensive end-of-life care. At times of pressure, however, there remain significant inconsistencies in people's behavior and attitudes toward animals, both individually and at a community level ( 23 ). Regulations governing veterinary practice and animal management, as well as broader community norms and expectations, create conditions in which veterinarians are required to balance human and animal interests in specific situations and advise and enact appropriate courses of action.

2.3. Wellness challenges for veterinarians and veterinary students

A plethora of evidence in recent decades points to serious problems of wellness within the veterinary profession ( 24 – 28 ). Rates of mental distress in practicing veterinarians have been reported as being significantly higher than in the general population. Mental distress includes measures of anxiety, depression, burnout, suicidal thoughts, and substance abuse ( 29 – 31 ). At the extreme end, suicide rates for veterinarians are globally higher than those in the general population, and also higher than in other high-risk professions ( 26 , 32 , 33 ). Professional institutions and the community are paying attention, with high profile campaigns from professional associations to address profession-wide issues of poor mental health ( 34 , 35 ). Complex relationships between individual characteristics, environmental conditions, stressors, and protective factors mediate wellbeing for veterinarians and veterinary students ( 25 , 29 , 36 – 38 ). Commonly cited reasons for distress in veterinary students and veterinarians include interrelated issues such as high workload, fear of failure or error, long and arduous hours of work and the emotional cost of routinely performing euthanasia ( 32 , 39 , 40 ). Perceived stigma is reported to be a barrier to effective help-seeking for mental health challenges in veterinarians and veterinary students ( 24 , 32 ), a finding also noted in the medical profession ( 41 ). The perception of stigma is not necessarily irrational in an environment where the concept of “fitness to practice” may be interpreted or operationalised in overly rigid terms as complete freedom from impairment ( 42 , 43 ). Although limited outcomes-based evidence is available when it comes to strategies for supporting wellbeing in veterinarians and veterinary students ( 44 ), there is a place for rich and informative research to explore the intertwinements of people with their practice and educational contexts. Researchers are beginning to uncover deeply held beliefs and expectations among veterinarians about belonging, perfectionism, uncertainty, and error ( 36 , 45 – 49 ).

2.4. Gender in a “feminizing” veterinary profession

The veterinary profession remained numerically male dominated until well into the second half of the twentieth century, but demographic change occurred rapidly and has been a global phenomenon. By the late 1980s, 50% of undergraduate veterinary students were women in Australia and the USA and they now comprise 80% of veterinary graduates, a phenomenon that appears to be similar across Europe, North America and Australia ( 50 – 52 ). This change in the gender balance has been the subject of considerable debate and commentary within the profession. Overt expressions of sexism are no longer acceptable, but a continued undertone of ambivalence can be detected. Commentators and authors of opinion pieces have speculated about whether increasing numbers of women veterinary graduates represent challenges for the profession, linked with difficulties in recruitment outside metropolitan areas, with the relatively low level of remuneration for veterinarians, or with the economic impact of mental health problems ( 53 – 57 ). The ongoing position of women in the veterinary profession has recently been characterized as a post-feminist paradox, an experience of career limitation at odds with a rhetoric of unconstrained opportunity ( 58 ).

In discussing the increased numbers of women in the veterinary profession in Australia and elsewhere, the term “feminisation” has been used ( 59 , 60 ), but it has been suggested that feminisation in the veterinary profession can actually serve to reinforce and perpetuate gendered assumptions and traditional gender roles and position both women and men accordingly ( 53 , 61 – 64 ). As an example, the commonly espoused strengths of female veterinarians in relational and caring qualities can be positioned as being inimical to qualities required for economic success and career enhancement ( 65 ). In spite of the fact that women have contributed at least equally to graduate numbers for around three decades, they continue to be significantly underrepresented in senior and leadership roles ( 66 – 69 ). The presence and extent of a gender pay gap in the veterinary profession has been repeatedly demonstrated, although its existence remains contested ( 51 , 56 , 70 – 73 ). Some deny the existence of a gender-based “gap”, instead framing differences in terms of individual choices over time about working hours, career breaks, and practice ownership ( 70 ).

Current debate and discourse about the challenges and opportunities for veterinarians, and projecting to the future can be framed in various ways by different stakeholders. We have highlighted four socio-cultural elements that shape veterinary practice: professionalization, changing human-animal relations, wellness, and gender issues. Institutions such as professional associations, registering bodies, and veterinary schools have their own interests to promote and defend. As veterinarians make their way in conditions of supercomplexity, research is needed that brings individual practitioners and contextual factors into one carefully theorized frame.

3. Locating veterinary professional identity in a sociocultural practice theory frame

3.1. social practice theory and professional practices.

In this paper, we outline one conceptual framework for exploring veterinary professional practice and identity, based on concepts from the broad and diverse orientations to human social activities that come under the umbrella of “practice theory.” Practice theory may be best considered as a family of theoretical orientations encompassed by a disparate group of scholars ( 74 – 79 ), all of whom engage with the notion of how social practices organize and shape human life and activity. One thread that runs through the work of practice theorists is the effort to reach a “holistic way of thinking that integrates what people do, where they do it, with whom and for what purpose” ( 80 ). To engage with social practice theory, we need to draw on concepts that go beyond the dominant focus that has been described as being on “what is in the heads of individual practitioners” ( 77 ).

The theory of practice architectures is one conceptual account of professional practice; Kemmis and Grootenboer ( 81 ) draw on the work of philosophers of practice including Schatzki ( 79 , 82 ) and Macintyre ( 78 ). In this account, the activities of practices comprise:

• Sayings , or activities in the cultural-discursive domain: overt or unspoken understandings about knowledge, about how things are, or should be done, and how to understand and be understood.
• Doings , or activities in the material-economic domain: actions and relations involving human or non-human bodies, objects, physical artifacts like computers, surgical instruments or buildings, and abstract concepts like money.
• Relatings , or activities in the social-political domain: actions involving relationships with other people including clients, other individual veterinarians, communities of practice such as the profession collectively. Relationships are always mediated by power relations.

Each of these domains is comprised of mutually constituted individual and extra-individual dimensions. Individual dimensions represent opportunities for agency, but agency that is always bounded by the mediating preconditions that the practice provides. The extra-individual dimensions are the practice architectures, from which the theory is entitled. The notion of practice architectures suggests vivid images of walls and doorways, good and poor design, and unexpected outcomes that may not have appeared in the original plan. Particular practice architectures may be very stable and long-lasting, or they may be ephemeral and dependent on fast-changing contextual conditions. Either way, they represent the mediating preconditions in which practice is enacted; The actions of any individual practitioner are guided and prefigured, although not wholly determined, by the practice architectures they encounter ( 81 ). If that were the case, there would be no human agency, and choice and responsibility would be terms shorn of meaning. Nonetheless, the modesty of possibilities for agency reminds us that changing professional practice requires changes “outside the heads” ( 83 ) of individual practitioners. Those changes include changes to the discourse in and of the practice, changes to the relationships enacted and sustained within the practice, and changes to the material and economic arrangements under which the practice is carried on. Such change is scarcely possible when professional practice is framed and researched within a purely individual frame.

In Table 1 we provide a list of some key features of professional practice viewed through the lens of practice architectures. These features can also be used as conceptual tools.

Key features of professional practice.

Using the theory of practice architectures, the deep connection between professional practice and professional identity can be made explicit. When veterinarians make decisions, act, and account for their actions to themselves and others in the course of their daily practice, they are engaging in veterinary practice. Sometimes with purpose and deliberation, but at other times unreflectively or through habit, they are also engaging with what it means to be themselves and also to be veterinarians and their engagement is therefore a matter of professional identity.

3.2. Understanding identity

Identity is a concept that draws on diverse disciplinary traditions such as philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies. These disciplines overlap and share concepts, but they have distinct concerns, norms, and ways of coming to understand the world ( 85 – 88 ). Furthermore, identity is also an everyday word that does significant, and usually unnoticed, cultural work. We are named, grouped, described, and evaluated by ourselves and by others as a matter of course. The unity understood to comprise people and their identity or identities can sit uncomfortably with the diverse, even conflicting, roles and contexts in which human beings live. People navigate their way through settings in which their identity is framed very differently in terms of profession, gender, ethnicity, role, interests, political commitments, and geography. In this paper, we draw to a significant extent on a sociocultural theoretical framing of identity as a dialogical and developmental phenomenon ( 89 ), a framing that is conceptually aligned with the professional practice perspective above.

People tell others who they are, but even more important, they tell themselves and then try to act as though they are who they say they are. These self- understandings, especially those with strong emotional resonance for the teller, are what we refer to as identities ( 89 ).

Holland et al. ( 89 ) provided concepts that inform important dimensions of identity: the complexity of a self that is inward-facing but at the same time only has meaning in relation to others, the possibilities and limitations of human agency, the need to organize and confer meaning on experience using language, and the critical significance for people of the processes and discourses of identity. Holland et al.'s framing of identity blends power relations and discourses with creating a space for agency in developing their self-owned identity.

3.2.1. The relational nature of self

Identity reflects the ways in which people name, characterize, and understand themselves and one another within, and in relation to, the social world. It is always entwined with selfhood and what it means to be a self, but “one is a self only among other selves. A self can never be described without reference to those who surround it” ( 90 ). People talk, they sing, they read, they play games, and fight and do business, as well as think. All those activities are identity-shaping and at their core social and relational. Those activities shape and develop people's identities, mediated through ideas, language, and power ( 87 , 91 ). The self develops by means of drawing on socially derived discourses and is embedded in diverse social practices, with a relational self “developing at an interface, within the interplay between the social and embodied sources of the self, in what might be called the self-in-practice” ( 89 ).

3.2.2. Mediated agency

From a sociocultural, practice-based perspective, the mutual constitution of the individual and the social means that possibilities for agency are mediated by means of sociomaterial setups, through cultural norms, through individual dispositions, and through complex interrelationships of some or all of those elements ( 89 ). The individualistic rhetoric of professional practice places emphasis on individual practitioner agency through use of terms such as autonomy and competence and does not align well with the notion of mediated agency. The modesty of the possibilities for individual agency in specific practice situations is not apparent and can be experienced as a surprise to those who subscribe to a sense of agency that is individualistic and heroic.

Professional practitioners bring their own unique combination of experiences, dispositions, and capabilities, and they encounter practice situations that are novel and specific. There is much that they are unable to influence but understanding agency as mediated or constrained constitutes a reminder to be aware, curious, and alert to opportunities for agency, or “pools of autonomy” ( 2 ) as they present themselves.

3.2.3. Identity as making meaning

The activity of making meaning is held to be fundamental to what it is to be human ( 78 , 92 , 93 ) as people arrange and reconstruct experiences, objects, actions, and relations using the understandings and resources they can draw on to make sense of themselves and their world. Through linking narrative with self-understanding, scholars have made the case that making meaning through narrative is a way of developing and sustaining identity ( 88 , 94 , 95 ). Narrative makes stories of experience(s); whether shared with others processed inwardly, experience is organized and recast. Discourse and shared narrative resources play an important role in narrative. A dialogic perspective on identity provides a space for people to make meaning about themselves as well as the world through finding ways to use available resources and strategies. They can therefore author themselves as they author the world, making identity development simultaneously inward- and outward-facing ( 89 ). Self-authoring is dialogic, embodied, and embedded in social practices, as the individual develops an internalized sense of the responses and social judgements of others. The space for agency in enabling critique and improvisation in practice is a critical identity development process.

3.2.4. Moral dimensions of identity

Framing identity in explicitly moral terms carries implications; Taylor asserts that knowing oneself is a question of knowing where I stand. My identity is defined by the commitments and identifications which provide the frame or horizon within which I can try to determine from case to case what is good, or valuable, or what ought to be done ( 90 ).

Identity is presented here as a matter of great consequence for people, with the potential to be a frame that supports important judgements about what is good and right, and what constitutes the good life. The evaluative dimension of the development of identity means that people make choices about what they value and seek to pursue. In doing so, and in making meaning of those choices, they spin their life story into a continuous thread. That thread was expressed by MacIntyre when he stated that “generally to adopt a stance on the virtues will be to adopt a stance on the narrative character of human life” ( 78 ) as a central idea in his moral theory.

3.2.5. Understanding identity in dialogical terms

Although we remain the same person, identity develops and changes through life experiences, creating a tension between continuity and change. Human life is lived, commitments are made, and responsibilities are assigned based on the understanding that “we have to be able to respond to the imputation of strict identity. I am forever what I have been at any time for others” ( 78 ). Nonetheless, the possibility of transformation, of becoming something or someone new through desire or necessity, entails emergent notions of identity. Abandonment of either the essentialist perspective or the possibility of transformation seems to entail an impoverishment of the human experience.

Humans are both blessed and cursed by their dialogic nature—their tendency to encompass a number of views in virtual simultaneity and tension, regardless of their logical incompatibility ( 89 ).

A sociocultural perspective allows the location of identity in more than one space and asserts that it is necessary to reject neither traditional “essentialist” views of identity nor constructivist perspectives that locate an ever-changing identity in discourse communities. A dialogical and developmental practice theory of self and identity has identity emerging in the individual through interaction with others in the cultural and material world. Dialogue is also to be understood as a means for understanding the relational self so that identity allows for multiple sites of the self, a self that is grounded in social practices. Framing identity in dialogical terms allows for incoherence and instability to sit alongside unity and continuity ( 89 , 96 ). Conceiving identity as being at once collective and individual is consistent with our framing of veterinary practice.

4. Professional identity in the veterinary and medical professions

In this section, we explore what is known about professional identity development within the veterinary profession. The veterinary scholarly professional identity literature is limited and relatively under-theorized; we also draw on the larger and longer-standing body of literature in the medical profession. Veterinarians share common ground with medical doctors in ways that have resonance for professional identity. The underpinning scientific knowledge of the structure and function of bodies; the techniques, medicines, equipment, and terminology of the clinic; and the discourse of health and illness present clear biomedical parallels between the veterinary and medical settings. The privilege and responsibility borne by the individual practitioner for patients is analogous between human and veterinary medical practitioners. The medical practice literature has matured in the last four decades to include socio-cultural elements, paying attention to the specific and unique dimensions that impact and influence veterinarians. A strong theme in professional identity research reflects a sense of fast-changing societal and political conditions that provide challenges to professions and professionals, consistent with previous descriptions of contemporary social conditions as constituting supercomplexity ( 2 ). Such influences have impact on government policy and societal norms, but their effects are also felt down to the level of workplace relationships and personal professional choices. Professional identity research that focuses on conditions of social change may reflect a sense of vulnerability and threat, or alternatively a challenge to entrenched positions of privilege and power. Integrating the social, environmental and cultural into professional identity research advances professions into the future because the future is inter-, multi- and transdisciplinary ( 97 ).

4.1. Professional identity in veterinarians

In the veterinary profession, professional identity is beginning to emerge as a topic of research interest ( 98 ), with the most sustained scholarly engagement being that of Armitage-Chan and her colleagues. Armitage-Chan focuses on professional identity with a goal of informing undergraduate veterinary curriculum development, espousing the position that a curriculum shaped around professional identity development promises to support increased career satisfaction and better mental health in the veterinary profession ( 95 – 100 ). Her research involved new graduate veterinarian participants and adopted a narrative inquiry methodology, framing professional identity in psychological terms, representing how a combination of individual veterinarian's moral views, professional priorities, and values were mobilized in making decisions and acting in veterinary practice. Armitage-Chan and May ( 99 , 100 ) distinguished two modes of professional identity in which their participants recounted practice experiences. The first, and one that dominated during their very early practice experiences, was a diagnosis-focused identity in which technical features of patients and their illnesses dominated the accounts. The second mode was framed as a challenge-focused professional identity, in which technical competence remained salient, but contextual dimensions of practice were specifically included in the narrative as part of the experience and a potential source of satisfaction. Interestingly, Armitage-Chan and May proposed that the diagnosis-focused identity was modeled on an academic clinician role model previously identified within the medical profession ( 101 ) and that it was problematic to align with the circumstances of the general practice work setting for most graduates. Armitage Chan and May went on to develop a model and resources for curriculum development based around development of what they presented as a preferred identity, the challenge-focused identity ( 102 , 103 ).

It is promising to see advocacy for explicit inclusion of professional identity development within the veterinary university curriculum. The notoriously crowded curriculum can be overly dominated by clinical knowledge and technical skills, and outcomes-based curricula are awkward spaces for the inclusion of inherently developmental phenomena. The psychological framing of professional identity as described by Armitage-Chan is one valid way of framing this notoriously slippery concept. However, the limitations of individualistic perspectives on phenomena like professional identity are that extra-individual dimensions of the professional world–economic structures, power relationships, traditions–are decentred and appear as the backdrop against which individuals act. The responsibility on the individual veterinarian to manage, understand, manage, and even overcome their context seems heavy indeed. We argue strongly for the inclusion of perspectives that balance individual agency with sociocultural structures and norms.

Perrin ( 104 ) explored professional identity development in veterinary students and new graduates in the United Kingdom. She posited associations between matters of professional identity and mental health and wellness challenges for veterinarians to argue for the existence of mismatches and dissonance between institutional rhetoric and lived experience of and about veterinary graduates and the nature of veterinary practice. We offer two observations of Perrin's work: First, although the institutions consistently portrayed the veterinary profession in terms of scientific rigor and clinical skill, the novices expressed their practice model in terms of care and vocation. Second, this research identified contradictions apparent in the institutional literature about the capabilities of new graduate veterinarians as representing a “dichotomy between viewing newly-qualified vets as being omnicompetent on graduation, set against viewing them as almost dangerously inept and in need of serious supervision” ( 104 ). Both the tradition of the hard-working veterinarian and the dissonances between rhetoric and reality were suggested as possibly being involved in the well-documented issues around wellness and mental health in the profession. Perrin was critical of institutional rhetoric that promotes a view of veterinary practice that is not well aligned with the goals and values of the profession's junior members, although her acceptance of official publicly-facing documents as a mirror of institutional and professional culture fails to account for the increasingly well-recognized influence of the hidden curriculum ( 105 ).

Illustrating the power of language, one study focused on the capacity for identity as a notion to be adapted to different interests and purposes. Framing the topic as exploring career identity in the veterinary profession, the author began, “The veterinary industry is transforming” ( 106 ). Use of the terms career and industry in place of professional and profession signaled that the authors located themselves in the discipline of organizational studies, and indeed they cited one goal of their study as being for veterinary organizations to recruit and retain staff. Identity was framed as an organizational management tool to “generate competitive advantage through their people by working toward organizational and individual identity congruence” ( 106 ).

The studies discussed above were undertaken by researchers who have a close association with the veterinary profession, being either veterinarians or veterinary nurses. By contrast, there are a small number of studies conducted outside the professional practice literature in which veterinarians were selected for research focus by researchers in other scholarly traditions. A sociomaterial ethnographic study conducted with a cultural-studies orientation in the context of a rural veterinary clinic focused on issues of power and cultural capital, finding that material objects were important cultural signifiers, with individuals positioned as veterinarians or as nonveterinary support staff based on their relation to items such as scalpel blades and dirty laboratory equipment ( 107 ). A group of organizational studies researchers used a questionnaire with a psychological approach to compare professional identity in veterinarians who were working in clinical and non-clinical settings ( 108 ), with findings suggesting that participants who worked in nonclinical settings identified more strongly with their immediate workgroup and profession than with the organization, while employed veterinarians in veterinary medical organizations identified more strongly with their organization and workgroup than with the profession. It is noteworthy that the studies cited here that focus on veterinarians beyond preparation for initial practice are undertaken by social science researchers from outside the veterinary profession.

Professional identity research within the veterinary profession focuses almost exclusively on students and new graduates, with implications being directed to those who educate and prepare undergraduates for practice. While curriculum implications of professional identity development are undoubtedly important, and it seems likely that initial professional education, and the make-or-break period after graduation are critical developmental periods, a position that professional identity development is significant only in the context of students and new graduates, and therefore a matter only for university educators does not seem warranted. Set against a context of rapid social change and multiple professional challenges, veterinary professional identity is salient for all veterinary stakeholders at all stages of the professional trajectory. The elucidation of conceptual frameworks that allow a shifting focus on both individuals and their social, cultural, and material contexts provide the veterinary profession with rich opportunities for rigorous professional identity research. In the following section, we explore some directions and examples in the domain of human medicine.

4.2. Professional identity in medicine

Medicine occupies a unique place as the archetype of a profession in the public mind and imagination, and it interfaces with people at some of the most vulnerable and momentous periods of their lives. Their position affords the medical community considerable societal influence and economic reward as well as entailing the obligation on doctors to behave and practice with diligence, expertise, and care. Institutions that support and sustain the profession have long been motivated to understand professional identity and support its development with examples that have explored relations between doctors and the communities they serve, linking professional identity to the notion of a social contract ( 109 ) and public trust ( 110 ). With clearly defined boundaries of responsibility at all levels from undergraduate student up to specialist doctor, the development of professional identity is presented as a gradual process in which socialization fosters a sense of group membership ( 111 ) and the need for supervision and autonomy must be balanced ( 112 ).

At an individual level, professional identity research has focused on character in individual doctors, on models of practice and their implications for identity, and on relationships between professionalism and professional identity. In educational settings, the research focus rests on the complex intersections and tensions between learning, development, and professional identity and addresses questions of shared understandings about ethics, responsibility, tradition, behavior, trust, and character ( 110 , 113 – 118 ). Furthermore, addressing professional identity can implicitly or openly reinforce or challenge existing assumptions or structures of power, privilege, and vested interests in the medical profession and in the relations between doctors and those with whom they work, whether patients or other health care workers ( 119 , 120 ). There is much at stake in maintaining a position as a paradigm profession.

Changing times also affect social norms, and demand a radical re-evaluation of tightly held professional traditions and push high status professions like medicine out of taken-for-granted and comfortable positions of privilege. Loss of trust in professionals has been cited as a prompt for professional identity research ( 121 ), with some authors strongly arguing for a democratizing agenda in medical education based on transformation of power, identities, and physical locations, with professional identity considered to be an emancipatory tool ( 122 ). Power, gender, race, and intersectionality are also themes in the discursive construction of identity ( 117 , 123 , 124 ), with routine clinical activities like clinical rounds presentations representing opportunities to model and learn how talk constructs competence in the development of professional identity in medical students ( 125 ). The COVID-19 pandemic has been posited to have impacted on the professional identity formation of medical students as they grapple with a changed learning experience and future ( 126 ). The recognition of the powerful influence of context, environment and culture as a shaper of possibilities for professional identity formation is maturing in the medical literature ( 127 ) in ways that veterinary researchers have yet to meaningfully engage with.

The intertwinement of the personal and the professional can be viewed uneasily in a profession for which objectivity, certainty, and competence are tightly held as hallmarks of professional position. While outwardly directed benevolence toward their patients and society can be framed in terms of character and stable traits, emotion carries connotations of subjectivity and loss of control. Dealing with patient emotions may be a necessary task for doctors to consider, but the emotions of doctors and medical students have been described as “the ever-present absence” of medical education ( 128 ), a phrase that captures a paradoxical sense of discomfort with the centrality of emotion to medicine. Emerging research on emotion and other deeply personal dimensions of medical student learning and professional identity development ( 114 , 116 , 129 , 130 ) have advocated “acknowledging the full range of negative to positive emotions and making them an integral and essential part of identity development” ( 131 ).

5. A conceptual framework for veterinary professional identity

Based on this conceptual analysis, we put forward a narrative conceptual framework that can be articulated as a series of propositions drawing together all the theoretical elements discussed in this paper to characterize professional identity and to contextualize it to the veterinary profession (see Table 2 ).

A narrative conceptual framework for professional identity.

The framework highlights the centrality of dialogue and development, the unresolveable intertwinement of the individual with their social, cultural, and material context, and the importance and limitations of individual agency. In social conditions of change, complexity, and uncertainty, engaging in veterinary practice is more than just mobilization of knowledge accompanied by application of technical and professional skills. Through making meaning of their experiences, veterinarians author themselves and their professional practice. Veterinarians are called upon to engage personally and purposefully with meanings that paradoxically, while largely shared, are not given, but must instead be created.

6. Concluding discussion

The purpose of this paper has been threefold: firstly, to justify a sociocultural theoretical approach to research in veterinary practice; secondly, to articulate the interdisciplinary theoretical underpinnings of a conceptual framework for veterinary professional identity; and thirdly, to articulate the conceptual framework in narrative terms so that its core concepts and their relations to each other can be understood.

We undertook the first task by highlighting just some of the complex and contested issues and problems facing the contemporary veterinary profession, including challenges of professional status and economics, changing human-animal relations, issues of wellness and feminisation of the profession. We argued that there is a need for research that can bring individual veterinarians and contextual factors into one conceptual frame. The veterinary profession is grounded in a scientific worldview, which has served well for advances in clinical care. However, to understand and explore the veterinary profession and its people, there is a need to extend, enrich, and challenge the individualistic, positivist approach that continues to dominate veterinary professional and scholarly literature. It can be daunting and humbling to step outside one's own professional boundaries to learn from the scholarly traditions of the social sciences.

The body of this paper was dedicated to a detailed articulation of the theoretical underpinnings of a conceptual framework for veterinary professional identity using a socio-cultural lens. The body of the paper concluded with an articulation of the core propositions of the framework. The analysis and framework address a gap in the veterinary scholarly literature that is both practical and theoretical. On the practical level, the framework can be used and drawn upon flexibly for researchers, for practitioners and for the veterinary profession more broadly. The next step of the research is to apply this framework to new veterinary graduates in the exploration of their professional identities. Other researchers could use some or all of the concepts in the framework to guide their own research, broadening their ideas of appropriate research into veterinary practice and professional identity and diversifying notions of research approaches that might be of value. Veterinarians and institutions of the veterinary profession could utilize the concept of veterinary professional identity as a lens on some of the issues and challenges facing the profession, including wellbeing, attrition, economic rewards, and gender. There is insufficient research into how professional identity development is supported and understood in mid- and late career veterinarians, after career breaks and in times of challenge and crisis. On the theoretical level, although the importance of conceptual frameworks has been highlighted in the context of veterinary social science and especially qualitative research ( 132 ), there is a paucity of examples grounded in the veterinary context that elaborate and articulate such a rigorous, interdisciplinary conceptual framework. For researchers who are challenged to know what a conceptual framework is and how they might develop and represent their own, this example is likely to be of value–even if their own specific research focus and interests are unrelated to professional identity. The level of detail presented in this paper is certainly not required in every research report exploring veterinary practice. However, those who would conduct rigorous and useful social science research need to use, and to be able to articulate, appropriate guiding conceptual frameworks.

Author contributions

ES drafted the manuscript and led the development of the conceptual framework. FT supervised the doctoral project, supported the development of the conceptual framework, and reviewed the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final version.

Funding Statement

This project was supported by funding for ES doctoral study from the Education for Practice Institute, Charles Sturt University, and the Charles Sturt University Academic Staff HDR Workload Support Scheme.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 19 October 2020

An integrated review of the role of communication in veterinary clinical practice

• Jack K. H. PUN   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8043-7645 1  

BMC Veterinary Research volume  16 , Article number:  394 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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There is a growing interest in exploring the nature of communication in veterinary medicine and understanding how veterinary practitioners communicate with their clients and other professionals. This is the first integrative review of literature on veterinary communication. Applying the PRISMA model, the PubMed, PsychInfo and ERIC databases were searched using keywords such as ‘veterinary’, ‘vet’, ‘communication’ and ‘interaction’ for related articles published between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2018.

Keyword searching through the databases yielded 1572 related studies. Only 48 of these studies were included in our analysis after an in-depth review by two independent reviewers using the critical appraisal skills Programme frameworks with high inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s kappa coefficient κ > 0.8). The existing body of research on veterinary communication can be classified into three major areas: (a) client–veterinarian communication, (b) cross-disciplinary communication in a professional veterinarian team and (c) training of veterinary communication skills. This review details the complexity and heterogeneity of agenda in the field of veterinary communication. The included studies indicate that veterinary practitioners are not equipped with specific communication skills to address different agendas in veterinary communication. The veterinary curriculum should include a component on communication training that can help veterinary students acquire necessary communication skills that allow them to effectively communicate with clients and other professionals

This review detailed the complexity of agendas in the field of veterinary communication. The results indicate that veterinary practitioners can further benefit from training on specific communication skills that address the agendas found in veterinary communication research. Furthermore, the veterinary curriculum should include a component on communication training that equips veterinary students with the necessary communication skills that allow them to effectively communicate with different stakeholders such as clients and colleagues with and across the field of veterinary science.

Communication has always been an important pillar for veterinarians [ 1 ]. The ability to communicate effectively leads to better clinical outcomes, such as client satisfaction during the veterinary visit and increased client compliance with the veterinarian’s recommendations [ 2 ]. Many factors are known to drive the quality of client–veterinarian communication such as the veterinarians’ communication skills and clients’ expectations [ 3 ]. A ‘client-centred’ approach has been promoted to facilitate clients’ adherence, aiming to make more clients decide upon a treatment option in line with the veterinarian’s recommendations. Failure to effectively communicate with clients may result in health, safety and legal repercussions for veterinarians [ 4 , 5 ]. The quality of communication has a direct impact on the quality of care [ 1 , 6 ]. In particular, in the field of veterinary communication, there is a growing interest in 1) the ways of delivering difficult news to clients [ 7 , 8 ], 2) the role of communication skills in the veterinary education curriculum [ 9 , 10 , 11 ] and 3) the application of client-centred communication approach within the veterinarian–client relationship [ 12 , 13 , 14 ].

Researchers have suggested that a systematic approach of teaching effective communication skills should be included in the veterinary education curriculum. The importance of communication skill education has been highlighted by Haldane et al. [ 15 ], whose study indicates that both veterinary practitioners and students ranked verbal communication and interpersonal skills as the most vital abilities for potential veterinary practitioners hoping to join the industry. Moreover, in English speaking countries, the Calgary–Cambridge model is adopted in all veterinary institutions to strengthen the communication skills of the students and consequently improve the outcomes for clients [ 16 ]. Psychology courses that include effective communication skills to interact with clients and help them handle bereavement issues have also been incorporated in some veterinary programmes [ 17 ]. However, many important communication topics remain missing from the existing veterinary education curriculum, such as ways to provide social support to clients who have lost their pets [ 18 ]. Additionally, recent research reveals that communication training in veterinary education is lacking, especially in content-heavy programmes [ 15 ], and has revealed that some veterinary students and practitioners possess inadequate communication skills in clinical encounters. Multiple studies have also stressed the need for post-educational training to enhance veterinary practitioners’ clinical communication skills [ 13 , 19 , 20 ].

How veterinarians deliver difficult news to their clients is one of the most researched areas in this field [ 7 , 8 ]. As summarised by Nickels and Feeley [ 21 ], the issues that require communication of bad news to clients in veterinary medicine include 1) pets’ chronic or terminal illness, 2) treatment or treatment failure, 3) unexpected outcomes during the surgery, 4) emergency cases, 5) euthanasia discussions and 6) other potential medical situations. While delivering difficult news, veterinarians often adopt several strategies to ensure the psychological well-being of their clients, such as a careful use of language, the use of open-ended questions, non-verbal skills, relational strategies, developing rapport and empathy with clients, sharing their own experience, respecting the autonomy of clients and avoiding implications of guilt [ 21 ]. If veterinarians use such a client-centred approach to communication in extensive discussions with clients, they could better understand the clients’ decisions and address their expectations regarding the care of their pet [ 16 , 22 ].

Although several studies have recently focused on the above-mentioned three areas in the field of veterinary communication, there seems to be a knowledge gap in this field, as limited studies have taken a holistic approach to study the role of communication in veterinary practices and explore the interactions between veterinarians, clients and other related professionals. To fill in this gap, this integrated review aims to answer the following research questions:

(1) What are the characteristics of veterinary communication reported in these studies?

(2) What are the major findings on veterinary communication?

Search strategy

The PRISMA model, an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses, was applied for reporting this review [ 23 ] (see Fig.  1 ). Our search revealed an upsurge in the studies on veterinary communication after 2000; therefore, we focused our search on veterinary communication studies published between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2018. After discussing with veterinarians and a group of researchers in veterinary science, keywords such as ‘veterinary’, ‘vet’, ‘communication’ and ‘interaction’ were selected as search terms to identify relevant articles.

Integrated review of the study

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

All included secondary research articles peer-reviewed and selected based on relevant studies related to the topic of the role of communication in veterinary practices in English-speaking countries. After screening the relevant articles, the following three recurring themes were identified and coded by two independent reviewers (the author and a research assistant): (a) client–veterinarian interaction, (b) cross-disciplinary communication in a veterinarian professional team and (c) training of veterinarian communication skills. The following articles were excluded: (a) studies focusing on topics unrelated to veterinary medicine (e.g. the role of pets in human medicine), (b) descriptive studies without the support of any empirical evidence, (c) non-English language articles and (d) non-peer-reviewed studies.

Selection process

The ERIC, PubMed and PsychInfo databases were searched in the initial screening process to identify relevant studies using the following search terms: ‘veterinary’ or ‘vet’, ‘communication’ and ‘interaction’. Studies that met the inclusion criteria were included for review, and duplicate articles were removed. In addition, a hand search was performed for related studies, and the bibliographies of the included articles were also checked for possible relevant studies. The title, abstract and key information of each included article were reviewed independently by the two reviewers based on inclusion criteria. Each study was then examined by the author and a research assistant. Disagreements were resolved by discussion between the two reviewers. If disagreement persisted, a third person who was a veterinary researcher was consulted to make the final decision. The inter-rater agreement was expressed using Cohen’s kappa coefficient.

Quality assessment

The quality of the included studies was assessed separately by the author, one research assistant and a group of students with a veterinary background to attain an agreement between the author and other researchers. The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ], a series of standardised and validated checklists that are commonly adopted by scholars in the field of health communication, was used to evaluate the quality of the included studies [ 28 ].

A two-step coding approach was applied in the review process. All included articles were read three times to allow the reviewers to familiarise themselves with the results of each study. First, the author read the abstract of each article and decided which articles to include based on the inclusion criteria. Based on the key information from the abstracts and scanning the full texts, the objectives, participant characteristics, study design, method(s) and key findings of each study were summarised (Table  2 in Appendix ). Second, each study was examined by the author and a research assistant, and their findings were coded independently according to the research questions for this review analysis: 1) What are the characteristics of veterinary communication reported in these studies? 2) What are the major findings on veterinary communication?

To address these research questions, a subset of coding questions was developed for coding the data into themes, including Participants, Context, Purpose, Method, Data collection and Types of analysis. These themes were checked, repeated, compared and organised for their thematic connections between the annotated notes of the recurring themes. The author and research assistant constantly compared the annotated notes of each study with the rest of the included studies to identify the emerging topics. Subsequently, the second researcher checked and reviewed the included articles.

Included articles

The initial screening revealed 1572 related article titles based on our keyword searches, 1524 of which were excluded after reviewing the abstracts as they did not fulfil the inclusion criteria. The resulting 48 articles were subjected to further in-depth review (see Fig. 1 ). In addition, the following procedures were implemented for ensuring quality of the included studies: screening using keywords, screening the titles, reviewing abstract details, examining the full text and extracting data. For in-depth data extraction, the author and research assistant read the articles in depth and independently filled in a data extraction form [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ].

For all of the included studies ( n  = 48), the responses to the five evaluative questions were ‘yes’. Similarly, in most of the included studies, ‘yes’ was the answer to at least eight questions from the CASP checklists. This indicates that the included studies were of good quality. No included study was removed because of poor quality. To understand the studies’ contribution to the topic of veterinary communication and the weight of evidence (WOE) of the studies, we also developed an in-depth account of the 48 studies, and only those that met the inclusion criteria have been described and justified below. The account aimed to address the differences in the rating of quality assurance evaluation (i.e. High, Medium or Low) between studies, as well as in each study’s contribution to the review questions, in terms of the following aspects of WOE: 1) relevance of the focus of the study; 2) appropriateness of the study’s research design for addressing the review questions; 3) trustworthiness of the study’s overall methodology; and 4) contribution of the study (as a result of the previous 1–3) to the review questions.

Both the author and research team then checked the completed in-depth review to resolve any identified dissimilarities. The quality evaluation was performed based on each study’s contribution to the review questions (see ‘WOE’ below). The inter-rater reliability of the data extracted by the two independent reviewers was calculated. The result of quality judgement was high, with less than 2.0% disagreement.

The weight of evidence (WOE)

The WOE was measured based on the following four aspects: (1) the relevance of each study to the review; (2) the appropriateness of the research design; (3) the trustworthiness of the reported research findings; and (4) the contribution of the study to this review. Despite the degree of subjectivity in the process of WOE measurement, a fairly representative picture of the overall research in veterinary communication can be observed in Table  1 . Among the included articles, 83% ( n  = 40) were found to have high or medium relevance to this review and 46% ( n  = 22) used research designs that were considered as highly appropriate in addressing the review questions. Furthermore, 27% ( n  = 13) of the articles showed a powerful contribution in addressing the review questions and 56% ( n  = 27) showed a fair contribution. These results indicate that regardless of the increasing research interest in communication in veterinary science, more future studies with a rigorous research methodology are warranted.

The included studies

The details of the 48 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria are summarised in Table 2 in Appendix . The number of published articles on veterinary communication increased between 2007 and 2017. Most of the included studies were found in the United States ( n  = 19), the United Kingdom ( n  = 14), Canada ( n  = 4), Australia ( n  = 3), and other European countries ( n  = 8) such as the Netherlands (n = 3). This finding can be explained by the number of representative veterinary-related professions and universities with veterinary colleges in these countries. In terms of the methodology, qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys were the most common tools used in the studies to record the personal experiences of veterinarians and assess their communication skills [ 56 ].

Themes of the included studies

As thematic analysis can be adapted to the aims of the research, instead of using a set of pre-assigned themes in this review, the author sorted, identified and explored the thematical relationships of the coded issues from each study, which were categorised into the following broader categories: 1) client–veterinarian communication; 2) cross-disciplinary communication in a professional veterinarian team; 3) training of veterinary communication skills. Categorised themes were subjected to the common steps of thematic analysis (familiarisation, coding, generating themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up) [ 57 ].

Client–veterinarian communication

Client–veterinarian communication was found to be the most recurring theme in the selected studies. Clinical communication skills were mostly investigated by comparison between human medicine [ 9 , 58 ]. The client-veterinary interaction is delineated in an initial greeting, history taking, performing physical examination, explaining diagnosis, offering treatment options and closing the interaction. Trust and rapport are built up throughout the process through the veterinarian’s usage of communication strategies and interpersonal skills.

Although several steps of consultation are common between veterinary and human medical consultations (e.g. treatment plans), fundamental differences exist between them. One is that pets cannot verbalise their medical concerns to the veterinarian, and thus, the veterinarian relies on the owners’ explanations or clinical examinations to determine the pet’s illness. Admittedly, this is a situation comparable to paediatrician-patient communication, as young children are also not able to communicate their concerns clearly, rendering healthcare practitioners dependent on communication with caretakers [ 59 , 60 ]. Therefore, development of trust in a client–veterinarian relationship is crucial as it will not only enhance the quality of history taking but also will allow better clinical diagnosis and subsequent treatment care.

Further, several studies have emphasised the constraints of insufficient consultation time [ 11 , 12 , 31 ]. On average, veterinarians spend only 24 min per case [ 11 ], and many veterinarians have to deliver all the necessary information within this time. This prompts some clients to search for further veterinary information online, which could be misleading and incorrect [ 12 ]. To prevent clients from receiving unreliable information, veterinarians should educate clients about ways to identify reliable sources of information online [ 12 ]. For example, the overuse of antibiotics is a real concern for many veterinarians. Despite increasing awareness about the development of resistance due to antibiotic overuse, most clients still have misconceptions about the appropriate use of antibiotics [ 39 ]. Another challenge faced by many veterinarians is that some clients ignore the veterinarian’s recommendations. If the clients do not adhere to the professional advice and prescribed diet, the results could be life-threatening for the pet. One study suggested that clients with a closer relationship with their veterinarian were more willing to follow their veterinarian’s suggestions and pay for their pet’s treatments because they understand the recommendations well [ 6 ]. This can be achieved with long-term trust between the clients and their veterinarian. One approach to develop trust is to share personal experiences and inform all possible options. Clients can then feel assisted instead of being forced to make certain decisions [ 21 ]. When the veterinarians show their willingness to help, the clients are more likely to select the recommended treatment options. Another approach is to avoid misunderstanding; the veterinarians can spend more time with their clients to ensure that the clients understand the explanations. Such a careful approach would help build a trustful and reliable relationship between the two parties [ 12 ]. Absence of trust in any client–veterinarian relationship can lead to miscommunication and no adherence to treatments, which is likely to reduce the client’s satisfaction and put animal safety at risk [ 41 ].

The importance of nonverbal communication within client-veterinarian communication should also be acknowledged. Sutherland [ 61 ] writes that these nonverbal cues during a conversation may be far more important than the verbal content, as nonverbal communication can alter the meaning of a statement. As such, it is important for veterinary practitioners to develop the ability to pick up nonverbal cues from patients and alter their actions accordingly as this skill will prove useful in various contexts, such as when the veterinarians need to respond to clients’ emotions. For example, the veterinarians can maintain good eye contact, spend time with the client and listen to their needs, all of which can improve history taking and consequently the prescription of a more comprehensive care plan and recommendations [ 1 , 21 ]. Clients’ negative emotions can also be identified by veterinarians who understand subtle cues or overtly shared verbal concerns. Veterinarians can also use nonverbal communication for delivering a message to the client, utilizing facial expressions and body language to promptly provide emotional support using a mix of appropriate and effective verbal and non-verbal communication [ 33 ]. Veterinarians should consider four forms of non-verbal cues while communicating with clients: kinesics, proxemics, paralanguage and autonomic shifts. Kinesics includes facial expressions, level of body tension, touch and movement, whereas proxemics is related to the shaping of space between the client, animal and veterinarian. Paralanguage involves voice-related components such as pitch, tone and volume. Autonomic shifts are an unpredictable variable as they are governed by the autonomic nervous system [ 40 ].

Delivering difficult news is considered as the most important aspect of communication for many veterinarians [ 14 ]. The strong relationship between clients and their pets makes it challenging for many clients to accept any difficult news as they view their pets as their family members [ 11 ]. When delivering difficult news, veterinarians are required to attend to the client’s emotional needs using communication strategies to minimise their negative experiences or risk of trauma [ 44 , 45 ]. Delivering difficult news can be especially challenging when the veterinarians have to communicate with vulnerable groups [ 44 ]. Modified communication strategies can be used to fulfil the expectations of the vulnerable groups, such as children and the elderly. For children, using specific ways of delivering bad news is important to reduce trauma at the developmental stage. When their pets are ill or could die, it is better to first communicate with their parents about ways to share the bad news with their children, and following an honest, simple and kind approach is recommended [ 44 ]. Likewise, when attending to the elderly, communication should focus on their connection with the pet. According to Bateman, communication skills are crucial for dealing with the situation without causing additional problems [ 45 ]. When the veterinarians can skilfully present bad news, they need not behave defensively during a difficult conversation, which allows time for their clients to accept and understand the information. It is also important to assess the preferences of the clients before delivering the difficult news. There are existing frameworks in human medicine that provide a step-by-step guide on how to break bad news, such as the COMFORT (Communication, Orientation, Mindfulness, Family, Ongoing, Reiterative messages, and Team) model and SPIKES (Setting, Perception, Invitation, Knowledge, Empathetic Response, Summary) protocol. However, research into developing a specific model for delivering difficult news in veterinary medicine has been limited. Veterinarians also face tremendous pressure while delivering bad news, which has been reported as one of the common factors of occupational stress in the veterinary career [ 30 ]. Thus, it is important to teach useful communication skills in the veterinary curriculum that can help veterinary students deliver bad news and avoid any stress due to miscommunication during the veterinary clinical practice. There are different approaches to minimise the stress caused to both the veterinarians and clients when delivering/receiving bad news [ 35 ]. As the loss of a companion animal can be traumatic and occasionally very difficult to accept for many people, veterinarians can invite clients to visit with a family member or friend as he/she could provide the necessary support to the clients when they receive the bad news [ 7 , 34 ]. There are many ways to express empathy. For example, a verbal condolence can provide emotional support, in addition to other approaches such as a sympathy card, informational support (i.e. grief management hotlines, brochures and booklets) and supporting non-verbal communication (e.g. hand on shoulder and back or hug) [ 21 ]. The level of support offered by the veterinarians can eventually help develop a trustful and sustainable relationship between the clients and their veterinarian [ 21 ]. Further, when explaining the diagnosis, information should be provided to the clients in a series of chunks. The veterinarians can provide signposting before delivering the message directly in explaining a diagnosis to a client [ 21 ]. Another approach is to keep the message simple and ensure that the clients understand the conditions completely [ 21 ]. Once a range of possible treatments options are provided and their potential risks are explained, clients can take an active role in making an informed decision that addresses their expectations [ 7 ]. Another factor to consider while delivering bad news is the setting. For example, a private room without distractions, and the availability of private exits, have frequently been suggested in several studies for creating a peaceful and calm atmosphere [ 21 ]. Considering animal welfare based on the diagnosis, euthanasia can be the most suitable option when the pet’s quality of life is seriously impaired [ 7 ]. Clients can be better informed about the worst scenario when they realise the seriousness of the situation. Although euthanasia is a hard decision to accept, clients with a close relationship with their veterinarian are more likely to accept it as an alternative while minimising guilt and additional financial burden [ 21 ].

Clients’ understanding and treatment adherence are the direct emotional rewards derived by building a trustful client–veterinarian relationship. The first consultation is critical for the veterinarians to make a positive professional impression on their clients, which can ultimately affect a client’s decision of returning or switching to another clinic. Furthermore, veterinarians can use special interactional strategies such as baby-talk for building the interpersonal relationship [ 29 , 31 ]. Without mutual trust, clients will eventually move to another veterinarian. To build a sustainable relationship, veterinarians can adopt suitable behaviours to present a reliable and competent image to their clients. For example, they can present their clinical diagnosis in a professional manner by explaining the diagnosis concisely and clearly and offer possible treatment options in a simple and comprehensible manner. Veterinarians should be patient and confident and show interest in the treatment and welfare of the animals, which can allow the development of a better client–veterinarian relationship [ 34 ]. The use of language should be kept relatively simple by avoiding jargon to ensure that the clients understand the information [ 7 , 21 ]. This is especially important in cases related to euthanasia. A soft tone of voice is also suggested to keep the atmosphere peaceful [ 21 ].

In the farm animal production context, the client–veterinarian communication is different because the major focus is on the health of the animal group rather than individual well-being. Veterinarians generally focus on the big picture in cases of farm animals. If the veterinarians do not use suitable communication strategies, the clients may misunderstand information on life-threatening conditions, which may lead to a large-scale zoonosis crisis [ 19 ]. Another possible reason for such outcomes is that farmers and veterinarians tend to focus on different concerns [ 36 ]. Famers generally struggle with financial constraints as they are running a business and tend to focus on minimising costs and short-term repercussions [ 50 ]. Moreover, when there are suspected cases of diseased animals, farmers can withhold from reporting to the veterinarian [ 19 ]. However, from a veterinarians’ perspective, the public health and wellbeing are a priority. In this case, disagreements can occur and the relationship between the two parties can be threatened. The unwillingness to adhere to recommendations can reflect distrust in the client–veterinarian relationship. Finally, to manage emerging zoonotic diseases, veterinarians should promptly provide necessary knowledge and communicate about emergency measures. When farmers understand the severity and risks of the possible zoonotic outbreak, they are more likely to follow professional advice. In addition, the veterinarians can allow the farmers to acquire an evidence-based understanding of the situation and corresponding actions [ 16 ]. It is also important for the veterinarians to explore the farmers’ motivation and understand their values and goals, which can be achieved by involving the farmers in the treatment plans and developing feasible solutions to enhance the client–veterinarian relationship [ 16 ].

Cross-disciplinary communication in a veterinarian professional team

In addition to the importance of the client–veterinarian communication, the veterinary profession necessitates teamwork. Occasionally, communication problems can occur between the veterinarians and other clinic staff. Ineffective communication is a major cause of critical incidents, which may result in animal harm and death and is the most common cause of complaints. For example, the lack of communication between the receptionist and veterinary surgeon has been reported as a major cause of communication errors [ 5 ]. Most surgeons value autonomy, but individualism and autonomy are not suitable or beneficial behavioural approaches within a group of professionals [ 5 ]. In most cases, there is limited time for communication, and team communication is problematic and lacks structure, resulting in possible miscommunication and clinical errors.

Communication issues within the veterinary team have been emphasised in the study by Ruby and DeBowes [ 48 ]. These researchers found that team communication in veterinary practice is challenging. Although training on team communication is included in the veterinary curriculum to prepare the students to become professional team players, several key elements are missing. To develop an effective team, one needs to decide consciously, display transparent governance, set clear expectations of the teammates, and avoid making assumptions. It is also important to motivate the rest of the team to be responsible for adapting to the agreed standards and implement them in daily clinical practice. The team leader can share important values to shape the team identity while maintaining a supportive and positive working climate.

Another important requirement is the ability of the team to develop conflict-resolving strategies, such as setting regular meetings to let all members participate in reaction and response to each other, and providing feedback that promotes self-reflection.

Training on veterinary communication skills

The importance of communication skills has been emphasised in all included studies. In the study by McDermott et al. [ 13 ], 98% of respondents believed that communication skills are equally important to or more important than practical clinical skills. Training on communication skills in the veterinary curriculum is very limited [ 13 , 37 ]. The existing veterinary curriculum does not fully address the needs in this aspect of practical skills. In one study, less than 50% of the participating veterinarians had received communication skills training in veterinary schools, 65% believed that the veterinary school did not fully prepare them to face communication issues in their career, and 50% had to attend post-graduate communication training workshops [ 13 ]. The continuous professional education currently available mainly includes simulated consultations and online training, offering less time investment while attending to money and applicability considerations.

Some veterinarians believe that learning communication skills from real-life cases throughout the veterinary career is more effective and applicable [ 13 ]. The communication skills that most veterinarians develop vastly depend on their everyday experiences. Although self-development through real-life experiences is critical for developing a unique yet suitable approach to communication, students should receive professional guidance for developing specific competence to communicate effectively in their early career [ 7 ].

There has been an upsurge in studies emphasising communication education. Organisations such as the Veterinary Defence Society have been sponsoring communication skill training courses for undergraduate veterinary students in the UK and Ireland for several years [ 7 ]. Generally, communication courses are spread throughout the whole curriculum to allow learning when students are on clinical rotation [ 49 ]. On average, only 15 h of discussion time are allocated for end-of-life topics in the intensively scheduled veterinary school curriculum [ 19 ].

Studies have also examined the contexts and scenarios that veterinary students are recommended to face during their communication skill education. According to Von Fragstein et al.’s consensus statement on medical school communication, which aimed to help medical schools provide an appropriate mix of communication learning experiences for students, students were recommended to engage with scenarios such as end-of-life communication, navigating cultural and social areas of sensitivity, dealing with communication impairment, and communicating about emotional topics. Studies have explored different teaching approaches or interventions for delivering veterinary communication skills, including lecture-based teaching, role play interactions, small-group discussions and real-life application [ 10 ]. Furthermore, studies have emphasised the importance of ethical considerations, especially in the topics of end-of-life conversation or euthanasia. Specific communication protocols have also been established for training in delivery of bad news. For example, the COMFORT (communication, orientation and opportunity, mindfulness, family, opening, relating and team) model is also applicable in veterinary medicine and training sessions as it considers different aspects of social support [ 21 ]. The model addresses cost-related issues and euthanasia, which are not found in human medicine practices [ 20 ]. This consultation model emphasises the importance of a client-centred approach. Veterinarians are recommended to encourage participation, negotiation and knowledge sharing instead of one-directional information provision [ 11 ]. This approach can create a welcoming setting and thus give a positive experience to the clients.

In general, lecture-based discussion about euthanasia occurs in the early years of veterinary school [ 50 ]. Kolb’s experiential learning theory is already a part of the veterinary curriculum, and one study showed that evaluation of real-life recorded consultations can be a reflective way of communication education [ 54 , 62 ]. In addition, simulations can enhance the students’ ability to develop empathy by increasing their ability to understand the clients’ feelings and emotions [ 49 ]. Two studies have reported the advantage of the shadowing approach, stating that the coaching process allows self-development by observation [ 11 , 16 ]. The unique benefit of this learning approach is that every student can have his/her own unique experiences.

In addition to the traditional teaching approaches, several innovative approaches to delivering communication using technology can be applied. For example, web-based learning is expected to become a major learning approach in veterinary medicine [ 2 ] and is already a valid and reliable communication teaching method in human medicine. Although no study has yet reported the same benefits of web-based learning in veterinary medicine, this approach is expected to have the same potential in veterinary communication education. Use of virtual patients is considered as an effective way to assess students’ communication skills in human medicine and as a potential communication assessment tool in veterinary medicine [ 2 ].

Although most studies have suggested changes in communication skills training, some limitations still remain in group training. For example, group training might compromise individual needs [ 55 ]. Hence, the idea of tailor-made training has been introduced, but it was not concluded to be a practical strategy in large group training [ 55 ]. One study suggested that when graduated students start practicing veterinary medicine, providing more continuous professional training (CPT) can reduce the communication skill gaps between senior veterinarians who graduated before 2000 and current veterinarians [ 13 ]. However, there is a lack of studies focusing on CPT for farm animal veterinarians [ 36 ], suggesting a lack of emphasis on communication skills of large-animal veterinarians.

This integrated review of the role of communication in veterinary clinical practice highlights the significance of client–veterinarian communication and the lack of communication training in the veterinary curriculum. Most of the included studies that have investigated the nature of veterinarians’ communication with their clients have emphasised that it not only affects the relationship between clients and the veterinarians but also the health of the animals. The review showed that the interaction between the clients and the veterinarians could be challenging as various types of dilemmas occur during different stages, such as insufficient consultation time, challenges in delivering difficult news, misconception and misunderstanding, and poor treatment adherence, echoing the findings of a review conducted by Cornell and Kopcha [ 63 ]. Despite the importance of maintaining effective communication and sufficient information exchange for different stakeholders throughout the diagnosis and treatment of animals, there is a lack of appropriate measures to tackle issues in these matters. The review supports the findings of [ 15 , 18 ], and shows that systematic communication education is absent in the existing veterinary curriculum. Although studies such as McDermott’s [ 13 ] and Jackson’s [ 7 ] have explored the possible future approaches, it is obvious that the current curriculum is not yet well developed and adequate, likely resulting in communication challenges for veterinarians in their practice. Consistent with a previous study that stated that interprofessional working is under-theorised and under-researched [ 5 ], this review highlights the lack of studies in the context of communication between veterinary professionals. Similar to the setting of human medicine, the approach and content of communication between the doctors or veterinarians and the nurses and receptionists may have a huge impact on the clients’ impression of the veterinarians and their perception of their pets’ healthcare. This is a finding that is similar to the results of a study conducted by Coe et al. [ 64 ]. However, not many studies have focused on this aspect of communication between the professionals or that between the farmers and veterinarians. Notably, a large body of evidence is available on the aspects of communication between the veterinarians and the clients and the associated challenges; however, more systematic research is needed to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the communication between the veterinarians and other stakeholders, such as receptionists and clinical staff members.

This review has a few limitations. Although the findings were derived from heterogeneously designed studies, only studies published in English were included. As a result, the geographic focus of this research was also mainly on Western countries. Studies published in local languages that may reflect more detailed aspects of interpersonal veterinary communication affected by cultural factors were not included. Thus, the findings may be biased in terms of the overall social aspects. A systematic approach comparing diverse studies to understand the cultural differences between Eastern and Western countries would be meaningful. Thus, more in-depth studies examining how different cultures adopt distinct approaches to veterinary communication and influence the surrounding environment are warranted.

This review identified a gap in the communication skills of veterinarian professionals as well as a communication gap between different veterinarian professionals and the outcomes of effective client–veterinarian communication. For animals, effective communication between their owners and the veterinarians will allow better medical care in terms of drug route, dose and frequency and annual health check; better home routine care such as diet, exercise and wound care; and, consequently, an increase in their overall quality of life. Adequate and clear communication during veterinary consultations would allow clients to acquire the correct information about pet care and facilitate the history taking of pets by veterinarians, which could increase the clients’ satisfaction with the clinic experience and reduce stress [ 36 ]. Finally, from the perspective of veterinarians, effective communication can allow them to properly care for and treat the pets and avoid stress, foster a positive working environment, and enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of teamwork. The reviewed studies confirmed the importance of and the roles of communication in veterinary medicine and the need for a more comprehensive curriculum for teaching veterinary communication skills. This review highlights the requirement of more research to explore the culturally influenced communication approaches that veterinarians in non-English speaking countries adopt so as to develop more effective communication models than those commonly used in veterinary practices in Western countries.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Critical appraisal skills programme

Communication, orientation and opportunity, mindfulness, family, opening, relating and team

Continuous professional training

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses

Weight of evidence

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PUN, J.K.H. An integrated review of the role of communication in veterinary clinical practice. BMC Vet Res 16 , 394 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-020-02558-2

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