sri lankan culture essay sinhala

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Cultural life

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• Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Sri Lanka
• Official Tourism Site of Sri Lanka
• Sri Lanka - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• Sri Lanka - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

Sri Lanka is a land of great cultural diversity . Religion pervades many aspects of life and constitutes a basic element of this diversity. Buddhist and Hindu temples, as well as mosques and churches, with their own colourful rituals, are the most readily visible features of the cultural landscape. Varying degrees of colonial impact, modernizing influences, and wealth and income add other shades to the cultural mosaic.

In architecture, sculpture, and painting, Sri Lanka’s traditions extend far back into antiquity. The remnants of ancient works restored and preserved at archaeological sites, while reflecting Indian influences, also bear testimony to the inspiration derived from Buddhism . Classical literature , too, presents a blend of stylistic influences from India with Buddhist themes. Since the beginning of the 20th century, with the literati being exposed to European literature, local creative writing has acquired greater diversity in style and has become more secular in content.

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In the performing arts there are several Sinhalese and Tamil folk traditions and a host of recent imports and imitations. Among the folk dance forms, for example, one finds the highly refined Kandyan dancing , which has been associated over several centuries with state ceremony and religious ritual in and around the historic hill capital of Kandy . The more improvised “ devil dancing ” is performed at healing rites and exorcisms. In drama , modernized versions of folk theatre share the limelight with modern original works and adaptations from Western dramatists. Both Indian and Western influences are strongly apparent in the popular forms of music.

Government assistance to the arts is channeled through several institutions under the Ministry of Cultural Affairs. Art, music, and dancing are included in the school curriculum. Advanced training in these and several other fields of fine arts is provided at the Government College of Fine Arts, the Institute of Aesthetic Studies, and several private institutions. The Department of National Archives and the National Museum, both in Colombo , are the main repositories of historical documents and archaeological treasures of the country .

Many internationally recognized sports have found participants in Sri Lanka. The most popular among them are volleyball , cricket , football (soccer), bicycle racing , and various water sports.

The sites of ancient cities and other religiocultural centres such as Anuradhapura , Sigiriya , Polonnaruwa , Kandy, Kataragama, and Adam’s Peak attract thousands of tourists and pilgrims.

Print and broadcast media reach all parts of the country in Sinhala , Tamil, and English. The government controls radio and television broadcasting and several widely circulated daily newspapers. Several private daily and weekly newspapers operate independently of the government and exercise considerable freedom of expression. However, the government is empowered to impose censorship under the Public Security Act.

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Sri Lankan Culture Unveiled: Heritage, Arts, and Lifestyle

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Sri Lankan Culture

Core concepts.

• Sensitivity

An island located south of the Indian subcontinent, the nation-state of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) contains diverse landscapes ranging from beaches, rainforests and tea plantations to ancient Buddhist ruins and buzzing metropolitan cities. Sri Lankan society has also been influenced by varying degrees of colonial impact and modernisation. Diversity is further evident in the cultural landscape, with Sri Lanka accommodating several ethnic, linguistic and religious groups. Sri Lankans tend to identify themselves according to their ethnicity , family, religion or birthplace and will often remain loyal to those a part of those groups. While the country has seen ethnic tensions in the past, the two largest ethnic groups – the Sinhalese (74.9%) and the Tamil (15.4%) – often peacefully interact with one another.

Ethnicity and Personal Identity

One distinctive feature of Sri Lankan culture is the way in which ethnicity , language and religious affiliation correlate with one another, each being key determinants of an individual’s identity. Alongside the two largest ethnic groups – Sinhalese (74.9%) and Tamil (15.4%) – the third largest ethnic group is Sri Lankan Moors (9.2%).1 The remaining 0.5% of Sri Lanka’s population is comprised of Burghers (mixed European descent), Parsis (immigrants from west India) and Veddas (who are identified as the indigenous inhabitants of the land). The Tamils separate further into two groups, Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils.

Ethnicity and religion are often closely linked in Sri Lanka. In fact, one’s religion is often able to be interpreted from their ethnicity . More specifically, 70.2% of the population identify as Buddhist and are typically of Sinhalese ethnicity , while those who identify as Hindu (12.6%) tend to be ethnically Tamil.2 Although those who identify as Muslim (9.7%) come from various backgrounds (most being Sri Lankan Moors), they are commonly recognised as a single populace in Sri Lankan society.

The prevalence of Buddhism in Sri Lanka tends to reinforce the dominance of the Sinhalese majority. The Sinhalese elites and parts of the Buddhist Sangha who support Sinhala Buddhist nationalism argue that Sri Lanka is the ‘ Dhamma Kingdom ’ – the land of Buddhism. However, such an assertion also has the potential to marginalise other religions and ethnicities in the country (see Buddhism  in Religion ).

There are three official languages of Sri Lanka: Sinhala, Tamil and English. This is evident throughout the country, with most signs written in all three languages. The Sinhalese-Buddhist majority mostly speak Sinhala, while Tamil is spoken widely by Sri Lankan Moors/Muslims and ethnic Tamils/Hindus. English was introduced as a result of the British colonial rule and has become the language used in government administration and commercial activities. However, the Sinhala language is still prevalent in these sectors of society. Language is a contentious issue in Sri Lanka, in part due to the ‘Sinhala Only’ initiatives supported by some politicians. This provoked a push for resistance by some Tamils, which (along with other issues) paved the way for civil conflict.

Civil Conflict (1983 - 2009)

Periods of tension among ethnic groups have occurred since the country’s attainment of independence in 1948 from British colonial rule. Sri Lanka’s post-independence era is notably marked by the rise in Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism and the subsequent civil tensions.

Although the civil conflict officially began in 1983, the tensions underpinning the conflict extend much further into Sri Lankan history. The ‘Sinhalese Only’ movement emerged as a way to define the national identity of Sri Lanka. This marginalised non-Sinhala and non-Buddhists and limited their access to state-controlled opportunities and benefits. Resistance against Sinhala nationalism by a small group known as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) resulted in the civil conflict. The conflict created widespread displacement and resulted in up to 100,000 deaths. Moreover, as many people fear publicly discussing the civil conflict, expressions of concern and mourning have been somewhat limited to the private sphere. This has meant that, for many Sri Lankan families and households, the civil conflict continues to evoke unreconciled grief and sorrow.

The Sri Lankan government declared victory over the 26-year-long civil conflict in 2009, but relations between the Sinhalese and Tamils in the political and social arenas may sometimes be tense. The aftermath of the civil conflict has seen large numbers of Tamils fleeing the country. According to the Australian Government Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2014), the majority of Sri Lankan migrants between 2012 and 2013 were of Tamil ethnicity , many of whom were seeking asylum. Although tensions between the Sinhalese and Tamils may erupt sporadically, the two ethnicities generally coexist peacefully and cooperatively.

Despite the fractures in society, many Sri Lankans take great pride in their nationality – particularly in its distinction from India, both in terms of nationality and culture. Remnants of Indian culture are evident in Sri Lanka, largely stemming from shared Buddhist and Hindu traditions. Over time, the cultural traits brought from the Indian subcontinent have independently grown and changed in Sri Lanka, contributing to the formation of a distinctive Sri Lankan culture and identity.

Hierarchy and Social Stratification

Despite ethnic tensions in the past, Sri Lankans tend to interact and befriend those of different ethnicities and religious affiliations. Divisions generally occur more in regards to social class. This is largely due to the hierarchies of the caste system that the society previously operated under. In the context of Sri Lanka, the caste system refers to the ‘kula’ structure. This structure determines the social community into which one is born, often referred to in terms of vocation. Ideas about purity provide the rationale for the division of society into various groups, with the hierarchy of caste being determined by each group’s relative level of perceived impurity. This refers to both physical purity, in terms of one’s body and occupation, as well as one’s spiritual purity.

While Sri Lankans tend to be acutely aware of the social status they hold in relation to their peers, this attitude is more common outside of urban areas, particularly in villages. People in each kula are expected to preserve the distinct social classes with one example being endogamy /inter-caste marriages. However, it is worth noting that the caste hierarchy differs among those of Tamil and those of Sinhalese ethnicity . Since Tamils generally correlate to Hinduism, their model of the caste system resembles the model observed in Indian society (see Social Structure and Stratification in the Indian profile ).

Regarding those of Sinhalese ethnicity , attitudes and ideas related to the caste system still prevail to an extent among the older generation, despite being abolished by law. However, the younger generation of Sinhalese Sri Lankans tend not to consider caste as a relevant factor when interacting with others. Indeed, a lot of the Sinhalese youth are unaware of their caste. Moreover, the caste system plays a minor role in terms of one’s spiritual progress or access to opportunities. Outside of the private sphere, most social interactions occur without reference to the caste system . Members of different kulas can work together and interact freely with one another without feeling uncomfortable about the caste inequalities. However, among those of Tamil ethnicity , the caste system continues to be a large factor in determining one’s position and interactions within society.

'Face' and Social Interactions

The concept of face is evident in the way Sri Lankans behave and interact with one another. Face refers to one’s reputation, dignity and honour. Sri Lankans may act in a deliberate and contemplative manner to prevent outbursts or conflict. They will often try their best to remain calm and attempt to solve any problems that arise. Indeed, a common response when being asked to help a lending hand or to address an issue is to say “no problem”. Since Sri Lanka is a collectivistic society, individuals often perceive themselves to be members of their ethnic, religious or linguistic group rather than individual and autonomous actors. In turn, it is thought that a person’s actions can reflect back upon the groups they identify with.

_____________________

1 Central Intelligence Agency, 20172 Central Intelligence Agency, 2017

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Sinhala and Hindu New Year in Sri Lanka

History of Sinhala and Hindu New Year

In 1885 the British Colonial rulers have announced this as a holiday. Science then, even though there were many successive administrative changes, it has been considered a government announced holiday. “ By the end of this month (March) several flowering trees are in bloom and many tropical fruits are abundance yet “April is the warmest month of the year’ says Handbook for the Ceylon Traveler.  Further it continues “April is also a month of festivals in Sri Lanka: the Sinhala and Tamil New Year, Milad- un- Nabi, and Easter.  

Robert Knox (1981) who resided in Kandy as a prisoner of the Sinhala King too mentioned his experiences of the Sinhala and Hindu New Year as celebrated by the locals. Robert Knox writes that during the time of his residing in Kandy New Year was a major festival of the Sinhalese and it was celebrate in March with royal patronage. It is a assumed that the Nayakkar Kings of Southern India who ruled during the later part of the Kandyan Kingdom shifted the festival to April to fall in line with the Tamil New Year called Pudu Warsham. This might have avoided both Sinhalese and Tamils having two separate festivals in successive months. Davy (1983, 126) also mentions that this (Sinhala and Hindu New Year) is one of the four great national festivals. Parker (1982, 18) explains the pains taken by the locals for this august festival.

‘One of the pleasantest features of village life is the family re-union at the Sinhalese New Year……..I have known considerable numbers of villagers tramp ninety miles of hot dusty roads, with an equality return journey in prospect, in order to be present at this home gathering’.

But Wijesekara (1987) believes that Sinhala and Hindu New Year, marks a set of customs and ceremonies associated with sheer supervision. He points out the reference to the lunar calendar in arranging the programme of activities in their day to day lives. New Year is a solar festival but the main Buddhist festivals in Sri Lanka such as Vesak, Poson and Esala hold on Poya days are based on lunar observations. Yet again there is an argument that Sinhala and Hindu New Year cannot be categories as a Hindu festival because it is a national festival of Tamils and some others in South India but not of the all Indians who are Hindus. Puthandu is the better known Tamil New Year, that falls on the first day of the Tamil New Year is , 13 th April, celebrated by the Tamils in Tamil Nadu, in Pondicherry in India, is Sri Lanka and by Tamil populations in Malaysia, Singapore, Reunion Island and Mauritius.

Astrological Concept

The astrologers believe that the house of “Aries” (Mesha Rashiya) can be seen directly above Sri Lanka. One group assumes that it is above Mannarama whereas the others believe it to be above Dondra Head (Devinuwara). The reason for the fact is that the belief “Irugal Devalaya” (Seenigama) is located exactly above the house of “Aries”. So this geographical reason has made people select the 14 th of April as the day to celebrate New Year.

According to all these historical records and the present experience we could understand that the Sinhala and Hindu New Year is combined with mass culture through the institution religion in two main ethnic groups on the society. The relevant authorities announce through media how the Sinhala and Hindu New Year should be spent and the masses follow these instructions. The auspicious times of the specific activities are decided according to the planetary movements of the universe. So it is an activity based more of the Hindu astrological tradition than the Sinhala Buddhist tradition.

Traditional and Cultural Festival

The Sinhalese people, mainly the Sinhalese Buddhist and the Tamil Hindus get ready for this traditional and cultural festival of April from March itself. First, they clean up their environment either the immediate garden or the surrounding of the house. Then, many colors wash their houses and some buy certain new items replacing the old, outdated or unusable items. All those who could afford want to make it a ‘new’ year in real in real sense of the world and deed. The people go to buy ‘new’ cloths for themselves, parents, children relatives and buy provisions to prepare numerous sweetmeats that are going to be a major part of this traditional and cultural event.

The small children are waiting for the festival time since they enjoy the freedom from their school activities. Further the parents also give them to enjoy their time among the peers or siblings so the New Year season is truly a festive season for the children. Fire crackers are lit, and locally made ‘bamboo guns’, through dangerous at times, add noise to the merry making environment. The ‘Swing’ does not have a rest for the most part of the day because as one leaves it another one is waiting to get in and have a swing. The ‘Koel’ too adds its melodious voice from time to time to announce that the ‘New Year’ has arrived. The young ones, especially females, and in certain instances the elders get together to play ‘Panchi’ and ‘Olinda’. Revelry with folk dancing and music, raban playing (large bass drum with open bottom) and sports coupled with the age-old customs are other marked features.

‘New Year’ marks the movement of the sun from the zodiac house of ‘Pisces’ (Meena Rashiya) to the house of ‘Aries’ (Mesha Rashiya) the worship of ‘Sun God’ which was believed to be originated among the Aryans was another base for this festival. According to Hindu mythology ‘Indradeva’; the prince of Peace descends upon the earth to ensure peace and happiness among individuals. It is believed that the prince comes in a horse-drawn carriage. The color during of dress he wears varies each year and people are advised to wears that particular color during the festival season. The worship of Sun God is not unfamiliar to the Asian continent.

Sun is the all life giving source so playing the gratitude has been a great virtue. Rig Veda and Upanishad too discuss the power of the Sun. The ‘Thaipongal’ festival of Hindus too has been a form of worshiping the Sun God. He was worshiped in many communities such as ‘Ra’ in Egypt, ‘Helios’ in Greece and ‘Mithra’ in Persia. Even in Sri Lnaka there had been the worship of Sun God and it is mentioned in Ramayanaya. The great King Ravana was also the pioneer of the ‘Ra’ (Sun) clan of Sri Lanka. There are four devalas (Shrine rooms) erected in four different places to worship Sun. Eg; Hindu Kovila (Thirukkovil), Hiru Koneshwaram (Thirukoneshwaram), Hirugal Devalaya (Koggala) and Hirugal Thilakaya (Dondra Head). In other places like Arankale, Thanthirimale and Munneshwaram also the witnesses to the worship of Sun God.

The term ‘ Awuruddda ’ means the Awur (Sun) that moves straight ‘idda’. When the Sun moves straight above the earth the Sun positions itself exactly above the earth. The term ‘bak’ used for April also signifies the prosperity. The plenty of fruits and vegetables make the time period more prosperous. Another important aspect is the spring festival.

The Sinhala and Hindu New Year is the only festival in the world that is based on the movement of the solar system and time. The Orientals measured times through the seasonal changes,. The main measuring criterion was the sun. The entire movement of the Sun is divided into twelve equal proportions and for each phase a zodiac sign is attached, the ancient tribes all around the globe who worshiped Sun and nature. They believed that the arrival of the spring bring new life like a new deity taking charge of Mother Nature. All the festivals during the New Year season could be traced to this concept.

The two Asian ethnic communities, Sinhala and Tamil, are mainly relying on agriculture. So the traditional Sinhala and Hindu New Year coincide with the ending of one phase of the agricultural cycle. The harvesting of the “Maha Season” (September to March) is over by March and then the farmers have to get ready for the ‘Yala season’ (May to August). It marks the end of the harvest season and also coincides with one of two instances when the sun is directly above Sri Lanka. During this period the stores are full and there is no any serious agricultural activity so there are ample opportunities for the villagers to take part I any activity leisurely.

Rain falls after a period of hot and dry weather. Trees are covered with fresh leaves and lush green fields are visible everywhere. Flowers bloom in numerous colors, vegetables and fruits are in abundance so it is the time of fruitfulness. Since harvesting is over, granaries are full and people have enough time to celebrate. Fertility of the harvest made the people happy and that has given birth to many rituals, customs and ceremonies connected with the New Year. The majority of the people in Asian contexts being farmers, they celebrate the occasion by offering thanks for the gods and goddesses who have helped them in numerous ways to achieve a better yield. The customs and rituals portray the beliefs and thinking of the people whose life is centered on agriculture. It is during this time in many villages many parents want to get their sons and daughters marry.

Read our next Post on Sinhala and Hindu New Year – Customs and Rituals Sinhala and Hindu New Year – Customs and Rituals

Selected bibliography

Amunugama. Sarath (1990) Notes on Sinhala Culture , Colombo: M. D. Gunasena. Davy, John (1983) An Account of the interior of on and of its inhabitants with travels in that island, Dehiwala, Sri Lanka : Tisara Prakashakayo. Handbook for the Ceylon Traveler (1983) Colombo: A Studio Times Publication Knox, Robert. (981) An Historical Relation of Ceylon , Dehiwala. Sri Lanka: Tisara Prakashakayo. Parker, Henry, (1982) Village Folk Tales of Ceylon – vol. 1. Dehiwala. Sri Lanka: Tisara Prakashakayo. Wijesekara. Nandadewa (1987) The People of Ceylon , Colombo M. D. Gunasena. William, R. H. (2004) Sinhala Aluth utwurudda raha Jayatishayu (Sinhala New Year  and Astrology] Colombo: S. Godage and Brothers.

By Dr. Jayantha Jayasiri

Senior Lecturer Department of Sociology and Anthropology Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Sri Jayewardenepura

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Culture Name

Alternative names.

Ceylonese, Lankan

Orientation

Identification. The official name of the nation is the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. In 1972, the national constitution discarded the name Ceylon and adopted the name of Sri Lanka. In Sinhala, the language of the majority, Sri means "blessed" and Lanka is the name of the island.

The island's history of immigration, trade, and colonial invasion has led to the formation of a variety of ethnic groups, each with its own language and religious traditions. Besides the majority Sinhala Buddhists, the nation also includes Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamils of recent Indian origin, Muslims, semitribal Väddas, and Burghers, descendants of intermarriages between Sri Lankans and Europeans. Although the members of these groups share many cultural practices, beliefs, and values, ethnic differences have become especially marked since the nation's independence in 1948. These differences and the exclusive policies of the Sinhala-dominated central government have led to escalating ethnic conflicts, including the current civil war in which Sri Lankan Tamil rebels are fighting for an independent nation in the northern and eastern regions of the island to be called Eelam.

Location and Geography. Sri Lanka is a small tropical island off the southern tip of India. The island nation covers approximately 25,332 square miles (65,610 square kilometers) and is divided ecologically into a dry zone stretching from the north to the southeast and a wet zone in the south, west, and central regions. This contrast in rainfall combined with topographical differences has fostered the development of regional variation in economy and culture. The north-central plains are dotted by the ruins of ancient kingdoms built around man-made lakes. The northern tip of the island is the traditional home to the Sri Lankan Tamils who consider Jaffna, its principal city, their cultural and political center. The dry lowlands of the eastern coast, site of fishing and rice cultivation, are particularly diverse both ethnically and culturally, with Muslims, Tamils, and Sinhalas composing almost equal portions of the population in some areas. The central highlands are famous for tea plantations and, in the southwestern part, gem mines. Kandy, the principal city of this central "Hill Country," was the seat of the last of the indigenous kingdoms and continues to be an important ritual, administrative, and tourist center. The southern coastal lowlands are the site of coconut, rubber, and cinnamon estates, an active fishing industry, and beautiful beaches. Located on the west coast is the island's largest city, Colombo, a hub of international commerce as well as the seat of government administration located on its outskirts in Sri Jayawardenepura.

Demography. According to the islandwide census in 1981, there were nearly 15 million inhabitants of Sri Lanka. This population was concentrated in the wet zone and around the principal cities, although barely three million people were considered to live in urban areas. At that time, there were approximately eleven million Sinhalas, two million Sri Lankan Tamils, one million Tamils of recent Indian origin, 1.5 million Muslims, and less than seventy thousand people of other ethnicities. Although the civil war in the north and east of the island has thwarted subsequent census plans, it was estimated that the population in 2000 stood near nineteen million.

Symbolism. The official symbols of Sri Lanka are largely drawn from those representing the Sinhala Buddhist majority. Sinhala means "lion's blood" and the lion is the central image on the national flag. Also pictured on the flag and other emblems of national culture are the leaves of the sacred Bo Tree under which the Buddha found enlightenment. Other symbols central to Sri Lankan Buddhism and Sinhala mythology have also become icons of national identity, such as the Tooth Relic of the Buddha, the possession of which has provided legitimacy to Sinhala rulers for thousands of years.

There are also symbols of national culture that reflect a more integrated national identity. For instance, the color blocks on the nation's flag represent each of Sri Lanka's three major ethnic groups. The Sri Lankan elephant is a symbol of national heritage and of prosperity, both for its long association with wealth and royalty and for its association with Ganesh, the elephant-headed Hindu god of wealth. The betel leaf and oil lamp are used to mark special occasions. Images of the island's natural resources, such as palm trees, gems, and beaches, are promoted as part of the tourist industry and other international commercial enterprises. The players and events that are part of the wildly popular national cricket team serve as symbolic foci of national culture. Further, the performance of certain islandwide customs, such as bowing in respect, serve as symbolic enactments of a national cultural identity.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. There is archaeological evidence that the island was inhabited as early as 10,000 B.C.E. The present-day Väddas, who live in remote areas of Sri Lanka and use a simple technology, are apparently descended from these early inhabitants mixed with the later arriving Tamils and Sinhalas, who were both well established on the island by the third century B.C.E. It is widely believed that the Sinhala people migrated to the island from north India, bringing their Indo-Aryan language and some version of Brahmanism with them, although Buddhism was introduced in their principal areas of settlement during the third century B.C.E. The Tamils emigrated to the north of the island from southern India, bringing Hinduism and their Dravidian language with them. The Sinhalas, the Tamils, and various south Indian invaders built powerful kingdoms with advanced agricultural projects and elaborate religious institutions, kingdoms that periodically brought the island under the authority of a single regime.

Because of its important ports along the East-West trade routes and desirable goods, traders were drawn to the island. Some of these Arab traders made Sri Lanka their permanent home, adding Islam to the island's religions. In the early sixteenth century Portuguese traders introduced Christianity as they began to make use of the island, eventually gaining control over productive portions of it.

In 1638 the king of Kandy drove out the Portuguese with the help of the Dutch. The Dutch then kept the land for themselves, controlling all but the kingdom of Kandy until they were driven out by the British in 1796. In 1815 the British ousted the last king of Kandy, gaining control over all of Sri Lanka, which remained a British colony until 1948.

On 4 February 1948, Ceylon, as the nation was then known, became politically independent of Great Britain, though it remained part of the Commonwealth.

National Identity. The current Sri Lankan national identity is dominated by the Sinhala majority, although this identity is resisted by the minority ethnic groups. Since independence, national leadership has consistently appealed to the Sinhala majority and the strength of the Buddhist monastic orders, marginalizing the non-Sinhala, non-Buddhists from the Sri Lankan identity and limiting access to state-controlled benefits. Despite the politicization of separate ethnic identities, there is a core of cultural beliefs, practices, and values that are largely shared among the people of Sri Lanka, particularly in the domains of the economy, social stratification, gender, family, and etiquette.

Ethnic Relations. Sri Lanka has always been home to a multiethnic and multireligious society. Because of the historic fluidity in migration and marriage patterns, the physical attributes of the principal ethnic groups are widely distributed. While conflicts between various groups have periodically flared up, beginning in 1956 the ethnic rivalry between the Sinhala-Buddhist majority and the Sri Lankan Tamil minority has intensified to an unprecedented level and led to the eruption of civil war in 1983. Since that time, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, a militant organization of Sri Lankan Tamils, have been fighting for an independent Tamil state in the north and east.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

In the precolonial period, only the ruling elite and religious establishments were permitted to have permanent buildings. As a result, most of the archaeological ruins represent the heritage of elite culture, the ancient states, and the temple complexes, many of which are still in use today. The most elaborate of Sri Lanka's architecture continues to be dedicated to religious purposes, ranging from the imposing domes of the mosques to the graceful spires of the Portuguese churches to the ornate and colorful figures covering the Hindu temples to the white, bell-shaped dagobas that house the relics of the Buddha. The influences from these religious traditions have combined with the influences of the colonists and more modern designs to produce a diverse architectural landscape in the urban areas as well as the rural, where 70–80 percent of the population continues to live.

Residential buildings vary widely according to the socioeconomic status of their inhabitants. Rural peasants live in small temporary wattle and daub (stick and mud), thatched houses whose style has remained unchanged since ancient times. In the urban area of Colombo, half of the residents are estimated to live in "low income" areas characterized by crowded dilapidated buildings and adjoining watte, built of a hodgepodge of thatch, wooden planks, and corrugated metal sheets along railways and roadways, beaches, rivers, and canal banks. In this same city are modern apartment buildings and colonial-era gated compounds with attached servants' quarters.

All over the island, there is a preference for whitewashed cement houses with polished cement floors and windows designed to keep out the heat and light but let in the air through built-in vents. The front of the house with its sitting room, bedrooms, dining area, and veranda is typically separated from the back of the house in which the kitchen and washing areas are located, a division that reflects notions of the danger of pollution by outsiders. Buddhist, Hindu, or even Christian shrines are often located within the house or the garden areas that surround it.

Public spaces provide the setting for a variety of valued activities. Each community, no matter how small, contains a public school, a place of worship, and a shop or two where people can buy daily necessities as well as exchange gossip. Wells, rivers, and other bathing places are also important social gathering places.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Sri Lanka's staple meal is a large serving of rice accompanied by up to twelve different side dishes of vegetables, egg, meat, or fish stewed together with peppers, spices, and often coconut milk. This rice and curry meal is traditionally eaten at midday, although it may also be served in the evening. The traditional morning and evening meals are usually composed of a traditional starchy staple, such as string hoppers (fresh rice noodles), hoppers (cup-shaped pancakes), roti (coconut flat bread), or thosai (sourdough pancakes), served with a sambol (a mixture of hot peppers and other vegetables, served cool) and one or two curries.

A variety of snacks and beverages are also eaten periodically throughout the day. Strong, sweat tea, usually with milk, is drunk alone or following a small serving of finger food or sweets, especially at mid-morning and late afternoon. Curd, a yogurt made from the milk of water buffaloes or cows, is often served as a dessert with palm syrup or sugar. A rich variety of fruits is available year-round.

Eating outside of the home has not been very common, although it is becoming more so. In almost every town there is at least one Chinese-style restaurant where alcohol is also served, as well as Sinhala, Muslim, and Tamil restaurants and traditional snack booths. In the capital, Western chain restaurants as well as other foreign-style foods are increasingly available.

There is some ethnic variation in foods and customs, as well as food taboos. For instance, Muslims avoid pork while Hindus are often vegetarian. Sinhala and Tamil people tend to take care that the foods served together create a balance of hot and cold energies. They also typically will not accept food prepared by those of relatively lower caste status.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Kiribath, rice cooked in coconut milk, is part of nearly every ceremonial occasion in Sri Lanka. Kawum (sweet oil cakes) and other special snacks are also popular at special events. Alcoholic beverages do not play a role in the formal rituals of Sri Lanka, being condemned by Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism alike. Alcohol is, however, a ubiquitous part of men's social gatherings, where beer, toddy (fermented palm nectar), arrack (distilled palm nectar), and kassipu (an illegally distilled beverage), are consumed in great quantities.

Basic Economy. Sri Lanka's economy is shifting away from its traditional agricultural base to include production for an international market, a shift accelerated by a major policy change in the 1977 transition from a socialist-style, state controlled economy to a free market economy lead by the private sector. By the mid-1990s, roughly one-quarter of the population was employed as skilled workers in agriculture, fishing, or animal husbandry; one-quarter in skilled craft or factory production; one-quarter in administration, medicine, law, education, accounting, sales, services, or clerical work; and one-quarter as unskilled laborers. In spite of this shift away from agriculture, Sri Lanka has recently achieved near self-sufficiency in rice production and other staple foods.

Land Tenure and Property. Although private ownership of land has been well established in Sri Lanka since the precolonial period, most of the land is currently owned by the state and leased to private individuals and companies. Religious establishments also own substantial tracts of land. Today as in the past, private property is passed from parents to children, with the bulk of landholdings going to sons. Although the sale of housing lots is a growing industry, the sale of agricultural land is relatively uncommon. This, in combination with the subdivision of property with each generation, has created very small holdings of paddy land, which are inefficient to farm, something that the World Bank has identified as the primary cause of poverty in Sri Lanka.

Commercial Activities. Sri Lanka's towns and villages as well as its urban centers are typically active sites of commercial exchange. Most of the nonplantation agricultural crops that are not consumed in the home are sold at local markets, along with traditional craft products such as brass, pottery, and baskets, which are largely produced by hereditary caste groups. Repair, construction, tailoring, printing, and other services are always in demand, as is private tutoring. Tourists are also the focus of a range of commercial activity.

Major Industries. The major industries in Sri Lanka are involved with agricultural production and manufacturing. Nearly one-third of the agricultural production of the island is from the tea and rubber estates, products that are partially processed locally. The production of textiles and apparel; food, beverages, and tobacco; and wood and wood products together account for a quarter of all manufacturing. Heavy industry is largely confined to government-controlled steel, tire, and cement manufacturing, oil refining, mining, and quarrying. Transportation, construction, and energy production are also important locally oriented industries. In addition, the ongoing war effort, the education system, and the tourism industry comprise significant sectors of the economy.

Division of Labor. Traditionally, the division of labor in Sri Lanka has been largely based on caste, gender, and ethnicity. Although members of all ethnic groups participate to some degree across the range of occupations, particular ethnic groups are thought to predominate in certain occupations, for instance, the Sinhala in rice cultivation and the public sector, and the Muslims, Tamils, and recent immigrants in trade. Different castes are also associated with particular occupations, which is not necessarily reflected in the actual work that people do. Symbolically associated with occupations such as rice farming, the largest and highest status Sinhala castes are typically land holders and recipients of service obligations from the lower castes. The lower status service castes are associated with hereditary crafts such as mat weaving, jewelry making, and clothes washing. Increasingly, these hereditary statuses are being replaced by education and command of English as the most important determinants of employment.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. Even though the ideal of social equality is widely diffused in contemporary Sri Lanka, stratification according to caste and class, as well as gender and ethnicity, continues to be very important. Class is determined by attributes such as wealth and education while caste, a traditional part of Hindu and Buddhist society in Sri Lanka, is determined by birth into a predetermined status hierarchy, typically understood as a matter of reward or retribution for one's deeds in previous lives. The traditional correspondence between these statuses was upset by 450 years of colonial rulers who often privileged members of certain, relatively low-status castes, effectively raising their class status and that of their offspring. The importance and legitimacy of caste continues to be undermined by political and economic developments. Class differentiation, on the other hand, is increasing both in day-to-day social interaction and manifestations of disparities.

Symbols of Social Stratification. Traditionally, caste identity was extensively marked by ritual roles and occupations, names of individuals and places, networks of social relations, and regulations of dress and housing. Degrees of difference within the caste hierarchy were also marked by forms of address, seating arrangements, and other practices of deference and superiority. Today, where these hierarchical relations continue, there is a degree of uneasiness or even resentment toward them, particularly among the educated younger generations. Class status, in contrast, is increasingly manifested in speech, dress, employment, education, and housing. In general, elite classes can be identified by their command of English, education in exclusive schools, executive-level employment, possession of valued commodities, and access to international networks, whereas the lower classes are associated with manual labor, minimal comforts, and a lack of social contacts with the elite.

Political Life

Government. Sri Lanka is governed by a democratically elected president and a 225-member parliament. The president serves for a term of six years and has the power to dismiss the parliament, out of which the president selects cabinet members, a prime minister, and a chief justice. Although regular elections at all levels of government have been held since independence, there are increasing allegations of tampering and violence. The current leadership is considering a new constitution in which greater powers would be reserved for the provincial governments, a move calculated to address the ethnic conflicts and end the nation's civil war.

Leadership and Political Officials. Although a spectrum of political parties campaign within Sri Lanka, political leadership is almost exclusively drawn from the traditional, propertied elite. Family lineage and caste affiliation figure prominently in selection of candidates at all levels. Since independence, only two parties have drawn the majority of their leadership from the lower classes and challenged the control of the elite: the ultraleft Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, who staged armed insurrections that posed a significant threat to the stability of the nation in 1971 and again between 1987 and 1989, and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE).

Since political leaders distribute state-controlled benefits and resources, such as access to employment, quality schools, and even passports, their constituents work to stay in their good graces. These elected leaders, who typically distribute resources preferentially to their supporters, make an effort to be seen as benefactors and are often more personally accessible than many bureaucrats.

Social Problems and Control. Although crime rates are rising, Sri Lanka's citizens are generally respectful of both formal and informal laws, as well as of each other. Throughout the nation's history, however, there have been periodic explosions of violence and lawlessness. Since the 1980s, there have been massive riots, bombings, and insurrections that have effectively challenged the authority of the state and resulted in massive bloodletting. Large portions of the island are not under the control of the state but are in the hands of the LTTE rebels. In response to these challenges, the government has periodically declared states of "emergency rule" that extend its constitutional authority.

The police, the military, and the judiciary system are in place to maintain government control. Imprisonment is the main legal sanction for those who are convicted of violations of the law. The death penalty, suspended for many years, is being considered for re-introduction in response to the perceived rise in crime and violence.

Informal sanctions also provide strong deterrents against socially unacceptable behavior. Rumor and gossip are particularly feared, whether these take the form of village talk, anonymous petitions to the newspapers, or posters mounted in public spaces. Acceptance in the family and other important social groups to which one belongs and how one's behavior reflects on the reputation of these groups are among the most powerful motivators of social compliance. The threat of sorcery or divine retribution on an injured party's behalf, as well as more earthly threats of violence and revenge, also act to ensure good behavior.

Military Activity. There are three branches of the all-volunteer national military: the army, the navy, and the air force. Since independence, Sri Lanka's military, once largely ceremonial, has been called on to counter civil violence and terrorist activities, as well as provide more peaceable services, such as coastal supervision and surveying. Since 1983, they have been fighting a full-scale civil war against the LTTE army which is reportedly well-trained and internationally funded. Between 1990 and 1995, defense spending made up the largest portion of the national budget, comprising over 20 percent of annual expenditures.

Social Welfare and Change Programs

Sri Lanka has often been referred to as the model welfare state. With free and universal education and health care, subsidized transportation, and a wide range of public sector programs to assist the poor, the quality of life is high in comparison with other developing countries. Since the change in economic policies of 1977 which emphasize private sector growth, however, the quality and availability of these government services have been eroding and have been increasingly replaced by private resources accessed by the middle and elite classes. Besides the difficulty posed by reductions in state funding, the civil war has created additional challenges to the welfare system as up to 1.5 million people have been displaced, a group that has been targeted for relief and resettlement by nongovernmental organizations and private donors.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Since 1977, foreign-supported nongovernmental organizations have proliferated, providing welfare services and promoting social agendas such as human rights, fair elections, conflict resolution, and peace initiatives. Other civil organizations that are more locally led and membership-based, such as trade unions and cooperatives, are largely dependant on or part of the political sector of Sri Lankan society. Religious organizations are the primary exception to this, and are independent from political society, which tends to regard them with fear and respect. Another notable exception is the Sarvodaya Movement which has been active since 1958, mobilizing volunteer labor for community service.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. In Sri Lanka, there is a strong tradition of both men and women working, with men focusing more on income opportunities and women focusing on the household. Currently, women's participation in the paid labor force is significant, although not evenly distributed, concentrated in professions such as nursing, teaching, tea picking, and garment construction. In manufacture and agricultural work, men are typically assigned tasks considered more physically demanding, while women are assigned the more repetitive, detail-oriented work at which they are thought to be better than men. Opportunity for foreign employment for women, while relatively available and well-paying, is restricted to domestic work, whereas opportunities for men are more varied, ranging from manual labor to engineering. Within the home, regardless of their engagement in paid labor, women and girls do all food preparation and most other domestic work.

Although most schools are segregated by gender, education has always been important for both boys and girls in Sri Lanka. The literacy rates for men and women are similarly high; the last census in 1981 found that 87 percent of females over the age of ten years were literate, compared to 91 percent of males.

Leadership roles in Sri Lanka are largely held by men, with some important exceptions. Sri Lanka elected the world's first female prime minister in 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike, whose daughter is the current president of the nation. While this is not indicative of the political power of women in general, it is true that Sri Lankan women have held voting rights since they were instituted in 1931 and have long held certain property rights. The large majority of religious leaders and officiants are also male, while women tend to be overrepresented among their followers.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. It is a widely held position among social scientists as well as lay people that the status of women is relatively high in Sri Lanka, especially in comparison to other South Asian nations. There has never been the practice of child marriage or the burning of widows in Sri Lanka. Even though most groups on the island prefer for new brides to move into their husbands' homes, women traditionally retain strong ties with their own natal families. Additionally, although it is expected among most groups for the bride's family to give the groom a dowry, in practice this property commonly remains in the possession of the wife until she passes it on, typically to her daughters.

Despite these traditional practices and the full rights of citizenship that women in Sri Lanka enjoy today, women consistently defer to men across all domains of life, including the workplace and the home. Women also bear the greater weight of social expectations and sanctions for noncompliance. In addition, sexual harassment and assault, while seldom reported to the authorities, are common experiences.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. In all ethnic groups, marriages are traditionally arranged by the families of the couple. "Love marriages" initiated by the couples themselves are, however, increasingly common. Regardless of who initiates the marriage, the bride and groom are expected to be of the same socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and, for Buddhists and Hindus, caste status, although the groom is expected to be slightly older, taller, and educationally and professionally more qualified than the bride. Additionally, there is a preference among Tamil and Sinhala groups for cross-cousin marriage, which is marriage with the child of one's father's sister or one's mother's brother. Among Muslims, the preferred match is between parallel cousins, the children of two brothers. It is also considered best if the couple are of similar ages.

The age at which people marry is on the rise, especially for women. According to the 1981 census, over a quarter of those over twenty have never been married. Divorce, while increasingly common, still occurs in less than 1 percent of marriages. Remarriage following divorce or the death of a spouse is possible for both men and women, although it is uncommon for previously married women to marry never-married men.

Domestic Unit. Ideally, a husband and wife live in their own household with their unmarried children, even if that household is actually a small section of an extended family home. In Sri Lanka, individual households are identified by cooking practices, so that, even within a larger house, a wife will cook for her husband and children independently from others who may live within the structure, perhaps sharing the same kitchen.

While women may have a great deal of power within a family, ultimate authority belongs to the oldest male member of a household, whether that is the father, husband, brother, or son. Sri Lankans express a preference that their first child be a girl, whom they believe will help care for and be a disciplining influence on younger siblings. While overall there is a preference for sons, this is not as strong as in other South Asian countries.

Inheritance. The majority of Sri Lankan families practice bilateral inheritance, giving a portion of the family possessions to all children in the family. In practice, fixed property such as land and the family home go to sons and mobile property such as cash and jewelry go to daughters, usually in the form of her dowry.

Socialization

Infant Care. In Sri Lanka, young children are highly adored, fondled, and indulged by everyone, both male and female. Infants are traditionally kept with their mothers or female relatives. Babies are carried until they can walk and sleep with mothers until they are school-aged, at which time they are encouraged to move into a bed with their siblings. Nearly all mothers breast-feed their children, commonly through the first year.

Child Rearing and Education. Throughout childhood, important rituals are conducted around culturally significant milestones, such as the first feeding of solid food and the introduction of the letters of the alphabet. The coming of age ritual following a girl's first menstruation is an important marker of her entrance into the adult world, although there is no such similar rite of passage for boys.

As children grow, they are expected to develop a sense of lajjawa, a feeling that combines shyness, shame, modesty, and fear. It is cultivated early in childhood and used to teach self-control, beginning with bowel-control training, which starts at one year, then with weaning and nudity, and later with school performance.

Although mothers perform most of the child rearing, they are more responsible for their daughters' discipline and tend to be more indulgent with their sons. Fathers tend to indulge all of their children under five, at which point they take on a stricter disciplinary role, particularly with their sons whom they are responsible for controlling. Corporal punishment is quite common, especially from older males to boys.

Higher Education. All of Sri Lanka's universities are government sponsored and attendance is free. Admission is determined by exam, so that only 2 percent of Sri Lanka's children eventually are enrolled in the universities, although children from affluent families frequently gain admittance to foreign universities. Of those who enter the Sri Lankan university system, the majority go into the arts, which includes humanities and social sciences, a course of study taught in the vernacular languages. Unemployment following graduation is high for these students, reflecting a disjuncture between market needs and university education. Those who attend the technical/professional schools, which are taught in English, tend to be more employable. Opportunities for postgraduate education are quite limited within the country.

Protests against authorities are well established among university students at all levels. New entrants to the university student community are routinely subjected to "ragging," a form of collective harassment by the senior students in an effort to create a sense of common identity and an anti-establishment consciousness.

Many of the most important rules of etiquette serve to mark differences in social rank. Both Sinhala and Tamil contain a range of linguistic markers for status as well as relative social distance and intimacy. In routine social interactions, personal names are avoided in preference to nicknames, relationship terms, or other titles.

Gender is also an important factor in determining appropriate conduct. Among all but the most urbanized, women are expected to defer to men of relatively equal status and to avoid all implication of sexual impropriety by keeping themselves well covered at all times. They are also expected to refuse all alcohol and tobacco and to refrain from direct physical contact with men. Between members of the same gender and with children, however, there is a great deal of physical contact that emphasizes closeness.

At meals, women usually eat last, after they have served the men and the children of the household, although visitors are served first, regardless of gender. While the more Westernized may use silverware, food is commonly eaten with the right hand, a preference that extends to other domains as well.

In public, people tend to speak in hushed tones if at all, although leaders and sellers are expected to shout. Large emotional displays of any type are uncommon in public. Greetings are often unvocalized, with broad smiles exchanged between strangers and a friendly raised eyebrow to frequent acquaintances. When new people are involved in a conversation, the mutual acquaintance is asked questions about the stranger. Seldom does direct self-introduction occur. Unusual behavior of any kind draws unconcealed observation.

Religious Beliefs. Buddhism, the religion of the majority of people in Sri Lanka, is given a place of preference in the national constitution and public life, although Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity are also practiced by significant portions of the population. Except in the case of Christians, who are drawn from a variety of ethnic groups, these religious traditions map directly onto the three major ethnic groups: Sinhala/Buddhist, Tamil/Hindu, and Muslims.

The 1981 census reported that 69 percent of the population considered themselves Buddhists, 15 percent Hindus, 8 percent Muslims, and 8 percent Christians. In practice, however, there is a degree of blending between these practices as well as an incorporation of ancient indigenous and astrological beliefs.

Sri Lankan Buddhists and Hindus, in particular, share a number of foundational beliefs and ritual practices. The moral codes of both of these religious traditions recommend moderation and restraint, Hindus stressing the discipline of one's behavior and Buddhists advocating "the middle path." In both, the concept of karma and rebirth are central, ideas that posit that one's actions in this lifetime determine the kind of life into which one will be reborn through the quantity of merit that one earns. While both Buddhism and Hinduism also propose that one can escape the cycle of rebirth, a goal that is highly elaborated within Buddhism, the acquisition of spiritual merit to gain a better rebirth either for one's self or one's loved ones generates much of the religious activity of the laity. Among the participants in both of these religions, there is also a belief in a broad pantheon of gods, spirits, and demons, into which many local deities have been absorbed. These beings may be male or female, benevolent or malevolent, moral or amoral, but they are all considered subject to the same laws of death and rebirth as other beings. Devotees, including some Muslims and Christians, appeal to these gods to assist them with a variety of (mostly worldly) concerns.

Religious Practitioners. In Sri Lanka, each of the four major religions are served by native religious leaders, although not exclusively; the island is home to training institutions for specialists in each of its organized religions.

The largest and most active group of religious specialists are the members of the Buddhist monkhood, or Sangha, who are ordained for life to follow a path of celibacy committed to the disattachment from worldly life. As temple monks, they provide spiritual guidance to the laity, serve as role models, and act as a source of merit acquisition for those who support them. They do not, however, traditionally play a role in secular matters or life-cycle rituals, except the death rites. Well organized and often in control of fair amounts of property, the Sangha have considerable influence in society, both historically and today.

The priests of the various gods are more independently organized. The ethnicity of the priests depends on their clientele more than the origin of the gods they serve. Tamil Hindu priests are born into their roles, almost traditionally but not exclusively coming from the Brahman caste. Sinhala Buddhist priests, who serve many of the same gods, are drawn from the laity and are increasingly likely to be women.

Members of both the Buddhist and Hindu laity also play a variety of specialized religious roles as mediators, renunciates who withdraw from worldly pursuits, and other kinds of adepts.

Rituals and Holy Places. Sri Lanka is home to many sacred sites visited by foreigners and locals alike. Kandy's Sri Dalada Maligawa, which houses the Tooth Relic of the Buddha, is an active temple complex that is the ritual center of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. During this temple's annual perahera season, the Tooth Relic is paraded through the torch-lit streets, accompanied by dancers, drummers, and elephants. While this is the island's largest perahera, or religious procession, other temples around the island host their own at different times of the year.

Death and the Afterlife. Death ceremonies are quite elaborate in Sri Lanka, usually conducted by the families of the deceased in conjunction with religious officiants. Bodies are first embalmed in a secular, medical process and then returned to the families for funeral rites involving the gathering of extended family and the sharing of food, followed by either burial or cremation. Among Buddhists and Hindus the body is kept in the ancestral home for as long as a week while a variety of rituals are performed to give merit to the deceased in order to ensure a good rebirth. A series of purification rituals are also performed to protect the family members from the pollution from the body. White is the color associated with funerals, except for monks whose death is marked with yellow. Following a death, white banners, flags, and other decorations are put up according to the status of the deceased. Anniversaries of a death are also marked by rituals performed by family members.

Medicine and Health Care

The quality of life in Sri Lanka is among the highest in the developing world based on indicators such as its average life expectancy of seventy years, a relatively low infant mortality rate, and a well-developed infrastructure that provides safe drinking water and latrines to at least two-thirds of its inhabitants, an adequate food supply, and an extensive network of health-care providers.

In Sri Lanka, several different types of health systems are available. The state's free and universal health-care system includes Western allopathic medicine as well as South Asian Ayurvedic treatments. In addition, there are a variety of private clinics offering Western and Ayurvedic services, indigenous herbal specialists, and ritual healers. In general, people do not see these various health systems as mutually exclusive or contradictory, simultaneously accessing different systems for the same or different types of ailments.

Dosha, which loosely translates as "troubles," is the central concept that integrates these various health systems. Within Ayurveda, the concept refers to the physical and emotional problems resulting from imbalances in the body humors of heat, coolness, and wind. But the concept of Dosha is much broader in the folk system, referring to all kinds of problems including financial, academic, and social difficulties. Imbalances may result from food, spirit attack, or contact with some other extreme and may require different treatment approaches available from the different health systems.

Although there is a certain amount of popular knowledge about illness prevention, diagnosis, and treatment derived from these different systems, each is primarily administered by trained practitioners. Doctors, nurses, and other health-care workers are trained in modern Western allopathic medicine through Sri Lanka's university system as well as in foreign institutions. Ayurvedic doctors are trained in university-affiliated colleges in Sri Lanka and India. Indigenous herbal medical training is passed through apprenticeship from father to son. Different types of healing rituals are also conducted by experts—such as exorcists, drummers and other caste-based professionals, and priests and priestess of the gods—sometimes in consultation with astrologers.

Secular Celebrations

All Saturdays and Sundays are public holidays, as is the Poya Day of each month which marks the full moon. Independence Day on 4 February and May Day on 1 May are also public holidays. During April, the island largely shuts down for a week as its Sinhala and Tamil residents celebrate the traditional new year, the exact day of which is determined by astrologers. In addition, the major Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and Christian days are also reserved as public holidays.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. Whether nationally acclaimed or only locally recognized, Sri Lankan artists are primarily supported by the clients who commission or purchase their work. In addition, some larger corporations sponsor particular projects and the government gives some small stipends and positions of honor to notable artists.

Literature. Sri Lanka has a long and prolific history of written as well as oral literature. As early as the fifth century C.E. , both Sinhala and Tamil writers were recording histories and religious stories, as well as writing on more secular topics. This tradition continues today as fiction writers, poets, playwrights, and journalists write in all three of the nation's languages; some of their works have been translated into other languages as well. However, Sri Lanka's university and public libraries, once reputed to be the best in South Asia, are underfunded and poorly maintained as a result of increased budgetary constraints since 1977.

Graphic Arts. Religious topics and institutions heavily influence Sri Lanka's statuary and pictorial art. Local handicrafts, encouraged during the socialist days, have been challenged by less expensive imports since 1977. Some of these traditional handicrafts, such as pottery and basket weaving, are caste-based activities and tend to be more utilitarian than decorative. Others, such as wood carving, are highly ornate and well respected in international as well as local markets.

Performance Arts. Performance is the most vibrant of all art forms in Sri Lanka, particularly drumming and dancing. All fully professional theater productions are performed in a ritual context, although there is also modern, secular theater which is semiprofessional. There are also numerous forms of music produced and appreciated on the island including traditional drumming, religious chanting, work songs, South Asian and Western classical music, as well as contemporary popular music and film songs from national artists and abroad. Although appealing to different sections of the community, performances of all types are typically well-attended in Sri Lanka.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Sri Lanka's medical, engineering, and sociological fields are internationally respected although they are challenged by lack of funding and the loss of many of the best researchers to foreign institutions. Additionally, the switch from English to the vernacular languages in the social science departments of the universities has made it difficult for scholars to participate in an international exchange of ideas.

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Spencer, Jonathan. A Sinhala Village in a Time of Trouble: Politics and Change in Rural Sri Lanka, 1990.

——, ed. Sri Lanka: History and Roots of the Conflict, 1990.

Tambiah, S. J. Buddhism Betrayed? Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka, 1992.

Yalman, Nur. Under the Bo Tree: Studies in Caste, Kinship, and Marriage in the Interior of Ceylon, 1967.

—B AMBI L. C HAPIN AND K ALINGA T UDOR S ILVA

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Cultural Diversity in Sri Lanka

Prepare to be captivated by the mesmerizing blend of cultural diversity that thrives in Sri Lanka. This enchanting island nation, with its multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates a rich tapestry of traditions and customs. From the distinct practices of the Sinhalese, Tamil, Muslim, Burgher, and Malay communities to the vibrant array of languages spoken and the variety of clothing styles adorning its people, Sri Lanka is a true testament to the beauty of diversity. Immerse yourself in the colorful mosaic that defines the vibrant and harmonious Sri Lankan culture.

Distinct Cultural Traditions

In Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese and Tamil communities, comprising the majority of the population, proudly preserve their distinct cultural traditions. The Sinhalese, steeped in a rich history, enchant with the grace and elegance of traditional Kandyan dance, while the melodious tunes of Sinhala music resonate through the air. Marvel at the timeless beauty of intricate wood carvings, showcasing their craftsmanship and artistic finesse. Meanwhile, the Tamil community adds its own unique flair, captivating audiences with vibrant Bharatanatyam dance performances and soulful Tamil music that stirs the depths of one’s soul. Witness the artistry and skill reflected in the intricately woven fabrics of their traditional attire, a testament to their attention to detail and creativity. Amidst these cultural treasures, Sri Lanka becomes a treasure trove of diverse artistic expressions, inviting all to immerse themselves in a world where beauty knows no boundaries.

Language as a Cultural Identity

Languages serve as vital pillars of cultural identity in Sri Lanka, bridging the past and present. Sinhala, the language of the Sinhalese community, and Tamil, spoken by the Tamil community, hold official status in the country. They are the threads that weave together the rich tapestry of heritage and history. These languages safeguard traditions and enable the transmission of cultural values. As a result, they create a profound connection, fostering a sense of belonging and unity within their respective communities. Through the diverse linguistic landscape, Sri Lanka proudly celebrates its cultural heritage and embraces the power of language as a conduit of collective memory and identity.

Diversity in Clothing

Traditional clothing in Sri Lanka varies across ethnic communities, reflecting their cultural distinctiveness. The vibrant saris worn by Sinhalese women, adorned with intricate patterns and colors, symbolize femininity and grace. Tamil women, on the other hand, showcase their cultural identity through elegant and vibrant sarees, often complemented by intricately embroidered blouses. These clothing traditions are a visual testament to the diversity that thrives in Sri Lanka.

Religious Customs and Rituals

Within the vibrant cultural landscape of Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese and Tamil communities stand tall, diligently preserving their unique heritage. The Sinhalese, deeply connected to their rich history, captivate audiences with the elegance of traditional Kandyan dance, the enchanting melodies of Sinhala music, and the intricate mastery of wood carvings that tell stories of generations past. Meanwhile, the Tamil community adds its own vibrant touch, enthralling onlookers with the rhythmic grace of Bharatanatyam dance and the soul-stirring melodies of Tamil music. Adorned in resplendent attire, their garments intricately woven, they radiate the beauty of their cultural identity. As one delves into this cultural treasure trove, Sri Lanka reveals itself as a captivating realm of artistic expressions, beckoning all to immerse in its boundless beauty and experience the splendor of a diverse and enchanting heritage.

Harmony in Diversity

Sri Lankans embrace harmony and coexistence amidst diversity. Festivals unite communities in mutual respect. Culinary fusion thrives with traditional dishes from diverse backgrounds. Celebrations showcase admiration for each other’s traditions. The intermingling of cultures creates a vibrant tapestry of coexistence in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka takes pride in its diverse cultural fabric, uniting people of different ethnicities and religions. Sinhalese and Tamil communities exhibit unique traditions through language, attire, and customs. Muslim, Burgher, and Malay communities contribute with their distinct practices. This harmonious coexistence exemplifies the resilience and inclusivity of Sri Lankan culture. Celebrating its diversity, Sri Lanka becomes an inspiring model of cultural unity for the world to admire.

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An Introduction to History & Culture of Sri Lanka

2011, History Journal

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Essay on Sri Lankan Culture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Sri Lankan Culture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Sri Lankan Culture

Sri lanka: a tapestry of tradition.

Sri Lanka, an island nation nestled in the Indian Ocean, boasts a vibrant and diverse culture shaped by its rich history, geography, and ethnic diversity. Its people, warm and hospitable, celebrate life with zeal, embracing traditions passed down through generations.

A Symphony of Flavors

Sri Lankan cuisine is a harmonious blend of local and foreign influences, reflecting the island’s diverse history. Rice, the staple food, is accompanied by curries brimming with spices, coconut milk, and fresh vegetables. From fiery curries to delicate sweets, Sri Lankan dishes tantalize taste buds with an array of flavors.

Vibrant Festivals and Arts

Sri Lanka’s cultural heritage shines brightly during its many festivals and celebrations. Traditional dances, colorful costumes, and lively music fill the air as communities come together to honor their traditions. From the grandeur of Kandy Esala Perahera to the rhythmic beats of traditional drumming, Sri Lankan art forms captivate audiences with their beauty and energy.

A Legacy of Craftsmanship

Sri Lanka’s artisans possess remarkable skills, crafting exquisite works of art that reflect the island’s cultural heritage. From intricate wood carvings and delicate pottery to intricate handloom textiles, their creations showcase the dedication and skill that have been passed down through generations.

A Tapestry of Faiths

250 words essay on sri lankan culture, the warm hospitality.

The people of Sri Lanka are known for their warmth and hospitality. They welcome visitors with open arms and go out of their way to make them feel at home. Sri Lankans are always willing to help others, and they are always happy to share their culture and traditions with visitors.

The Rich History

Sri Lanka is a country with a rich and diverse history. The island has been inhabited for thousands of years, and many different civilizations have left their mark there. Visitors can explore the ancient ruins of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, or visit the historic city of Kandy.

The Stunning Natural Beauty

Sri Lanka is a land of stunning natural beauty. It is home to lush rainforests, pristine beaches, and towering mountains. The island is also home to a wide variety of plant and animal life. Visitors can go on safaris in the national parks, go hiking in the mountains, or simply relax on the beach.

The Diverse Culture

Sri Lanka is a diverse country, home to many different cultures and religions. The main ethnic groups are the Sinhalese and the Tamils, but there are also many other smaller groups. The various cultures of Sri Lanka are reflected in the country’s food, music, and dance.

The Conclusion

Sri Lanka is a fascinating and beautiful country with something to offer everyone. From its warm hospitality to its stunning natural beauty, Sri Lanka is a destination that will stay with you long after you leave.

500 Words Essay on Sri Lankan Culture

Sri lankan cuisine: a culinary symphony, sri lankan dance: a rhythmic extravaganza.

Sri Lankan dance is an expression of the country’s vibrant culture and heritage. Traditional dances like Kandyan Dancing, originating from the hill country, are characterized by elaborate costumes, intricate footwork, and graceful movements. They tell stories of mythology, history, and daily life. The energetic and colorful fire dance, known as Fire Devils, is a captivating spectacle, while the rhythmic beats of the drums accompany the mesmerizing movements of the dancers.

Sri Lankan Festivals: A Celebration of Life

Sri Lanka is known for its vibrant festivals that reflect the country’s diverse religious and cultural traditions. The Sinhala and Tamil New Year, celebrated in April, marks the beginning of the new year with feasts, music, games, and traditional rituals. Vesak, the festival of lights, commemorates the birth, enlightenment, and passing away of Lord Buddha and is celebrated with colorful lanterns, processions, and acts of kindness. Deepavali, the festival of lights, is celebrated by the Hindu community with oil lamps, fireworks, and traditional sweets.

Traditional Sri Lankan Dress: Elegance and Simplicity

Sri lankan crafts: a showcase of skill and creativity.

Sri Lanka has a long tradition of skilled craftsmanship, evident in its diverse range of handicrafts. Intricate wood carvings, delicate handwoven textiles, and stunning batiks reflect the country’s rich artistic heritage. The intricate designs and motifs tell stories of Sri Lankan culture, history, and mythology. These crafts are not only beautiful but also serve a purpose, from clothing and household items to decorative pieces that adorn homes and temples.

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Ahikunṭika (gypsy) people in sri lanka – grade 9 essay.

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Sri Lankan society is a diverse community of diverse people. Meanwhile, the Ahikuntik people can be described as a community with a unique culture above all others. They are nicknamed “Ahigunthika” because of their “snake dance”. They are considered as an innocent people who migrated from South India to Sri Lanka.

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Sri Lanka - Culture, Etiquette and Business Practices

What will you learn.

You will gain an understanding of a number of key areas including:

• Religion and beliefs
• Culture and society
• Social etiquette and customs
• Business culture and etiquette

Facts and Statistics

Location: Southern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of India

Capital: Colombo

Climate: tropical monsoon; northeast monsoon (December to March); southwest monsoon (June to October)

Population: 21 million (2019 est.)

Ethnic Make-up: Sinhalese 73.8%, Sri Lankan Moors 7.2%, Indian Tamil 4.6%, Sri Lankan Tamil 3.9%, 10.5%

Religion(s): Buddhist 69.1%, Muslim 7.6%, Hindu 7.1%, Christian 6.2%, other 10%

Government:  Republic

You can't understand Sri Lanka without understanding Buddhism. Photo taken in Kandy by Yves Alarie on Unsplash

Language in Sri Lanka

Sinhala (also called Sinhalese or Singhalese) is the mother tongue of the Sinhalese ethnic group which is the largest in Sri Lanka. It belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages.

• Sinhala is spoken by about 16 million people in Sri Lanka, about 13 million of whom are native speakers.
• It is one of the constitutionally-recognised official languages of Sri Lanka, along with Tamil.
• Tamil is a classical language and the oldest of the Dravidian language family and spoken by the Tamil population of Sri Lanka.
• It is also spoken by Tamils in India, Malaysia and Singapore. As of 1996, it was the eighteenth most spoken language, with over 74 million speakers worldwide.

Sri Lankan Culture and Society

• The main religions of Sri Lanka are Buddhism and Hinduism which both have large influences on political, cultural, and social life.
• Generally speaking Buddhists believe people are reincarnated and have several lives.
• In each they learn lessons and should try to better their conduct in each life until they reach
• what is known as "Nirvana".
• Buddhists make five promises: 1. Not to harm or kill any living things. 2. Not to steal or take anything that is not freely given. 3. To control sexual desire. 4. Not to tell lies. 5. Not to drink alcoholic beverages or take drugs.
• Hinduism has two important beliefs, "samsara" (reincarnation and that actions in this life determine the status of the soul in the next incarnation) and "dharma" (caste or social class).
• Hinduism has many deities including Ganesh, Shiva, Vishnu, and Parvatand Kali all of which are aspects of Brahman (the eternal source of everything).
• Religion has both a direct and indirect impact on business. Most predominant is the shared acceptance of fatalism, i.e. that a higher force is in control.
• As a result people will turn to religion when making decisions, etc.

Tea was and still is of major importance to the Sri Lankan economy. Photo taken in Talawakelle by Asantha Abeysooriya on Unsplash

• The influences of Buddhism and Hinduism as well as the caste system have created a culture that operated within a hierarchical system.
• Sri Lankans are conscious of social order and status.
• All relationships, whether in family life or at the office, to some extent involve hierarchies.
• At home the patriarch (the father or oldest male in the household) is considered the leader of the family. In the office, the boss/owner is seen as the source of ultimate responsibility in business. All relationships within these circles are then based on upon people's positions within the hierarchy.
• Face, which can be described as honour or personal dignity, is extremely important to Sri Lankans.
• Face can be given or lost in social situations and it is important to avoid the latter.
• In business, for example, publicly reprimanding or criticising someone would lead to a loss of face for both parties. As a result Sri Lankans are very conscious of protecting their and others' face at all times.
• This manifests in many ways. For example, many Sri Lankans will not feel comfortable making decisions since this may lead to failure which then leads to loss of face. Similarly, if asked a question to which the answer is "no" many Sri Lankans would prefer not to be so blunt and may give rather vague or uncommitted answers in order to avoid losing face.

Etiquette and Manners in Sri Lanka

Meeting and greeting.

• Typical greetings depend on the ethnic group people belong to but as a foreigner you will not be expected to be aware of such differences.
• However one can sum up the main styles of greeting in Sri Lanka:
• The older generation of Sri Lankans will use the "namaste" (palms clasped together as if in prayer at chin level with a slight nod of the head).
• The Sinhalese may say "ayubowan." (may you be blessed with a long life)
• Tamils would say "vanakkam." (may you be blessed with a long life)
• In informal settings you may also hear "kuhomadu" (How do you do?).
• The younger people generally shake hands.
• Many Sri Lankan women will refrain from physical contact with a man outside their family so always wait to see if a woman extends her hand or not.
• When addressing people you should always use the appropriate title followed by the surname. Always wait for the other party to move to a first name basis.

Gift Giving Etiquette

• In Sri Lanka gifts are usually given at birthdays and religions holidays. As a rule gifts are not usually lavish or expensive but symbolic.
• As with other etiquette pointers about Sri Lanka there will be differences due to the ethnic/religious diversity of the country but here are some general gift giving etiquette rules:
• Avoid flowers - they are used in mourning.
• Only give alcohol if you are sure the recipient drinks.
• White or black are the colours of funerals and mourning.
• If the recipient is Muslim avoid pig products, alcohol or any foodstuffs that contain meat (unless "halal")
• Hindus should not be given gifts made of leather. .
• Give and receive gifts with two hands. To demonstrate graciousness, some Sri Lankans will touch their right forearm with their left hand while offering the gift with their right hand.
• Gifts are generally not opened when received.
• Any gift received should be reciprocated.

A fresh Sri Lankan breakfast. Photo taken in Kabalana (Ahangama) by Dinuka Lankaloka on Unsplash

Dining Etiquette

• Sri Lankans enjoy coming together at meal time as a family or with friends.
• If you are invited somewhere at 7pm to eat it is likely you may wait a few hours before the food arrives, so don't go with an empty belly.
• Wait to be shown your seat. There is often a protocol to be followed.
• You may be asked if you would like to wash your hands before and after sitting down to a meal. You should take up the offer.
• Depending on the situation you may be served food on to your plate or be expected to serve yourself.
• Keep elbows off the table.
• Use your right hands to eat.
• Use bread or small balls of rice to scoop food off your plate.
• You may be offered or served second helpings. If you do not want more and it has already been put on your plate, there is no need to eat it.
• Leaving a small amount of food on your plate indicates that you have eaten you full. Finishing all your food means that you are still hungry.
• Expect to leave within half an hour after the meal ends. Most socializing occurs before the meal.

Business Culture and Etiquette in Sri Lanka

If you're looking for expert help and advice on doing business in Sri Lanka, then this is what we do!

Click here to learn more about our customized cultural training .

Sri Lankan business etiquette can be rather formal. Always remember that as a guest you will be given some leeway in terms of appreciating all the cultural nuances, but it is still best to try and adhere to some of the local customs.

• Shaking hands is the most common form of greeting.
• Handshakes are firm.
• Greetings are given upon meeting and leaving.
• Men may shake hands with other men and women may shake hands with other women.
• Many Sri Lankan women may not want to shake hands with men. Wait for a woman to extend her hand.
• As with most hierarchical cultures, Sri Lankans use titles.
• If someone does not have a professional title, use the honorific title "Sir" or "Madam".
• Titles are used with the person's name or the surname. 
• Wait to be invited before using someone's first name.

Business Card Etiquette

• Business cards are usually exchanged after an initial handshake and greeting.
• Titles and qualifications are important so be sure to add them to your card.
• Having one side of your business card translated into Sinhala or Tamil is a nice touch but not crucial.
• Always present your business card with two hands.
• Treat people's business cards with respect - so keep don't put them into pockets, draw on them or use them in any manner that may be disrespectful.

A shop in the water - a nice insight into the adaptability of Sri Lankan business culture. Photo taken in Colombo by Kon Karampelas on Unsplash

Communication

• Maintaining face is important for all communication.
• Do not put people in awkward positions or under pressure. Never openly criticise people.
• Sri Lankans are very non-confrontational in their communication style and it is important to try and read between the lines. They may say one thing but mean another and it is up to the listener to work out the message.
• Watch for long pauses, avoidance of eye contact or blatant tactics of evasion.

Business Meetings

• As relationships are so important for business it is always wise to invest time in relationship-building conversations at the start of any meetings.
• The Sri Lankans will want to feel at ease with you and at least have a small bit of background about you before they will feel comfortable doing business or discussing business with you.
• In fact a first meeting with a company should be approached as purely a relationship building exercise.
• Prior to a meeting it may be worth while sending some background information on your company, the attendees and an agenda for the meeting.
• Meetings may be interrupted by other business but this should not be interpreted as rude in any way.
• Initial meetings will usually take place with middle ranking personnel who gather information to present to the decision maker. Getting to the decision maker through them is based on establishing good rapport and having a solid proposal.
• Remember only the top level person at a company will usually make decisions so be patient and do your best to meet the person face-to-face.
• Read our guide to Sri Lankan Management Culture for more detailed information on this topic.

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Sri Lankan Culture: A Rich and Diverse Heritage

Culture of Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan Culture is one of the most diverse and unique cultures in the world. It has been shaped by centuries of history and religion, and it is reflected in the country’s art, architecture, food, and festivals.

One of the most prominent features of Sri Lankan Culture is its colorful festivals. These festivals are often religious in nature, and they celebrate the important events in the Buddhist, Hindu, and Islamic calendars. Some of the most popular festivals include the Sinhala and Tamil New Year, the Esala Perahera , and the Vesak Festival.

Religion plays an important role in Sri Lankan Culture. The majority of Sri Lankans are Buddhist, and Buddhism has had a profound influence on the country’s culture. Other important religions in Sri Lanka include Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity.

Sri Lankan Culture is also reflected in the country’s art, architecture, and sculptures. The ancient city of Anuradhapura is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and it is home to some of the most impressive examples of Sri Lankan art and architecture.

Quick Links To Explore

Sri Lankan Culture is also known for its delicious food. The country’s cuisine is a blend of Indian, Chinese, and European influences, and it features a wide variety of flavors and ingredients.

Sri Lankan Culture is a vibrant and dynamic culture that is constantly evolving. It is a culture that is rich in history, religion, and art, and it is a culture that is sure to continue to fascinate visitors for generations to come.

One of the main features of Sri Lankan Culture is its Indian and European influences. The Indian influence is evident in the country’s language, religion, and art. The Sinhalese language is closely related to the Indian language of Pali, and Buddhism is the majority religion in Sri Lanka. Indian culture has also influenced Sri Lankan art, architecture, and dance.

The European influence in Sri Lanka is a result of centuries of colonization. The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in the 16th century, followed by the Dutch and the British. These European powers brought their own cultures to Sri Lanka, which have had a lasting impact on the country’s culture.

Hospitality is also one of the prominent characteristics of Sri Lankan Culture. Sri Lankans are known for their warm hospitality, and they are always happy to welcome visitors to their country. This hospitality is a reflection of the country’s rich culture, which is a blend of Indian, European, and Sinhalese influences.

Related reading: 8 Reasons to Visit Sri Lanka

Indigenous medicine (Ayurveda)

Ayurveda is a traditional system of medicine that originated in India. It is based on the belief that health is a balance of the body’s three doshas: vata, pitta, and kapha. Ayurveda uses a variety of treatments, including herbs, massage, and yoga, to restore balance and promote health.

Ayurveda is a major part of Sri Lankan culture, and it is said to be able to cure even terminal diseases such as cancer. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in Ayurveda among tourists, and there are now many Ayurveda spas and clinics in Sri Lanka that cater to tourists.

Ayurvedic tourism

Ayurvedic tourism is a growing trend, and sri lanka is one of the most popular destinations for ayurvedic tourism. visitors to sri lanka can experience a variety of ayurvedic treatments, including massages, yoga, and herbal baths. they can also learn about the principles of ayurveda and how it can be used to promote health and well-being., sri lankan cuisine.

One of the most important aspects of Sri Lankan Culture is its cuisine. Sri Lankan cuisine is one of the most diverse and delicious cuisines in the world. It is a fusion of Indian, Chinese, and European influences, and it features a wide variety of flavors and ingredients.

The most popular Sri Lankan dishes include rice and curry, kottu roti, and string hoppers. Rice and curry is a staple food in Sri Lanka, and it consists of rice served with a variety of curries. Kottu roti is a stir-fried dish that is made with roti, vegetables, and meat or fish. String hoppers are a type of noodle that is made from rice flour.

Sri Lankan cuisine is also known for its use of spices. The most common spices used in Sri Lankan cuisine include chili peppers, curry leaves, turmeric, and cinnamon. These spices give Sri Lankan food its unique flavor and aroma.

Suggested Reading: Top 22 Most Popular Sri Lankan Foods You Should Try

In addition to being delicious, Sri Lankan cuisine is also very healthy. Many Sri Lankan dishes are made with fresh vegetables and fruits, and they are often cooked in a healthy way. For example, rice and curry is often cooked in a clay pot, which helps to retain the nutrients in the food.

Another great thing about Sri Lankan cuisine is that it is very versatile. There are many different ways to cook the same dish, which means that you can always find a way to make it to your liking. For example, there are many different ways to cook kottu roti, so you can experiment with different ingredients and flavors until you find the perfect combination for you.

Whether you are looking for a delicious and healthy meal or a new culinary experience, Sri Lankan cuisine is sure to please. With its wide variety of flavors and ingredients, there is something for everyone to enjoy.

Sri Lankan Culture and Cuisine

Sri Lankan Culture is a rich and diverse culture that is reflected in the country’s cuisine. The use of spices, the variety of flavors, and the versatility of the dishes all contribute to the unique and delicious cuisine of Sri Lanka.

If you are looking for a delicious and healthy meal, or a new culinary experience, then Sri Lanka is the perfect place for you. With its wide variety of flavors and ingredients, there is something for everyone to enjoy in Sri Lankan cuisine.

Related reading: Herbs and Spices of Sri Lanka

Visual and Performing Arts in Sri Lankan Culture

Art, music, drama, and architecture are all important aspects of Sri Lankan Culture. Art has played an integral part in the history of Sri Lanka, providing a figurative gold mine for archaeologists and anthropologists. Art speaks volumes about the Sri Lankan way of life, from castles to frescoes. Art chronicles the country’s history and culture, leaving people filled with wonder, reverence, and respect.

Visual Arts

The visual arts in Sri Lankan Culture are a rich and diverse tradition. The country’s art has been influenced by a variety of cultures, including Indian, Chinese, and European. Some of the most famous examples of Sri Lankan art include the Sigiriya frescoes, the Polonnaruwa sculptures, and the Kandyan dance.

Performing Arts

The performing arts in Sri Lankan Culture are also a vibrant and diverse tradition. The country’s performing arts include a variety of forms, such as music, dance, and theater. Some of the most popular forms of performing art in Sri Lanka include the traditional Kandyan dance , the folk music of the hill country, and the Sinhala and Tamil cinema.

Architecture

The architecture in Sri Lankan Culture is a blend of Indian, European, and Sinhalese influences. Some of the most impressive examples of Sri Lankan architecture include the ancient city of Anuradhapura, the rock fortress of Sigiriya , and the colonial city of Galle .

Tea in Sri Lankan Culture

Tea is an integral part of Sri Lankan Culture. It is one of the biggest and best tea producers in the world, and tea is often offered to guests as a sign of hospitality. In fact, it is said that the British Royal Family drinks Ceylon Tea (Sri Lankan Tea).

Tea is believed to have been introduced to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese in the 16th century. However, it was not until the 19th century that tea production really took off in Sri Lanka. The British, who ruled Sri Lanka at the time, saw the potential of the tea industry and invested heavily in it.

Today, Sri Lanka is one of the world’s leading tea producers. The country produces a variety of teas, including black tea, green tea, and white tea. Sri Lankan tea is known for its high quality and its unique flavor.

Tea is an important part of Sri Lankan Culture in many ways. It is a symbol of hospitality, it is a source of income for many people, and it is a part of the country’s rich history.

Education in Sri Lanka Culture

Sri Lanka is one of the few countries in the world that offers free education to all citizens, from primary school to doctorate level. This commitment to education has helped to make Sri Lanka one of the most literate countries in South Asia, with a literacy rate of 97%.

The Sri Lankan education system is based on the British model, and it is divided into three levels: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary school lasts for five years, secondary school lasts for seven years, and tertiary education can last for up to six years.

The Sri Lankan government provides free textbooks, uniforms, and transportation to all students enrolled in public schools. The government also provides scholarships to students who want to pursue higher education.

The high literacy rate in Sri Lanka is a testament to the country’s commitment to education. Education is seen as a valuable asset in Sri Lanka, and it is believed that education can help to improve people’s lives.

Sports in Sri Lankan Culture

Sri Lanka is a country with a rich sporting culture. The most popular sport in Sri Lanka is cricket, followed by volleyball, rugby, aquatic sports, and motor sports.

Cricket: Cricket is the most popular sport of Sri Lanka, and the national team has achieved great success in recent years. The team won the Cricket World Cup in 1996, and they have also won the ICC Champions Trophy twice.

Volleyball: Volleyball is also a popular sport in Sri Lanka, and the national team has qualified for the FIVB Volleyball World Championship several times.

Rugby: Rugby is a growing sport in Sri Lanka, and the national team has qualified for the Rugby World Cup once.

Aquatic sports: Aquatic sports such as swimming, diving, and water polo are also popular in Sri Lanka. The country has produced some world-class swimmers, including Duncan White and Julian Paul.

Motor sports: Motor sports such as Formula racing, motorcycle racing, and car racing are also gaining popularity in Sri Lanka. The country has hosted several international motor racing events, and there are a number of talented Sri Lankan drivers competing on the world stage.

In addition to these popular sports, there are a number of other sports that are played in Sri Lanka, such as football, basketball, and tennis. The country has a strong sporting tradition, and it is likely to continue to produce world-class athletes in the years to come.

Suggested reading: A Fun Guide to Water Sports in Sri Lanka During the Summer

Sri Lankan Martial Arts

Sri Lanka has a rich tradition of martial arts, with two main styles: Chenna Di and Angampora. Chenna Di is a more modern style, while Angampora is a traditional style that has been practiced for centuries.

Chenna Di is a stick fighting style that is similar to Filipino martial arts such as Kali and Escrima. It is characterized by its use of long sticks and its emphasis on speed and agility. Chenna Di is a popular sport in Sri Lanka, and there are many competitions held each year.

Angampora is a more traditional martial art that is based on the use of unarmed strikes, grappling, and weapons. It is a highly effective fighting style, but it is also very demanding. Angampora practitioners must undergo many years of training before they can master the art.

In recent years, there has been a decline in the number of Angampora practitioners. This is due in part to the fact that the art is very difficult to learn, and it also takes a long time to master. However, there are still a number of dedicated Angampora practitioners who are committed to preserving the art.

Both Chenna Di and Angampora are important parts of Sri Lankan culture. They are a reflection of the country’s rich history and martial tradition, and they continue to be practiced by people of all ages.

Here is some more information about Sri Lankan culture:

Sri Lankan Language

The official languages of Sri Lanka are Sinhala and Tamil. Sinhala is the language of the majority Sinhalese people, while Tamil is the language of the majority Tamil people. There are also a number of other minority languages spoken in Sri Lanka, including English, Hindi, and Malay.

Sri Lankan Etiquette

Sri Lankan culture is very polite and respectful. When meeting someone for the first time, it is customary to shake hands and exchange greetings. It is also considered polite to remove your shoes before entering a temple or other religious building.

Sri Lankan Dress

The traditional dress of Sri Lanka varies depending on the ethnic group. The Sinhalese people typically wear sarongs and saris, while the Tamil people typically wear dhotis and lungis. Western clothing is also commonly worn in Sri Lanka.

FAQs about Sri Lankan Culture

What are the main religions in sri lanka.

The main religions in Sri Lanka are Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Buddhism is the majority religion, followed by Hinduism. Islam is the third largest religion, and Christianity is the fourth largest religion.

What are some of the most popular festivals in Sri Lanka?

Some of the most popular festivals in Sri Lanka include:

• The Sinhala and Tamil New Year (April)
• The Esala Perahera (July/August)
• The Vesak Festival (May)
• The Navratri Festival (September/October)
• The Christmas and New Year’s Eve (December)

What are some of the most popular foods in Sri Lanka?

Some of the most popular foods in Sri Lanka include:

• Rice and curry
• String hoppers
• Eggplant curry

What are some of the most popular tourist destinations in Sri Lanka?

Some of the most popular tourist destinations in Sri Lanka include:

• The Cultural Triangle (Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, and Sigiriya)
• The Hill Country (Nuwara Eliya, Kandy, and Ella)
• The East Coast ( Trincomalee , Batticaloa, and Arugam Bay )
• The West Coast (Galle, Hikkaduwa , and Mirissa)
• The South Coast (Weligama, Unawatuna , and Mirissa)

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Culture - Sri Lanka

Culture of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is one of the few countries with a very vast and rich cultural diversity. The culture is itself very unique and thereby contributes to the Sri Lankan identity. Sri Lankan culture includes a lot of customs and rituals, whish date to more than 2000 years which were handed down from generation to generation. The most prominent feature of the Sri Lankan is its colourful festivals , which is one of the main tourist attractions. Religion plays an important role in molding the Sri Lankan culture and traditions.

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Sri Lankan culture if often reflected by the use of art, architecture, sculptures ,and even food. Some people would say that Sri Lanka has a more conventional culture which is obviously influenced by the prominent religions prevailing the country such as buddhism, hinduism, islam , etc. The Sri Lankan way of life is very simple and filled with humility and happiness , this is one of the reasons why the Sri Lankans have a very great sense in appreciating the simple things in life such as nature.

One of the main features of the culture is its Indian and Europen influence. Since most of the time Sri Lankan kings married Indian princesses they incorporated Indian culture into ours but still preserving the unique Sri Lankan identity. The European influence was a result of invasion from the Dutch and Portugese and finally the British. Hospitality is also one of the prominent characteristics of the culture, making Sri Lankans one of the friendly nations in the world.

Indigenous medicine ( ayuruvedic )

Indigenous medicine is also a huge part of the culture which even has said to be able to cure terminal diseases such as cancer. These days in Sri Lanka a lot of ayuruvedic spas and clinics are open for tourists who visit the country , which is also considered as one of the major tourist ( recreational ) attractions.

Sri Lankan Cuisine

The most vital part ( for all the food –lovers ) that dominates our culture is our mouth-watering , exotic food. The recipes might have abit of Indian influence upon it but still it is very unique in its own way. Most of vegetable and fruits dat are used for cooking are sometimes only found in Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan food culminates a variety of spices which integrates the exotic taste of the food. Besides the fact that the food is delicious it is widely believed that the food is made in such a way that provides for a very heathly life style. The best part of the cuisine is that its very versatile, where there are a lot of ways to cook one particular dish, which is great for avoiding monotony.

Visual and Performance Arts

Art, music, drama and even architectire also is a part of the cultural fusion. Art plays an integral part in the history of Sri Lanka providing a figurative gold mine to archeologists and anthropologists since art speaks a lot about the Sri Lankan way of life. From castles to frescoes art itself chronicles the history and culture leaving people filled with wonder , reverence and respect.

Sri Lanka is one of the biggest and best tea producers of tea. Tea is an integral part of the culture since it goes hand in hand with hospitality, every household offers tea to guests everytime, no exceptions. It has been said thet the British Royal Family drinks Sri Lankan Tea.

Sri Lanka is one of the handful of countries that offers free education to children even upto higher education such as doctorates. Because of this reason Sri Lanka has a boasting literacy rate of 97%, a suprisingly high rate for a South-East Asian Country.

The national sport is volleyball however Sri Lanka has done extremely well in cricket bagging the ICC World Cup in 1996. Rugby , aquatic and motor sports follow next in popularity after the former two sports.

Sri Lankan Martial Arts

There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, these are Cheena di and Angampora. Chenna Di is more popular of the two whereas Angampora shows a decline in students each year due to the fact of the length of time to master the art.

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Folk stories in Sri Lanka

The folk story is a tale passed down from generation to generation typically by verbally, unwritten literature about myths, fairy tales, traditional beliefs, fables, and cultural practice among peoples handed down between generations by telling stories to each other out loud.

Srilanka is a country that has great Historial records and a great civilization and a rich culture dates back to thousands of years. So it was blessed with good oral and written literature. Many of the folk stories in Srilanka have buildup by illustrating this historical value. Below you can find some folk stories popular in Sri Lanka.

Maha Sona the demon, aka Ritigala Jayasena

Maha Sona is a fearsome demon in Sinhalese folklore, most powerfull demon second to none, who is believed to haunt afterlife especially on graveyards surrounded by human corpses, large rocks and hills, and Junctions where three roads meet, are the most common haunting grounds of this demon. Demon kills its human prey by crushing their shoulders and also by afflicting illnesses. Usually kills people at night and dusk when confronted alone and leave his mark of a hand embossed on the flesh of the body after this, he also able to possess humans. In such cases, exorcism rituals are performed by Kattadiya (exorcist specialist) to repel the demon.

Origin story

Maha Sona is formally known as Ritigala Jayasena, a human warrior giant who served in King Dutugemunu's army among the 10 great Giants. There was a celebration after the victory from the war between invading king Elara and King Dutugemunu. 10 Great Giants also participated in this ceremony with their family.

Jayasena offended another fierce warrior in a drunken stupor by insulting his beautiful wife. Gotaimbara challenges him for a battle and schedules a date and the time to the fight on a graveyard. On the scheduled day, The fight was started with a grand ceremony. They fought with each other showing their strength.

They schedule the Date and the Time to the fight at an open Graveyard. On the scheduled day, The fight was started with a grand ceremony. They fought with each other showing their strength. Gotaimbara decapitates Jayasena by a single flying kick on to Jayasena's head.

Seen the embarrassing situation of Jayasen, a deity called "Wesamuni" took pity and tries to resurrect before cadaver goes cold, the deity couldn't find his head on time. Time is passed, there is no more time left before the body goes cold forever. In the chaos of finding Jayasena's head, the deity found a bear head in a hurry and fits the bear head backward to Jayasena's body and revives him with grotesque form, he also gave him some supernatural powers to the newly born demon.

People who encountered him terrified to the point of falling ill mostly because he was found on graveyards. This new persona is dubbed as 'Maha Sona' meaning in Sinhala "Great Demon of the Graveyard".

Andare the royal comedian

In ancient times, there was a comedian in the palace. His name is Andare and his duty was telling funny stories to keep the king smiling. In that period there was a paddy field event to select the best Farmer. One day, a farmer came to the castle to meet the King, to tell a problem he was facing. There was a big stone in the middle of his paddy field, so he couldn't grow paddy for the event. The King commanded the men to remove it. Everybody couldn't move it. But Andare agreed to remove it with some condition. He asked to live in one month wealthy and healthy as a King. So the king granted his request and provide the luxury life he requests for one month.

After one month many people eagerly gathered to see his superhuman work. While everyone watching, he asked four strong men from the King to lift the stone and put it on his back so he can piggyback it to another location. Then the king asks, "you have promised to move the stone! and why you are not doing it by your self?" Andare replied "yes you highness what I promised is, to relocate the stone and I will do it gladly if someone lifts the stone and put it on my back. Everyone laugh, however king himself is a bit angry about his notorious action but forgave him since he did not contradict what he said early.

Queen Vihara Maha Devi

There was a King named Kalantissa who ruled in Kelaniya. According to legend, it is believed that King Kalantissa murdered a high priest of a monk and threw the body into the sea. Because of this wicked reason ocean has flooded. People were scared and went to the King for help. Astrologers told him to sacrifice his most beautiful daughter Devi to the Ocean. It was the only way to save the land.

A Golden Boat was built and Princess Devi was sacrificed to the sea. The sea suddenly turned calm. The Boat went toward Kirinda in down south. The People in Kirinda saw the boat and informed it to King Kawantissa. He went to see this beautiful lady from the Sea. He took princess Devi to his palace. Some times after he fell in love with her and she became his queen and lived happily ever after.

The farmer went to Heaven

There was a Gamarala (farmer) in a village. One day he noted that a wild animal has eaten his crops and learn there were big rounded marks like Wangedi (Rice Motor at the Kitchen) He thought it was Wangedi witchcraft works. He told villagers to tie up their Wangedi and villagers did exactly as he said. The next day when he went to Paddy Field, he saw the same outcome. He decided to keep watch at night, on the dead of the night suddenly a wonderful tusker came to the paddy field and began to eat, the crops when the Elephant tries to leave, he ran and caught it by his tail. Then the elephant takes off to the sky. After a long journey Elephant landed on the beautiful garden above the clouds. The next day he returned with the tusker to the earth and told his unbelievable story to his family that he went to heaven by hanging to the tail of flying elephant. On the following day, his family was ready to go to heaven with him. The Farmer held the elephant's tail then his wife caught farmer's legs and his child and friends also held the other's legs as a chain. When they were flying, the farmer told about the Watermelon in heaven and show it's size to others using his hands. At once, all of them fell off to haystack and the elephant never return.

Kala's Story

In Ancient times in Sri Lankan, King Dhatusena built a great Tank in the Northern Province. There was a boy near this tank called "Kala". On a rainy day while he was walking in the Bank of the Tank he noticed a tiny leak on the Embankment. He noted this tiny leak was increasing. He didn't have enough time to take people to repair. He put his head to the hole and stayed the whole night. He died of this incident. People believe that he was reborn as a God, also the tank was named after Kala by to this day it is called "Kala wewa" (Kala tank)