greek art essay topics

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Ancient Mediterranean + Europe

Course: ancient mediterranean + europe   >   unit 6.

• Ancient Greece, an introduction

Introduction to ancient Greek art

• Contrapposto explained
• Classic, classical, and classicism explained
• Introduction to Greek architecture
• The classical orders
• Greek architectural orders
• Black Figures in Classical Greek Art
• Greek sanctuaries as artistic hubs
• Olympic games
• Victorious athlete: The Vaison Daidoumenos
• Prize amphora showing a chariot race
• A competitor in the long jump
• Sprinter on a vase from Rhodes and a bronze running girl

A shared language, religion, and culture

The dark ages (c. 1100–c. 800 b.c.e.) to the orientalizing period (c. 700–600 b.c.e.), the archaic period (c. 600–480/479 b.c.e.), the classical period (480/479–323 b.c.e.), the hellenistic period and beyond (323 b.c.e.–31 b.c.e.), want to join the conversation.

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Ancient Greek Art

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 23, 2023 | Original: May 17, 2010

In around 450 B.C., the Athenian general Pericles tried to consolidate his power by using public money, the dues paid to Athens by its allies in the Delian League coalition, to support the city-state’s artists and thinkers. Most of all, Pericles paid artisans to build temples and other public buildings in the city of Athens. He reasoned that this way he could win the support of the Athenian people by doling out plenty of construction jobs while building public monuments so grand that people would come from far and wide to see them, increasing Athens’ prestige as well as his own.

The Architecture of Classical Greece

The most noteworthy result of Pericles’ public-works campaign was the magnificent Parthenon , a temple in honor of the city’s patron goddess Athena. The architects Iktinos and Kallikrates and the sculptor Phidias began work on the temple in the middle of the 5th century B.C. The Parthenon was built atop the Acropolis , a natural pedestal made of rock that was the site of the earliest settlements in Athens, and Pericles invited other people to build there as well: In 437 B.C., for example, the architect Mnesikles started to build a grand gateway known as the Propylaia at its western end, and at the end of the century, artisans added a smaller temple for the Greek goddess Athena—this one in honor of her role as the goddess of victory, Athena Nike—along with one for Athena and Erechtheus, an Athenian king. Still, the Parthenon remained the site’s main attraction.

Did you know? Many of the sculptures from the Parthenon are on display at the British Museum in London. They are known as the Elgin Marbles.

Greek Temple Architecture

With its rectangular stone platform, front and back porches (the pronaos and the opisthodomos) and rows of columns, the Parthenon was a commanding example of Greek temple architecture. Typically, the people of ancient Greece did not worship inside their temples as we do today. Instead, the interior room (the naos or the cella) was relatively small, housing just a statue of the deity the temple was built to honor. Worshippers gathered outside, entering only to bring offerings to the statue.

The temples of classical Greece all shared the same general form: Rows of columns supporting a horizontal entablature (a kind of decorative molding) and a triangular roof. At each end of the roof, above the entablature, was a triangular space known as the pediment, into which sculptors squeezed elaborate scenes. On the Parthenon, for example, the pediment sculptures show the birth of Athena on one end and a battle between Athena and Poseidon on the other.

So that people standing on the ground could see them, these pediment sculptures were usually painted bright colors and were arrayed on a solid blue or red background. This paint has faded with age; as a result, the pieces of classical temples that survive today appear to be made of white marble alone.

Proportion and Perspective

The architects of classical Greece came up with many sophisticated techniques to make their buildings look perfectly even. They crafted horizontal planes with a very slight upward U-shape and columns that were fatter in the middle than at the ends. Without these innovations, the buildings would appear to sag; with them, they looked flawless and majestic.

Ancient Greek Sculpture

Not many classical statues or sculptures survive today. Stone statues broke easily, and metal ones were often melted for re-use. However, we know that Greek sculptors such as Phidias and Polykleitos in the 5th century and Praxiteles, Skopas and Lysippos in the 4th century had figured out how to apply the rules of anatomy and perspective to the human form just as their counterparts applied them to buildings. Earlier statues of people had looked awkward and fake, but by the classical period they looked natural, almost at ease. They even had realistic-looking facial expressions.

One of the most celebrated Greek sculptures is the Venus de Milo , carved in 100 B.C. during the Hellenistic Age by the little-known Alexandros of Antioch. She was discovered in 1820 on the island of Melos.

Ancient Greek Pottery

Classical Greek pottery was perhaps the most utilitarian of the era’s art forms. People offered small terra cotta figurines as gifts to gods and goddesses, buried them with the dead and gave them to their children as toys. They also used clay pots, jars and vases for almost everything. These were painted with religious or mythological scenes that, like the era’s statues, grew more sophisticated and realistic over time.

Much of our knowledge of classical Greek art comes from objects made of stone and clay that have survived for thousands of years. However, we can infer that the themes we see in these works–an emphasis on pattern and order, perspective and proportion and man himself–appeared as well in less-durable creations such as ancient Greek paintings and drawings.

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Introduction to ancient Greek art

A shared language, religion, and culture.

Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of  Achilles  and Odysseus ,  to the treatises of Aristotle , from the exacting measurements of the Parthenon  (image above) to the rhythmic chaos of the Laocoön (image below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood ( Clash of the Titans , for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness—prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures—even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon—were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time).

Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocoön and his Sons, early first century C.E., marble, 7’10 1/2″ high (Vatican Museums; photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called poleis or city-states , the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called “Panhellenic” sanctuaries and festivals that embraced “all Greeks” and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.

The Dark Ages (c. 1100–c. 800 B.C.E.)  to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700–600 B.C.E.)

Following the collapse of the Mycenaean citadels of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a “Dark Age” that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as Lefkandi , however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense apsidal structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter’s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period.

Centaur, c. 900 B.C.E. (Proto-Geometric period), terracotta, 14 inches high, the head was found in tomb 1 and the body was found in tomb 3 in the cemetery of Toumba, Lefkandi, Greece (detail of head photo: Dan Diffendale CC BY-NC-SA 2)

Similar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800–700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the Dipylon Amphora ,  with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple Theseus and Ariadne ? Is this an abduction? Perhaps   Paris and Helen ? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had Odysseus and Penelope ? The answer is unattainable.

Late Geometric Attic spouted krater (vessel for mixing water and wine), possibly from Thebes, c. 730 B.C.E., 30.5 cm high (The British Museum, London), photo: Egisto Sani CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

In the Orientalizing Period (700–600 B.C.E.), alongside Near Eastern motifs and animal processions , craftsmen produced more nuanced figural forms and intelligible illustrations. For example, terracotta painted plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c. 625 B.C.E.) are some of the earliest evidence for architectural decoration in Iron Age Greece. Once ornamenting the surface of this Doric temple (most likely as metopes), the extant panels have preserved various imagery (watch this video to learn about the Doric order). On one plaque (see image below), a male youth strides towards the right and carries a significant attribute under his right arm—the severed head of the Gorgon  Medusa (her face is visible between the right hand and right hip of the striding figure). Not only is the painter successful here in relaying a particular story, but also the figure of Perseus shows great advancement from the previous century. The limbs are fleshy, the facial features are recognizable, and the hat and winged boots appropriately equip the hero for fast travel.

Fragment showing Perseus with the head of Medusa likely from a metope from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon, c. 630 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 87.8 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo: ArchaiOptix , CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Archaic Period (c. 600–480/479 B.C.E.)

While Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E.

Visually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture (like this example  of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left). The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like Phrasiklea (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens (for the Acropolis korai, click here ). Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.

Left: Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros , c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 6′ 4″ (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo: Steven Zucker Right: Aristion of Paros, Phrasikleia Kore , c. 550–540 B.C.E. Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo: Asaf Braverman CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

The Classical Period (480/479–323 B.C.E.)

Though experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The “Early Classical Period” (480/479–450 B.C.E., also known as the “Severe Style”) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers. As can be seen in the Kritios Boy , c. 480 B.C.E., the “Severe Style” features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids.  For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the Niobid Painter’s vase in the Louvre (image below).

Niobid Painter, Niobid Krater, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460–50 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Musée du Louvre, Paris; photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

During the “High Classical Period” (450–400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the Acropolis to Polykleitos’ visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the  Doryphoros or “Canon ” (image below). Concurrently, however, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the “Late Classical Period” (400–323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the Apoxyomenos ), the first female nude was produced. Known as the Aphrodite of Knidos,  c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a pudica (or modest Venus) pose (see a Roman copy in the Capitoline Museum in Rome here ). Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the Aphrodite of Knidos became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity.

Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) or The Canon, c. 450–40 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy found in Pompeii of the lost bronze original, 211 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; photo: Steven Zucker , CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E.–31 B.C.E.)

Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides’  Tyche of Antioche   (Louvre), other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon (below) expressions of agony and a confused mass of limbs convey a newfound interest in drama.

Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar, c. 200–150 B.C.E. (Hellenistic Period), 35.64 x 33.4 meters, marble (Pergamon Museum, Berlin)

Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the Temple of Apollo at Didyma , and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seem at the Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos . Upon the defeat of Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E., the Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period came to a close. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.

Bibliography

The Art of classical Greece from the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Greek Art in the Archaic Period on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition on the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.

Richard T. Neer, Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 B.C.E. (Thames and Hudson, 2011).

Robin Osborne, Archaic and Classical Greek Art (Oxford University Press, 1988).

John G. Pedley, Greek Art and Archaeology (Pearson, 2011).

J.J. Pollitt, Art and Experience in Classical Greece (Cambridge University Press, 1972).

Nigel Jonathan Spivey, Greek Art (Phaeton Press, 1997).

Images for teaching and learning

Smarthistory images for teaching and learning:.

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Important fundamentals

Check out our three chapters about ancient Greek art in  Reframing Art History :

Pottery, the body, and the gods in ancient Greece, c. 800–490 B.C.E.

War, democracy, and art in ancient Greece, c. 490–350 B.C.E.

Empire and Art in the Hellenistic world (c. 350–31 B.C.E.)

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Greek Art - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Greek art is known for its beauty, harmony, and balance. It encompasses a range of artistic forms including pottery, sculpture, painting, and architecture. Greek art is characterized by its depictions of human figures, mythological creatures, and scenes from everyday life. It was heavily influenced by the idealized human form, striving for perfection in physical proportions and a sense of universality in mood and emotion. The use of geometric patterns and motifs, such as the Greek key design, was also a common feature in art from this period. The legacy of Greek art continues to have a profound impact on Western art and culture today.

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Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art Essay

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In the course of its history, the culture of Ancient Greece underwent significant transformation. This paper is aimed at discussing these changes by looking at art. In particular, it is necessary to focus on sculptural works that were created between the years 650 and 100 before the Common Era.

These artworks can throw light on the development of Greek art during that period. To some extent, this development could be prompted by international relations of the Greek cities and the philosophical values which emerged in this culture. These are the main factors that should be taken into account.

At first, it is necessary to examine the sculptural works which belong to the archaic period of the Greek culture. In particular, one can mention such artworks as Kleobis and Biton, Dipylon Kouros , and the Moschophoros [1] . They were created during the period 600 and 570 BCE. At that time, Greek sculptors were influenced by the styles and techniques developed in Egypt and the Near East [2] .

For example, the hairdo of the people depicted by sculptors suggests that they could familiar with the culture of Ancient Persia. The viewers can see that the sculptures have anthropomorphic features. In other words, they resemble a human being. Nevertheless, the gender distinctions are not emphasized by the authors. This argument is particularly relevant if one speaks about such a sculpture as the Moschophoros . Overall, these artworks represent the archaic period of the Greek art.

In contrast, one can look at the sculptures created during the classical period. In particular, one can look at such examples as Diadumenos by Polyclitus, Artemision Bronze , or Venus Braschi [3] . It is possible to identify several differences in comparison with the previous group. First of all, the sculptors tried to portray subjects in a more realistic manner.

For example, gender distinctions are clearly visible. Moreover, the artists depicted people in different poses which are rather naturalistic. Yet, the most important aspect is that the authors tried to present an idealized image of a human body. [4] This is probably the main distinction of these artworks since these sculptures set the standards of physical beauty.

These transformations could have been caused by several important factors. In particular, one can mention the Greco-Persian Wars which started in 499. These international conflicts significantly diminished the influence of Persian culture on Greece. The techniques that one can see in the sculptures of the Archaic Period were rejected.

Moreover, the political culture and philosophy of that period set stress on such aspects as human dignity, liberty, and freedom. This is one of the reasons why sculptors tried to create an idealized image of a human being [5] . Therefore, it is possible to say that the transformation of political ideology and philosophy gave rise to artistic changes. These are the main issues that can be identified.

This discussion indicates at several important issues. First of all, Greek sculptors tended to imitate the examples and techniques developed in the Near East and Egypt. In this case, one should focus on the works of the archaic period.

However, this trend declined after the changes in the political and intellectual life of Ancient Greece, especially the growing value of human life. This trends prompted sculptors to portray people in an idealized way. Therefore, one can argue that art is closely related to social and political life in the community.

Picture 1: Kleobis and Biton

Picture 2: Dipylon Kouros

Picture 3 Moschophoros

(Hurwit 27)

Picture 4: Diadumenos by Polyclitus

Picture 5: Artemision Bronze

Picture 6: Venus Braschi

Gardner, Helen, and Fred Kleiner. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A Global History , New York: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Hurwit, John. The Art and Culture of Early Greece: 1100-480 B. C , Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. Print.

Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World , New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009. Print.

• Please, refer to the Appendixes, Pictures 1, 2, and 3
• Hurwit, John. The Art and Culture of Early Greece: 1100-480 B. C ( Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988) 27.
• Appendixes, Pictures 4. 5, and 6.
• Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World , ( New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009) 51.
• Gardner, Helen, and Fred Kleiner. Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A Global History (New York: Cengage Learning, 2012) 122.
• Analysis of ancient sculptures
• History of Ancient Greek
• Greek and Roman Sculpture in the Metropolitan Museum
• Ancient Art of Rome and Greece
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• Modern, Modernism, and Modernization
• Sourcing Sound and Image
• The Historical Development of Fine Arts in Korea from 1950 to Present
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, December 19). Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-art/

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IvyPanda . (2018) 'Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art'. 19 December.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art." December 19, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-art/.

1. IvyPanda . "Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art." December 19, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-art/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Transformation of the Ancient Greece Art." December 19, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-art/.

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Geometric art in ancient greece.

Terracotta krater

Attributed to the Hirschfeld Workshop

Bronze horse

Bronze man and centaur

Terracotta pyxis (box with lid)

Terracotta neck-amphora

Department of Greek and Roman Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2004

The roots of Classical Greece lie in the Geometric period of about ca. 900 to 700 B.C., a time of dramatic transformation that led to the establishment of primary Greek institutions. The Greek city-state (polis) was formed, the Greek alphabet was developed, and new opportunities for trade and colonization were realized in cities founded along the coast of Asia Minor, in southern Italy, and in Sicily. With the development of the Greek city-states came the construction of large temples and sanctuaries dedicated to patron deities, which signaled the rise of state religion. Each polis identified with its own legendary hero. By the end of the eighth century B.C., the Greeks had founded a number of major Panhellenic sanctuaries dedicated to the Olympian gods .

Geometric Greece experienced a cultural revival of its historical past through epic poetry and the visual arts. The eighth century B.C. was the time of Homer, whose epic poems describe the Greek campaign against Troy (the Iliad ) and the subsequent adventures of Odysseus on his return to Ithaca (the Odyssey ). A newly emerging aristocracy distinguished itself with material wealth and through references to the Homeric past. Their graves were furnished with metal objects, innately precious by the scarcity of copper, tin, and gold deposits in Greece.

Evidence for the Geometric culture has come down to us in the form of epic poetry, artistic representation, and the archaeological record. From Hesiod ( Erga  639–40), we assume that most eighth-century B.C. Greeks lived off the land. The epic poet describes the difficult life of the Geometric farmer. There are, however, few archaeological remains that describe everyday life during this period. Monumental kraters, originally used as grave markers, depict funerary rituals and heroic warriors. The presence of fine metalwork attests to prosperity and trade. In the earlier Geometric period, these objects, weapons, fibulae, and jewelry are found in graves—most likely relating to the status of the deceased. By the late eighth century B.C., however, the majority of metal objects are small bronze figurines—votive offerings associated with sanctuaries.

Votive offerings of bronze and terracotta , and painted scenes on monumental vessels attest to a renewed interest in figural imagery that focuses on funerary rituals and the heroic world of aristocratic warriors and their equipment. The armed warrior , the chariot, and the horse are the most familiar symbols of the Geometric period. Iconographically, Geometric images are difficult to interpret due to the lack of inscriptions and the scarcity of identifying attributes. There can be little doubt, however, that many of the principal characters and stories of Greek mythology already existed, and that they simply had not yet received explicit visual form.

Surviving material shows a mastery of the major media—turning, decorating, and firing terracotta vases; casting and cold-working bronze; engraving gems; and working gold. The only significant medium that had not yet evolved was that of monumental stone sculpture—large-scale cult images most likely were constructed of a perishable material such as wood. Instead, powerful bronze figurines and monumental clay vases manifest the clarity and order that are, perhaps, the most salient characteristics of Greek art.

Department of Greek and Roman Art. “Geometric Art in Ancient Greece.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/grge/hd_grge.htm (October 2004)

Further Reading

Coldstream, J. N. Geometric Greece . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1977.

Garland, Robert. The Greek Way of Death . Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1985.

Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary . 3d ed., rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Langdon, Susan, ed. From Pasture to Polis: Art in the Age of Homer . Exhibition catalogue. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993.

Lawrence, A. W. Greek Architecture . 4th ed., rev. by R. A. Tomlinson. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983.

Padgett, J. Michael, ed. The Centaur's Smile: The Human Animal in Early Greek Art . Exhibition catalogue. Princeton: Princeton University Art Museum, 2003.

Pedley, John Griffiths. Greek Art and Archaeology . 2d ed. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998.

Schweitzer, Bernhard. Greek Geometric Art . New York: Phaidon, 1971.

Additional Essays by Department of Greek and Roman Art

• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Classical Cyprus (ca. 480–ca. 310 B.C.) .” (July 2007)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Antonine Dynasty (138–193) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Ancient Greek Dress .” (October 2003)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Death, Burial, and the Afterlife in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Flavian Dynasty (69–96 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Julio-Claudian Dynasty (27 B.C.–68 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Augustan Rule (27 B.C.–14 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Severan Dynasty (193–235 A.D.) .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Egypt .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Copies of Greek Statues .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure Techniques .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Boscoreale: Frescoes from the Villa of P. Fannius Synistor .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Early Cycladic Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Geometric and Archaic Cyprus .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Hellenistic and Roman Cyprus .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Scenes of Everyday Life in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Greek Art in the Archaic Period .” (October 2003)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Symposium in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Roman Painting .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Tanagra Figurines .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Augustan Villa at Boscotrecase .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Cesnola Collection at The Metropolitan Museum of Art .” (October 2004)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ The Roman Republic .” (October 2000)
• Department of Greek and Roman Art. “ Warfare in Ancient Greece .” (October 2000)

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100 Ancient Greece Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Ancient Greece is widely regarded as one of the cradles of Western civilization, with its rich history, culture, and contributions to various fields such as philosophy, literature, art, and politics. Studying Ancient Greece provides a fascinating insight into the roots of our modern society. If you're looking for essay topics on this captivating subject, here are 100 Ancient Greece essay ideas and examples to inspire you:

• The impact of Ancient Greek philosophy on modern thought
• The significance of the city-state in Ancient Greece
• The role of women in Ancient Greek society
• The evolution of democracy in Ancient Greece
• The influence of Ancient Greek mythology on contemporary culture
• Comparing and contrasting Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians
• The importance of the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece
• The role of Greek mythology in Ancient Greek religion
• The influence of Ancient Greek language on modern linguistic developments
• The rise and fall of Ancient Greek city-states
• The impact of Ancient Greek theater on drama and performance today
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek art
• The role of slavery in Ancient Greek society
• The significance of the Parthenon in Ancient Greek architecture
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to medicine
• The role of education in Ancient Greece
• Exploring the concept of heroism in Ancient Greek literature
• The significance of the Battle of Marathon in Ancient Greek history
• The legacy of Alexander the Great in Ancient Greece and beyond
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek poetry
• The impact of Ancient Greek trade and colonization on the Mediterranean region
• The social structure of Ancient Greek society
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek literature
• The influence of Ancient Greek drama on modern theater
• The significance of the Delphic Oracle in Ancient Greek religion
• The development of Greek democracy in Athens
• The contributions of Ancient Greek philosophers to ethical theories
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The impact of Ancient Greek warfare on military strategies
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek politics
• The concept of beauty in Ancient Greek art and culture
• The legacy of Ancient Greek mythology in literature and film
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on Western literary traditions
• The significance of the Trojan War in Ancient Greek mythology
• The role of women in Ancient Greek politics
• The contributions of Ancient Greek architects to urban planning
• The portrayal of love and desire in Ancient Greek poetry
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on Renaissance thinkers
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek daily life
• The impact of Ancient Greek pottery on visual arts
• The significance of the Oracle at Delphi in Ancient Greek society
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of the cosmos
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek literature
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek music
• The impact of Ancient Greek colonization on cultural diffusion
• The legacy of Ancient Greek democracy in modern politics
• The significance of the Battle of Thermopylae in Ancient Greek history
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek art
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to geometry
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek theater
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on Enlightenment thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek temples in religious practices
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek dance
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on storytelling techniques
• The significance of the Oracle at Dodona in Ancient Greek religion
• The contributions of Ancient Greek engineers to technological advancements
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek drama
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on the concept of the afterlife
• The significance of Ancient Greek sculpture in representing the human form
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of celestial bodies
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek mythology
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on existentialist thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek festivals in religious celebrations
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek architecture
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on the development of the novel
• The significance of the Oracle at Delos in Ancient Greek society
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to algebra
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek poetry
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek visual arts
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on moral values
• The significance of Ancient Greek pottery in everyday life
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to medical ethics
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on postmodern thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek sanctuaries in religious rituals
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek literature for children
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on the development of the short story
• The significance of the Oracle at Dodoni in Ancient Greek religion
• The contributions of Ancient Greek engineers to architectural innovation
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek music
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek dance performances
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on burial practices
• The significance of Ancient Greek mosaics in visual arts
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of the solar system
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek drama
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on feminist thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek festivals in promoting social cohesion
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek frescoes
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on oral storytelling traditions
• The significance of the Oracle at Delphi in Ancient Greek politics
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to number theory
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek jewelry
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on concepts of divinity
• The significance of Ancient Greek vases in trade and commerce
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to public health
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek poetry
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on political ideologies

These essay topics provide a wide range of ideas to explore the various aspects of Ancient Greece, allowing you to delve deeper into this fascinating civilization and its enduring influence on the world. Whether you choose to focus on philosophy, mythology, art, or any other aspect, Ancient Greece offers a plethora of captivating topics to research and discuss.

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Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

Summary of Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

Classical Art encompasses the cultures of Greece and Rome and endures as the cornerstone of Western civilization. Including innovations in painting, sculpture, decorative arts, and architecture, Classical Art pursued ideals of beauty, harmony, and proportion, even as those ideals shifted and changed over the centuries. While often employed in propagandistic ways, the human figure and the human experience of space and their relationship with the gods were central to Classical Art. Over the span of almost 1200 years, ideals of human beauty and proportion occupied art's subject. Variations of those ideals were later adopted during the Renaissance in Italy and again during the 18 th and 19 th century Neoclassical trend throughout Europe. Connotations of moral virtue and stability clung to Classical Art, making it attractive to new nations and republics trying to find an aesthetic vocabulary to convey their power, while, later, in the 20 th century it came under attack by modern artists who sought to disrupt and overturn power and traditional ideals.

Key Ideas & Accomplishments

• The idealized human form soon became the noblest subject of art in Greece and was the foundation for a standard of beauty that dominated many centuries of Western art. The Greek ideal of beauty was grounded in a canon of proportions, based on the golden ratio and the ratio of lengths of body parts to each other, which governed the depictions of male and female figures.
• While ideal proportions were paramount, Classical Art strove for ever greater realism in anatomical depictions. This realism also came to encompass emotional and psychological realism that created dramatic tensions and drew in the viewer.
• Greek temple designs started simply and evolved into more complex and ornate structures, but later architects translated the symmetrical design and columned exterior into a host of governmental, educational, and religious buildings over the centuries to convey a sense of order and stability.
• Perhaps a coincidence, but just as increased archaeological digs turned up numerous examples of Greek and Roman art, the field of art history was being developed as a scientific course of study by the likes of Johann Winkelmann. Winkelmann, often considered the father of art history, based his theories of the progression of art on the development of Greek art, which he largely knew only from Roman copies. Since the middle of the 18 th century, art historical and classical tradition have been intimately entwined.
• While Greek and Roman sculpture and ruins are linked with the purity of white marble in the Western mind, most of the works were originally polychrome, painted in multiple, lifelike colors. 18 th century excavations unearthed a number of sculptures with traces of color, but noted art historians dismissed the findings as anomalies. It was only in the late 20 th century that scholars accepted that life-size statues and entire temple friezes were, in fact, brightly painted with numerous colors and decorations, raising many new questions about the assumptions of Western art history and revealing that centuries of classical imitations were not in fact imitations but rather based on nostalgic ideals of the past.

Artworks and Artists of Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

Roman copy 120-50 BCE of original by Polycleitus, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) c. 440 BCE

This work depicts a nude muscular warrior, as he steps forward, his head turns slightly to his right, and his left hand would have readied a spear that originally rested upon his left shoulder. The figure's anatomical realism conveys potential movement through a complex interaction of tensed and relaxed muscles. Almost seven feet tall, the monumental work conveys an imposing sense of male heroic beauty that could face whatever may come with dispassionate calm, as shown in the serious but expressionless face. Because marble copies needed additional support, the tree stump was an addition to the bronze original. What is known of the original is based upon the exceptional quality of later copies, including this one. Polycleitus thought this work was synonymous with his Canon, a treatise of sculptural principles, based upon mathematical proportions. Though his treatise has been lost, references to it survived in later accounts, including Galen's, a 2 nd century Greek writer, who wrote that its "Beauty consists in the proportions, not of the elements, but of the parts, that is to say, of finger to finger, and of all the fingers to the palm and the wrist, and of these to the forearm, and of the forearm to the upper arm, and of all the other parts to each other." At the time it was made, the work was widely acclaimed, as Warren G. Moon and Barbara Hughes Fowler write, the Doryphorus ushered in "a new definition of true human greatness...an artistic moral exemplar...tied to no particular place or action, he represents the universal male ideal." This marble copy, found in a gymnasium at Pompeii, became the most admired work of the Roman Republic, as Roman aristocrats commissioned copies.

Marble copy of bronze original - Naples National Archaeological Museum, Naples, Italy

The Parthenon

Artist: Ictinus and Callicrates

This iconic temple, dedicated to Athena, goddess of wisdom and patron of Athens, stands majestically on top of the Acropolis, a sacred complex overlooking the city. The 17 Doric columns on either side and the eight at each end create both a sense of harmonious proportion and a dynamic visual and horizontal movement. The building exemplifies the Doric order and the rectangular plan of Greek temples, which emphasized a flow of movement and light between the temple's interior and the surrounding space, while the movement of the columns, rising out of the earth, to the entablature that rings the building, draws the eye heavenward to the carved reliefs and statues that, originally, brightly painted, crowned the temple. Ictinus and Callicrates were identified as the architects of the building in ancient sources, while the sculptor Phidias and the statesman Pericles supervised the project. Dedicated in 438 BCE, the Parthenon replaced the earlier temple on the city's holy site that also included a shrine to Erechtheus, the city's mythical founder, a smaller temple of the goddess Athena, and the olive tree that she gave to Athens, all of which were destroyed by the invading Persian Army in 480 BCE. The Persians also killed the priests, priestesses, and citizens who had taken refuge at the site, and, when the new Parthenon was dedicated, following that experience of trauma and desecration, it was a monument to the restoration and continuation of Athenian values and became, as art critic Daniel Mendelsohn wrote, a "dramatization of the political and moral differences between the victims and the perpetrators." As Mendelsohn noted, the Parthenon while taken "as the epitome of Greek architecture...was typical of nothing at all, an anomaly in terms of material, size, and design." It was both the largest temple in Greece and the first built of only marble. While Doric temples commonly had thirteen columns on each side and six in the front, the Parthenon pioneered the octastyle, with eight columns, thus extending the space for sculptural reliefs. Originally the Parthenon Marbles decorated the entablature, as 92 metopes , or rectangular stone panels, depicted mythological battle scenes - of gods fighting giants, Greek warriors fighting Trojans or Amazons, and men battling centaurs - while the pediments contained statues depicting the stories of Athena's life, so that as Mendelsohn wrote, "Merely to walk around the temple was to get a lesson in Greek and Athenian civic history." The temple's interior was equally meant to inspire, as Phidias's colossal statue of Athena Parthenos , or the virgin Athena, dominated the space. Forty feet tall, the statue held a six foot tall gold statue of Victory in her hand. A frieze, carved in relief, lined the surrounding walls, innovatively introducing a decorative feature of Ionic architecture into the Doric order. The 525 foot long frieze has been described by art historian Joan Breton Connelly as "showing 378 human and 245 animal figures... the largest and most detailed revelation of Athenian consciousness we have ... this moving portrayal of noble faces from the distant past, ... the largest, most elaborate narrative tableau the Athenians have left us." The Parthenon's design employed precise mathematical proportions, based upon the golden ratio, but as Mendelsohn noted, "There are almost no straight lines in the building." The columns employ entasis , a swelling at the center of each column, and tilt inward, while the foundation also rises toward the façade, correcting for the optical illusion of sagging and tilting that would have resulted in perfectly straight lines. Aesthetically, though, as Mendelsohn explains, "[T]he slight swelling also conveys the subliminal impression of muscular effort...Arching, leaning, straining, swelling, breathing: the over-all effect...is to give the building a special and slightly unsettling quality of being somehow alive." The building has been highly praised since ancient times as the 1 st century Roman historian Plutarch called it "no less stately in size than exquisite in form," and in the modern era, Le Corbusier called it "the basis for all measurement in art."

Marble - Athens, Greece

Apollo Belvedere, Roman copy, c. 120 - 140 CE of Leochares bronze original c. 350-325 BCE

This nude statue, a little over seven feet tall, depicts Apollo, the Greek god of art and music, as he strides forward, having just shot an arrow from a bow which his extended left hand originally held. Realistic in its anatomical modeling, the work conveys a sense of gravity, both in his form as seen in the musculature of his weight-bearing right leg and in the folds of his chlamys , or robe, falling across his left arm. Contrapposto is employed innovatively to create a sense of complex movement, presenting the statue both frontally and in profile as the god strides forward majestically. While the statue is identified as the god by the headband he wears, reserved for gods or rulers, and his bow and the quiver across his left shoulder, he is also equally a symbol of youthful masculine beauty. The work has also been called the Pythian Apollo, as it was believed to depict Apollo's slaying of the Python, a mythical serpent at Delphi, marking the moment when the site became sacred to the god and home of the famous Delphic Oracle. The marble statue is believed to be a Roman copy of an original bronze from the 4 th century by the Greek sculptor Leochares. The work was discovered in 1489 and became part of the collection of Cardinal Giulano della Rovere who, subsequently, became Pope Julius II, the leading patron of the Italian High Renaissance. He put the work on public display in 1511, and Michelangelo's student, the sculptor Giovanni Angelo Montorsoli, restored the missing parts of the left hand and right arm. Much acclaimed, the work was sketched by Michelangelo, Bandinelli, Goltzius, and Albrecht Dürer who modeled Adam upon Apollo in his engraving Adam and Eve (1504). Marcantonio Raimondi made a copy of the Apollo, and his engraving in the 1530s was widely disseminated throughout Europe; however, the work became most influential in the 1700s as Winckelmann, the pioneering German art historian, wrote, "Of all the works of antiquity that have escaped destruction, the statue of Apollo represents the highest ideal of art." The work became fundamental to the development of Neoclassicism as seen in Antonio Canova's Perseus (1804-1806) modeled after the work. As art critic Jonathan Jones noted, "The work was admired two hundred years ago as an image of the absolute rational clarity of Greek civilisation and the perfect harmony of divine beauty," but in the Romantic era it fell into disfavor as the leading critics, John Ruskin, William Hazlitt, and Walter Pater critiqued it. Still, it has remained popular and frequently reproduced, lending it a cultural currency, as seen in the official seal of the 1972 Apollo XVII moon landing mission.

Marble - Vatican City

The Dying Gaul, Roman marble copy of Greek bronze by Epigonus

This Roman copy of a Greek Hellenistic work depicts a nude and dying man, identified as a Gaul or more specifically a Galatian, a member of a Celtic tribe in Pergamon, a Greek city in Turkey. Sitting on the ground, his left hand grasping his left knee, and his right hand resting upon a broken sword as he holds himself up, he looks down as if contemplating his end. His extended legs and the twist of his torso suggest pain and immanent collapse. The work is realistic and emotionally expressive, as the tension between tensed and relaxed muscles conveys his struggle to fight off death. A pensive and somber feeling dominates the work, making it an intense reflection on defeat and mortality, while the idealization of his physical beauty suggests a heroic death. The statue was discovered sometime in the early 1600s at the Villa Ludovisi, the country residence of a wealthy and powerful Italian family, and was originally believed to depict a Roman gladiator. The work was popular and viewing it became a necessary part of the Grand Tour undertaken by young aristocrats in the 18 th and 19 th centuries. The British Romantic poet, Lord Byron whose famous poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812) was written following his Grand Tour, wrote, "I see before me the gladiator lie/ He leans upon his hand - his manly brow/ Consents to death, but conquers agony." Its popularity led to a proliferation of marble and plaster copies across Europe. In the 19 th century, scholars identified the subject as a Gaul, due to his hairstyle and the torque he wears on his neck, and Epigonus, a court appointed sculptor of Pergamon, as the original artist. The original was part of a complex sculpture group to celebrate Pergamon's victory over the Gauls and exemplifies what was called the "Pergamene Style," which as contemporary art critic Jerry Saltz noted, "emphasized emotional appeal and almost Baroque volatility. Nothing defines that style quite as clearly as the Dying Gaul , who is both tragic and sensual, firing both our desire and our sense of compassion."

Marble - Capitoline Museums, Rome, Italy

Winged Victory of Samothrace

This monumental work, depicting Nike, the goddess of victory, and created in honor of a naval victory, emphasizes dynamic movement, as the goddess surges forward, swept by the wind, her wings unfurled behind her. As art historian H.W. Jansen wrote, "This invisible force of on-rushing air here becomes a tangible reality; it not only balances the forward movement of the figure but also shapes every fold of the wonderfully animated drapery. As a result, there is an active relationship - indeed, and interdependence - between the statue and the space that envelops it, such as we have never seen before." Over 18 feet tall, the Hellenistic statue stands on a pedestal, placed upon a base that resembles the prow of a ship. Most scholars believe the work was originally placed at the Sanctuary of the Greek Gods, a temple complex overlooking the harbor on the island of Samothrace. Charles Champoiseau, a French envoy, discovered the fragmented statue in 1863 and sent it to Paris where it was reassembled and placed in the Louvre, famously dominating the view up the grand staircase. The work influenced a number of modern artists and movements, as Umberto Boccioni's Futuristic work Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913) references the statue, and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti also referenced it in his Futurist Manifesto (1903). The American sculptors Samuel Murray and Augustus Saint-Gaudens created Nike-like figures, as seen in Saint Gauden's Sherman Memorial (1903) and the statue was a favorite work of the architect Frank Lloyd Wright, who included reproductions of it in a number of his residential designs. Yves Klein painted a number of plaster copies, painted in his International Klein Blue and using a resin he named Victoire de Samatrace , and more recently, Banksy's CCTV Angel (2006) repurposed the figure.

Parian Marble - Louvre Museum, Paris

Venus de Milo

Artist: Alexandros of Antioch

Believed to portray Venus, the goddess of love, this six-and-a-half-foot statue creates dynamic visual movement with its accentuated s-curve, emphasizing the curve of the torso and hip, as the lower part of her body is draped in the realistic folds of her falling robe. The dramatic contrapposto , her left knee raised as if lifting her foot off the ground, further emphasizes her movement, as she turns toward the viewer. The work was originally attributed to Praxiteles but is now generally credited to Alexandros of Antioch. Scholarly dispute continues about the identity of its subject; traditionally identified as Venus, some scholars believe the work actually portrays Amphitrite, a sea goddess, worshipped on the island of Milo where the sculpture was found in 1820, and some contemporary scholars have suggested the figure may in fact portray a prostitute. The statue was made from several pieces of marble, two blocks used for the body, while other parts, including the legs and left arm, were sculpted individually and then attached. When excavated in 1820, part of an arm and a fragmented hand holding a round orb were discovered with the statue, which stood upon a stone plinth. At the time, the fragments were discarded, due to their 'rougher' finish, and later so was the plinth. It's believed that, originally, the statue was brightly painted and adorned with expensive jewelry. During his Italian campaign Napoleon Bonaparte took the Medici Venus (1 st century BCE), then the most renowned classical female nude, to France and installed it in the Louvre. But in 1815 the French returned the Medici Venus and bought the Venus de Milo , which they promoted both as the finest classical work and a model of feminine grace and beauty. More than any other classical sculpture, this iconic nude has greatly influenced both modern art and culture, due to its compelling ideal of feminine beauty and its beguiling mystery. As art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "The Venus de Milo is an accidental surrealist masterpiece. Her lack of arms makes her strange and dreamlike. She is perfect but imperfect, beautiful but broken - the body as a ruin. That sense of enigmatic incompleteness has transformed an ancient work of art into a modern one." Salvador Dalí's Venus de Milo with Drawers (1936) copied the work but inserted pull drawers with pink pompom handles into the torso. As Jones noted, the Venus de Milo has retained its contemporary artistic relevance because it "entered European culture in the 19th century just as artists and writers were rejecting the perfect and timeless." As a result, the work haunts the modern imagination, referenced in literature, films, and television episodes and used in any number of advertisements, while its impact on cultural concepts of feminine beauty can be seen in the American Society of Plastic Surgeons' use of the figure on its seal in 1930.

Marble - Louvre Museum, Paris

Laocoön and His Sons

Artist: Agesandro, Athendoros, and Polydoros

This famous work depicts the doomed struggle of Laocoön, and his two sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus caught in the coils of two giant poisonous sea serpents, one of them biting Laocoön's hip. His hand grasps the snake's neck as he tries to fend it off. On the left, the youngest boy, dying from the poison, has collapsed, his legs caught in the coils that lift him off the ground. The central figure is the father, whose powerful muscular form twists upward and backward, his despairing and contorted gaze turned heavenward, as his son on the right turns to look pleadingly at him. Drawing upon the story of the Trojan war, the work is thought to dramatically depict the moment when Laocoön, a priest of Troy who warned the Trojans against taking the Greek wooden horse into the city, was attacked, along with his two sons, by the serpents sent by the gods to silence him. As a result the frightened Trojans, fearing the gods' punishment, took in the wooden horse containing the Greek soldiers, who, hidden within it, came out at night to open the gates for the Greek army, leading to the fall of Troy. Art historian Nigel Spivey has called the work "the prototypical icon of human agony," and its dynamic sense of drama and its use of slightly unrealistic scale to emphasize paradoxically the father's power and helplessness made it innovative and a masterwork of the Hellenistic style. In 1506 the work was discovered during excavations of Rome and immediately drew the attention of Pope Julius II who sent Michelangelo to oversee the excavation. Its identification drew upon the ancient accounts of Pliny the Elder, a Roman writer, who described the work as located in the emperor Titus's palace and attributed it to the Rhodes sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros and Polydorus. The work greatly influenced Michelangelo, including some of his figures in the Sistine Chapel ceiling and his later sculpture. Raphael depicted Homer with Laocoon's face in his Parnassus , and Titian drew upon the work for his Averoldi Altarpiece (1520-24), as did Rubens for his Descent from the Cross . (1612-14). William Blake also referenced the sculpture, though within his own belief that imitations of Classical Art destroyed the creative imagination. The work informed a number of ongoing debates, as to whether sculpture or painting were more primary, and has played a role in modern discourses, as seen in Irving Babbit's (1910) The New Laokoon: An Essay on the Confusion of the Arts (1910) and Clement Greenberg's Towards a Newer Laocoön (1940), where he argued for abstract art as the new, equivalent, ideal. The Henry Moore Institute held a 2007 exhibition with this title while showing modern works influenced by the statue, and contemporary artist Sanford Biggers has referenced the work within his contemporary installation pieces.

Augustus of Prima Porta

This statue depicts Augustus, the first Emperor of Rome, in military uniform, his right arm raised in a gesture of leadership, addressing the military and populace of Rome. His contrapposto pose, the muscular modeling of his breastplate, and his dispassionate expression are informed by Polycleitus's Doryphorus , as the emperor is presented as the new model of the universal male ideal. His breastplate is intricately carved with scenes and figures - including the sun, sky, and earth gods, a diplomatic victory over the Parthians, and female figures representing conquered countries - that establish him as a military leader, founder of the Pax Romana, and heir of Rome's mythological and historical traditions. Tugging at his right, a small cupid rides a dolphin that symbolizes Augustus's victory at the 31 BCE Battle of Actium over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, which made him sole ruler. At the same time, the cupid, representing Eros, a son of the goddess Venus, refers to Julius Caesar's claim that he was descended from the goddess. As Augustus was Caesar's grand-nephew and adopted heir, he establishes his divine patrimony and connects it to the legendary founding of Rome by Aeneas, the only mortal son of Venus and the only surviving Trojan prince. The statue is barefoot, a trope associated with portrayals of divinity, and as art critic Alastair Sooke noted, the work, "is not simply a portrait of Rome's first emperor...it is also a vision of a god." Emerging victorious from a civil war that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar, Augustus launched a notable building campaign, saying later, "I found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble." His image became a powerful propaganda tool, as art critic Roderick Conway Morris wrote, "He projected his image through art and architecture and...this gave birth to a new classical Roman style, which would long outlive the first emperor and influence imperial and dynastic art over the next two millennia." As a result, more images of Augustus in statues, busts, coins, and cameos, all depicting him as this ever youthful and virile leader, survive than of any other Roman emperor. While Romans were known for their exacting portraiture, Augustus insisted on the idealized, youthful image throughout his reign to distance himself from any unrest in the empire. The work was rediscovered following its excavations in 1863 at Prima Porta, a villa which belonged to Augustus's wife, and as Sooke wrote, "Since its rediscovery, this charismatic work of art has become a symbol of ancient Rome's peculiar blend of refinement and ruthless military might." As a result, it has had a somewhat notorious afterlife, as when the Italian dictator Mussolini held an art exhibition in 1937 dedicated to Augustus and included this work in order to identify Fascist Italy with a new Roman Empire.

The circular temple faces the street with a monumental portico, employing eight Corinthian columns at the front with double rows of four columns behind, to create an imposing entrance. The façade, evoking the octastyle of the Athenian Parthenon, also emphasized that Rome was the heir of the classical tradition. The large granite columns rise to an entablature with an inscription reading "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, made [this] when consul for the third time." Though Agrippa's temple, built during the reign of the Emperor Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE), burned down, the Emperor Hadrian retained the inscription when he rebuilt the temple. The building's innovative and distinctive feature was its concrete dome; with a height and diameter of 142 feet, still, the world's largest dome made of unreinforced concrete. The interior was equally innovative, as the dome rose above a circular interior chamber, illuminated by an oculus opening to the sky in the center of the coffered dome, creating a sense of both an imperial and divine space. "Pantheon" means "relating to the gods," and scholars continue to debate whether this meant the temple was dedicated to all the gods or followed tradition in being dedicated to a specific god. Specific dedications to single gods were considered more provident since, if any mishap struck, the people would know which god had been offended and could offer sacrifices. When Agrippa first built the temple, it was part of the Agrippa complex (29-19 BCE) that also included the Baths of Agrippa and the Basilica of Neptune, and it is thought that the façade is what remains of his original structure. The building is one of the best preserved from the Imperial Roman era, as it was turned into a Christian church in the 7 th century, though it has also been altered, and many of the relief sculptures of gilded bronze were melted down. The work influenced Filippo Brunelleschi's dome of Florence Cathedral in 1436, a radical design that transformed architecture and informed the development of the Italian Renaissance. The Pantheon also informed the Baroque movement, as seen in Bernini's Santa Maria Assunta (1664), and the Neoclassical movement, as seen in Thomas Jefferson's Rotunda (1817-26) on the grounds of the University of Virginia.

Marble, concrete, bronze, stone - Rome, Italy

Beginnings of Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

Mycenaean influences 1600-1100 bce.

Considered the first Greeks, the Mycenaeans had a lasting influence on later Greek art, architecture, and literature. A bronze age civilization that extended through modern day southern Greece as well as coastal regions of modern day Turkey, Italy, and Syria, Mycenaea was an elite warrior society dominated by palace states. Divided into three classes - the king's attendants, the common people, and slaves - each palace state was ruled by a king with military, political, and religious authority. The society valorized heroic warriors and made offerings to a pantheon of gods. In later Greek literature, including Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey , the exploits of these warriors and gods engaged in the Trojan War had become legendary and, in fact, appropriated by later Greeks as their founding myths.

Agriculture and trade were the economic engines driving Mycenaean expansion, and both activities were enhanced by the engineering genius of the Mycenaeans, as they constructed harbors, dams, aqueducts, drainage systems, bridges, and an extended network of roads that remained unrivaled until the Roman era. Innovative architects, they developed Cyclopean masonry, using large boulders, fit together without mortar, to create massive fortifications. The name for Cyclopean stonework came from the later Greeks, who believed that only the Cyclops, fierce one-eyed giants of myth and legend, could have lifted the stones. To lighten the heavy load above gates and doorways, the Mycenaeans also invented the relieving triangle, a triangular space above the lintel that was left open or filled with lighter materials.

The Mycenaeans first developed the acropolis, a fortress or citadel, built on a hill that characterized later Greek cities. The king's palace, centered on a megaron , or circular throne room with four columns, was decorated with vividly colored frescoes of marine life, battle, processions, hunting, and gods and goddesses.

Scholars still debate how the Mycenaean civilization declined, and theories include invasions, internal conflict, and natural disasters. The era was followed by what has been called the Greek Dark Ages, though it is also known as the Homeric Age and the Geometric period. The term Homeric Age refers to Homer whose poems narrated the Trojan War and its aftermath. The term Geometric period refers to the era's style of vase painting, which primarily employed geometric motifs and patterns.

Greek Archaic Period 776-480 BCE

The Archaic Period began in 776 BCE with the establishment of the Olympic Games. Greeks believed that the athletic games, which emphasized human achievement, set them apart from "barbarian," non-Greek peoples. The Greeks' valorization of the Mycenaean era as a heroic golden age led them to idealize male athletes, and the male figure became dominant subjects of Greek art. The Greeks felt that the male nude showed not only the perfection and beauty of the body but also the nobility of character.

The Greeks developed a political and social structure based upon the polis, or city-state. While Argus was a leading center of trade in the early part of the era, Sparta, a city state that emphasized military prowess, grew to be the most powerful. Athens became the pioneering force in the art, culture, science, and philosophy that became the basis of Western civilization. Though the era was dominated by the rule of tyrants, Solon, a philosopher king, became the ruler of Athens around 594 BCE and established notable reforms. He created the Council of Four Hundred, a body that could question and challenge the king, ended the practice of putting people into slavery for their debts, and established a ruling class based on wealth rather than descent. Extensive sea-faring trade drove the Greek economy, and Athens, along with other city-states, began establishing trading posts and settlements throughout the Mediterranean. As a result of these forays, Greek cultural values spread to other cultures, including the Etruscans in southern Italy, influencing and co-mingling with them.

Figurative sculpture was the greatest artistic innovation of the Archaic period as it emphasized realistic, though idealized, figures. Influenced by Egyptian sculpture, the Greeks transformed the frontal poses of pharaohs and other notables into works known as kouros (young men) and kore (young women), life-sized sculptures that were first developed in the Cyclades islands in the 7 th century BCE. During the late Archaic period, individual sculptors, including Antenor, Kritios, and Nesiotes, were celebrated, and their names preserved for posterity.

The late Archaic period was marked by new reforms, as the Athenian lawgiver Cleisthenes established new policies in 508BC that led to him being dubbed "the father of democracy." To celebrate the end of the rule of tyrants, he commissioned the sculptore Antenor to complete a bronze statue, The Tyrannicides (510 BCE), depicting Harmonides and Aristogeion, who had assassinated Hipparchos, the brother of the tyrant Hippias, in 514 BCE. Though the two were executed for the crime, they became symbols of the movement toward democracy that led to the expulsion of Hippias four years later and were considered to be the only contemporary Greeks worthy enough to be granted immortality in art. The commission of Antenor's work was the first public funded art commission, and the subject was so resonant that, when Antenor's work was taken during the 483 BCE Persian invasion, Kritios was commissioned to create a replacement. Kritios's The Tyrannicides (c. 477 BCE) developed what has been called the severe style, or the Early Classical style, as he depicted realistic movement and individual characterization, which had a great influence on subsequent sculpture.

Classical Greece 480-323 BCE

Classical Greece, also known as the Golden Age, became fundamental both to the later Roman Empire and western civilization, in philosophy, politics, literature, science, art, and architecture. The great Greek historian of the era Thucydides, called the general and populist statesman Pericles "Athens's first citizen." Equal rights for citizens (which only meant adult Greek males), democracy, freedom of speech, and a society ruled by an assembly of citizens defined Greek government. Pericles launched the rebuilding of the Parthenon (447-432 BCE) in Athens, a project overseen by his friend, the sculptor Phidias, and established Athens as the most powerful city state, expanding its influence throughout the Mediterranean region.

The Classical era also saw the establishment of Western philosophy in the teachings and writings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The philosophy of Socrates survived through Plato's written accounts of his teacher's dialogues, and Plato went on to found the Academy in Athens around 387 BCE, an early prototype of all later academies and universities. Many leaders studied at the Academy, including most notably Aristotle, and it became a leading force known throughout the world for the importance of scientific and philosophical inquiry based upon the belief in reason and knowledge. While their philosophies diverged in key respects, Plato and Aristotle concurred in seeing art as an imitation of nature, aspiring to the beautiful.

Additionally, the emphasis on individuality resulted in a more personalized art, and individual artists, including Phidias, Praxiteles, and Myron, became celebrated. Funerary sculpture began depicting real people (instead of idealized types) with emotional expression, while at the same time, bronze works idealized the human form, particularly the male nude. Praxiteles, though, pioneered the female nude in his Aphrodite of Knidos (4th century BCE), a work that has been referenced time and time again in the ensuing centuries.

Hellenistic Greek 323-31 BCE

The death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Having amassed a vast empire beyond Greece that included parts of Asia, North Africa, Europe and not having named a successor instigated a war between Alexander's generals for control of his empire, and local leaders jockeyed to regain control of their regions. Eventually, three generals agreed to a power-sharing relationship and carved the Greek empire into three different regions. While the mainland Greek cultural influence declined, Alexandria in Egypt and Antioch in modern day Syria became important centers of Hellenistic culture. Many Greeks emigrated to other parts of the fractured empire, "Hellenizing the world," as art historian John Griffiths Pedley wrote.

Despite the splintering of the empire, great wealth led to royal patronage of the arts, particularly in sculpture, painting, and architecture. Alexander the Great's official sculptor had been Lysippus who, working in bronze after Alexander's death, created works that marked a transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic style. Some of the most famous works of Greek art, including the Venus de Milo (130-100 BCE) and the Winged Victory of Samothrace (200-190 BCE) were created in the era.

Architecture turned toward urban planning, as cities created complex parks and theaters for leisure. Temples took on colossal proportions, and the architectural style employed the Corinthian order, the most decorative of Classical orders. Pergamon became a vital center of culture, known for its colossal complexes, as exemplified by in the Pergamon Altar (c. 166-156 BCE) with its extensive and dramatic friezes. During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks gradually fell to the rule of the Roman Republic, as Rome conquered Macedonia in the Battle of Corinth in 146 BCE. Upon his death in 133 BCE, King Attalus III left the Kingdom of Pergamon to the Romans. Though Greek rebellions followed, they were crushed in the following century.

Roman Republic 509 BCE - 26 CE

Rome began as a city-state ruled by kings, who were elected by the nobleman of the Roman Senate, and then became a Republic when Lucius Tarquinii Superbus, the last king, was expelled in 509BC. Because his son had raped Lucretia, a married noblewoman, who took her own life, Tarquinii was deposed by her husband, her father, and Lucius Junius Brutus, Tarquinii's nephew. The story became both part of Roman history and a subject depicted in art throughout the following centuries.

With the kingship abolished, the Republic was established with a new system of government led by two consuls. As the patricians, the upper class who governed Rome, were often in conflict with the plebeians, or common people, an emphasis was put upon city planning, including apartment buildings called insulae and public entertainments that featured gladiator fights and horse races to keep the people happy, a type of rule that the Roman poet Juvenal described as "bread and circuses." Cities were planned on a grid system, while architecture and engineering projects were transformed by the development of concrete in the 3 rd century. Rome was primarily a military state, frequently at war with neighboring tribes in Italy at the beginning. Various military campaigns resulted in the conquest and destruction of Carthage, a North African kingdom, in three Punic wars, the conquest of the Macedonia and its eastern territories, and Greece in the 2 nd century BCE resulted in geographically expansive empire.

Roman culture adopted many of the myths, gods, and heroic stories of the Greeks, while emphasizing their own tradition of the mas majorum , the way of the ancestors, a kind of contractual obligation with the gods and the founding fathers of Rome. Greek works, taken as spoils of war, were extensively copied and displayed in Roman homes and became a primary influence upon Roman art and architecture. The rise of Julius Caesar, following his triumph over the Gauls in northern Europe, marked the end of the Republic, as he was assassinated in 44 BCE by a number of senators in order to prevent him being declared emperor. His death plunged the Republic into a civil war, fought by his former general Marc Antony allied with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, against the forces of Pompeius and the forces of Caesar's great nephew and heir, Octavian.

Imperial Rome 27 BCE - 393 CE

While the assassins may have staved off the crowning of Caesar as emperor, eventually an emperor was named. Imperial Rome begins with the crowning of Octavian as the first emperor, who came to be known as Augustus. In his almost forty-five year reign, he transformed the city, establishing public services, including the first police force, fire fighting force, postal system, and municipal offices, while creating revenue and taxation systems that were the blueprint for the Empire in the following centuries. He also launched a new building program that included temples and notable public buildings, and he transformed the arts, commissioning works like the Augustus of Prima Porta (1 st century CE) that depicted him as an ideal leader in a classical style that harkened back to Greece. He also commissioned The Aeneid (29-19 BCE) an epic poem by the poet Virgil that defined Rome and became a canonical work of Western literature. The poem described the mythical founding of Rome, relating the journey of Aeneas, the son of Venus and Prince of Troy, who fled the Sack of Troy to arrive in Italy, where, fighting and defeating the Etruscan rulers, he founded Rome.

The Imperial era was defined by the monumental grandeur of its architecture and its luxurious lifestyle, as wealthy residences were lavishly decorated with colorful frescoes, and the upper class, throughout the Empire, commissioned portraits. The Empire ended with the Sack of Rome in 393 CE, though by that time, its power had already declined, due to increasingly capricious emperors, internal conflict, and rebellion in its provinces. The conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity and the moving of the imperial capital from Rome to Constantinople in 313 CE established the rising power of the Byzantine Empire.

Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture: Concepts, Styles, and Trends

The golden ratio.

The Greeks believed that truth and beauty were closely associated, and noted philosophers understood beauty in largely mathematical terms. Socrates said, "Measure and proportion manifest themselves in all areas of beauty and virtue," and Aristotle advocated for the golden mean, or the middle way, that led to a virtuous and heroic life by avoiding extremes. For the Greeks, beauty derived from the combination of symmetry, harmony, and proportion. The golden ratio, a concept based on the proportions between two quantities, as defined by the mathematicians Pythagoras (6 th century BCE) and Euclid (323-283 BCE), was thought to be the most beautiful proportion. The golden ratio indicates that the ratio between two quantities is the same as the ratio between the larger of the two and their sum. The Parthenon (447-432 BCE) employed the golden ratio in its design and was fêted as the most perfect building imaginable. Because the artist Phidias oversaw the building of the temple, the golden ratio became commonly known by the Greek letter phi , in honor of Phidias. The golden ratio had a noted impact on later artists and architects, influencing the Roman architect Vitruvius, whose principles informed the Renaissance, as seen in the work and theory of Leon Battista Alberti , and modern architects, including Le Corbusier .

Greek Architecture

Best known for its temples, using a rectangular design framed by colonnades open on all sides, Greek architecture emphasized formal unity. The building became a sculptural presence on a high hill, as art historian Nikolaus Pevsner wrote, "The plastic shape of the [Greek] temple ... placed before us with a physical presence more intense, more alive than that of any later building."

The Greeks developed the three orders - the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian - which became part of the fundamental architectural vocabulary of Rome and subsequently much of Europe and the United States. Developed in different parts of Greece and at different times, the distinction between the orders is primarily based upon the differences between the columns themselves, their capitals, and the entablature above them. The Doric order is the simplest, using smooth or fluted columns with circular capitals, while the entablature features add a more complex decorative element above the simple columns. The Ionic column uses volutes , from the Latin word for scroll, as a decorative element at the top of the capital, and the entablature is designed so that a narrative frieze extends the length of the building. The late Classical Corinthian order, named for the Greek city of Corinth, is the most decorative, using elaborately carved capitals with an acanthus leaf motif.

Originally, Greek temples were often built with wood, using a kind of post and beam construction, though stone and marble were increasingly employed. The first temple to be built entirely of marble was the Parthenon (447-432 BCE). Greek architecture also pioneered the amphitheater, the agora , or public square surrounded by a colonnade, and the stadium.The Romans appropriated these architectural structures, creating monumental amphitheaters and revisioning the agora as the Roman forum, an extensive public square that featured hundreds of marble columns.

Roman Architecture and Engineering

Roman architecture was so innovative that it has been called the Roman Architectural Revolution, or the Concrete Revolution, based on its invention of concrete in the 3 rd century. The technological development meant that the form of a structure was no longer constrained by the limitations of brick and masonry and led to the innovative employment of the arch, the barrel vault, the groin vault, and the dome. These new innovations ushered in an age of monumental architecture, as seen in the Colosseum and civil engineering projects, including aqueducts, apartment buildings, and bridges. The Romans, as architectural historian D.S. Robertson wrote, "were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, fully to appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome." They pioneered the segmental arch - essentially a flattened arch, used in bridges and private residences - the extended arch, and the triumphal arch, which celebrated the emperors' great victories. But it was their employment of the dome that had the most significant impact on Western civilization. Though influenced by the Etruscans, particularly in their use of arches and hydraulic techniques, and the Greeks, Romans still used columns, porticos, and entablatures even when technological innovations no longer required them structurally.

Though little is known of his life beyond his work as a military engineer for Emperor Augustus, Vitruvius was the most noted Roman architect and engineer, and his De architectura ( On Architecture ) (30-15 BCE), known as Ten Books on Architecture , became a canonical work of subsequent architectural theory and practice. His treatise was dedicated to Emperor Augustus, his patron, and was meant to be a guide for all manner of building projects. His work described town planning, residential, public, and religious building, as well as building materials, water supplies and aqueducts, and Roman machinery, such as hoists, cranes, and siege machines. As he wrote, "Architecture is a science arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning." His belief that a structure should have the qualities of stability, unity, and beauty became known as the Vitruvian Triad. He saw architecture imitating nature in its proportionality and ascribed this proportionality to the human form as well, famously expressed later in Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (1490).

Vase Painting

Vase painting was a noted element of Greek art and provides the best example of how Greek painting focused primarily on portraying the human form and evolved toward increased realism. The earliest style was geometric, employing patterns influenced by Mycenaean art, but quickly turned to the human figure, similarly stylized. An "Orientalizing" period followed, as Eastern motifs, including the sphinx, were adopted to be followed by a black figure style, named for its color scheme, that used more accurate detail and figurative modeling.

The Classical era developed the red figure style of vase painting, which created the figures by strongly outlining them against a black background and allowed for their details to be painted rather than incised into the clay. As a result, variations of color and of line thickness allowed for more curving and rounded shapes than were present in the Geometric style of vases.

Greek and Roman Painting

While Classical Art is noted primarily for its sculpture and architecture, Greek and Roman artists made innovations in both fresco and panel painting. Most of what is known of Greek painting is ascertained primarily from painting on pottery and from Etruscan and later Roman murals, which are known to have been influenced by Greek artists and, sometimes, painted by them, as the Greeks established settlements in Southern Italy where they introduced their art. Hades Abducting Persephone (4 th century BCE) in the Vergina tombs in Macedonia is a rare example of a Classical era mural painting and shows an increased realism that parallels their experiments in sculpture.

Roman panel and fresco paintings survived in greater number than Greek paintings. The 1748 excavation of Pompeii, a Roman city that was buried almost instantaneously in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, led to the groundbreaking discovery of many relatively well-preserved frescos in noted Roman residences, including the House of the Vettii, the Villa of Mysteries, and the House of the Tragic Poet. Fresco paintings brought a sense of light, space, and color into interiors that, lacking windows, were often dark and cramped. Preferred subjects included mythological accounts, tales from the Trojan war, historical accounts, religious rituals, erotic scenes, landscapes, and still lifes. Additionally, walls were sometimes painted to resemble brightly colored marble or alabaster panels, enhanced by illusionary beams or cornices.

Greek Sculpture

Influenced by the Egyptians, the Greeks in the Archaic period began making life-sized sculptures, but rather than portraying pharaohs or gods, Greek sculpture largely consisted of kouroi , of which there were three types - the nude young man, the dressed and standing young woman, and a seated woman. Famous for their smiling expressions, dubbed the "Archaic smile", the sculptures were used as funerary monuments, public memorials, and votive statues. They represented an ideal type rather than a particular individual and emphasized realistic anatomy and human movement, as New York Times art critic Alastair Macaulay wrote, "The kouros is timeless; he might be about to breathe, move, speak."

In the late Archaic period a few sculptors like Kritios became known and celebrated, a trend which became even more predominant during the Classical era, as Phidias, Polycleitus, Myron, Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus became legendary. Myron's Discobolos , or "discus thrower," (460-450 BCE) was credited as being the first work to capture a moment of harmony and balance. Increasingly, artists focused their attention on a mathematical system of proportions that Polycleitus described in his Canon of Polycleitus and emphasized symmetry as a combination of balance and rhythm. Polycleitus created Doryphoros ( Spear-Bearer ) (c.440 BCE) to illustrate his theory that "perfection comes about little by little through many numbers."

Most of the original Greek bronzes have been lost, as the value of the material led to their frequently being melted down and reused, particularly in the early Christian era where they were viewed as pagan idols. A few notable examples have survived, such as the Charioteer of Delphi (478 or 474 BCE), which was found in 1896 in a temple buried in a rockslide. Other works, including the Raice bronzes (460-450 BCE) and the Artemison Bronze (c.460) were retrieved from the sea. The earliest Greek bronzes were sphyrelaton , or hammered sheets, attached together with rivets; however, by the late Archaic period, around 500 BCE, the Greeks began employing the lost-wax method. To make large-scale sculptures, the works were cast in various pieces and then welded together, with copper inlaid to create the eyes, teeth, lips, fingernails, and nipples to give the statue a lifelike appearance.

Along with sculpture in the round, the Greeks employed relief sculpture to decorate the entablatures of temples with extensive friezes that often depicted mythological and legendary battles and mythological scenes. Created by Phidias, the Parthenon Marbles (c. 447-438 BCE), also known as the Elgin Marbles, are the most famous examples. Created on metopes , or panels, the relief sculptures decorated the frieze lining the interior chamber of the temple and, renowned for their realism and dynamic movement, had a noted influence upon later artists, including Auguste Rodin.

The Greeks also made colossal chryselephantine, or ivory and gold statues, beginning in the Archaic period. Phidias was acclaimed for both his Athena Parthenos (447 BCE), a nearly forty foot tall statue that resided in the Parthenon on the Acropolis, and his Statue of Zeus at Olympia (435 BCE) that was forty three feet tall and considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Both statues used a wooden structure with gold panels and ivory limbs attached in a kind of modular construction. They were not only symbols of the gods but also symbols of Greek wealth and power. Both works were destroyed, but small copies of Athena exist, and representations on coins and descriptions in Greek texts survive.

Roman Portraiture

Many Roman sculptures were copies of Greek originals, but their own contribution to Classical sculpture came in the form of portraiture. Emphasizing a realistic approach, the Romans felt that depicting notable men as they were, warts and all, was a sign of character. In contrast, in Imperial Rome, portraiture turned to idealistic treatments, as emperors, beginning with Augustus, wanted to create a political image, showing them as heirs of both classical Greece and Roman history. As a result, a Greco-Roman style developed in sculptural relief as seen in the Augustan Ara Pacis (13 BCE).

The Romans also revived a method of Greek glass painting to use for portraiture. Most of the images were the size of medallions or roundels cut out of a drinking vessel. Wealthy Romans would have drinking cups made with a gold glass portrait of themselves and, following the owner's death, the portrait would be cut out in a circular shape and cemented into the catacomb walls as a tomb marker.

Some of the most famous painted Roman portraits are the Fayum mummy portraits, named for the place in Egypt where they were found, that covered the faces of the mummified dead. Preserved by Egypt's arid climate, the portraits constitute the largest surviving group of portrait panel painting from the Classical era. Most of the mummy portraits were created between the 1 st century BCE and the 3 rd century CE and reflect the intertwining of Roman and Egyptian traditions, during the time when Egypt was under Rome's rule. Though idealized, the paintings display remarkably individualistic and naturalistic characteristics.

Later Developments - After Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

The influence of Classical Art and architecture cannot be overestimated, as it extends to all art movements and periods of Western art. While Roman architecture and Greek art influenced the Romanesque and Byzantine periods, the influence of Classical Art became dominant in the Italian Renaissance, founded upon a revival of interest in Classical principles, philosophy, and aesthetic ideals. The Parthenon and the Pantheon as well as the writings of Vitruvius informed the architectural theories and practice of Leon Battista Alberti and Palladio and designs into the modern era, including those of Le Corbusier .

Greek sculpture influenced Renaissance artists Michelangelo , Albrecht Dürer , Leonardo da Vinci , Raphael , and the later Baroque artists, including Bernini . The discoveries at Pompeii informed the aesthetic theories of Johann Joachim Winckelmann in the 18 th century and the development of Neoclassicism , as seen in Antonio Canova's sculptures. The modern sculptor Auguste Rodin was influenced primarily by the Parthenon Marbles, of which he wrote, they "had...a rejuvenating influence, and those sensations caused me to follow Nature all the more closely in my studies." Artists from the Futurist Umberto Boccioni , the Surrealist Salvador Dalí , and the multifaceted Pablo Picasso , to, later, Yves Klein , Sanford Biggers, and Banksy all cited Greek art as an influence.

Classical Art has also influenced other art forms, as both the choreography of Isidore Cunningham and Merce Cunningham were influenced by the Parthenon Marbles, and the first fashion garment featured in the Museum of Modern Art in 2003 was Henriette Negrin and Mariano Fortuny y Madrazos' Delphos Gown (1907) a silk dress inspired by the Charioteer Delphi (c. 500 BCE) which had been discovered a decade earlier. The legends, gods, philosophies and art of the Classical era became essential elements of subsequent Western culture and consciousness.

Useful Resources on Classical Greek and Roman Art and Architecture

• Treasures of Ancient Greece | 1 of 3 | The Age of Heroes Our Pick BBC

• Seeing the Parthenon through Greek Eyes Joan Breton Connelly, author of "The Parthenon Enigma," joins Jeffrey Brown
• Vestiges of an ancient Greek art form, preserved by catastrophe January 25, 2016

• The Foundations of Classical Architecture: Roman Classicism Talk by Calder Loth
• Greek Art (World of Art) By John Boardman
• Roman Art By Nancy H. Romage and Andrew Romage
• The Art & Architecture of Ancient Greece Our Pick By Nigel Rodgers
• Roman Architecture Our Pick By Frank Sear
• Athenian Vase Painting: Black- and Red-Figure Techniques Our Pick
• How the Parthenon Lost Its Marbles Our Pick By Juan Pablo Sanchez / National Geographic Magazine / March 4, 2017
• If It Pleases the Gods By Caroline Alexander / New York Times / January 26, 2014
• Why we're still up in arms about the mystery of the Venus de Milo Our Pick By Jonathan Jones / The Guardian / May 11, 2015
• Deep-frieze By Daniel Mendelsohn / The New Yorker / April 14, 2014
• When the Parthenon Had Dazzling Colours Our Pick By Natalie Haynes / BBC / January 22, 2018
• A Look at Emperor Augustus and Roman Classical Style Our Pick By Roderick Conway Morris / New York Times / December 17, 2013
• The Body Beautiful: The Classical Ideal in Ancient Greek Art By Alastair Macaulay / New York Times / May 18, 2015
• The Latest Scheme for the Parthenon By Mary Beard / New York Review of Books / March 6, 2014
• I, Augustus, Emperor of Rome..., at the Grand Palais in Paris, review: 'dazzling and charismatic' By Alastair Sooke / The Telegraph / March 18, 2014
• The top 10 ancient Greek artworks By Jonathan Jones / The Guardian / August 14, 2014

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Content compiled and written by Rebecca Seiferle

Edited and revised, with Summary and Accomplishments added by Kimberly Nichols

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Ancient Greece, a civilization known for its significant contributions to art, philosophy, politics, and science, has left a lasting impact on the modern world. Essays on this topic could explore the various city-states, the classical philosophers, the political concepts of democracy and oligarchy, and the advancements in arts and sciences. Furthermore, discussions might delve into the Greco-Persian Wars, the Peloponnesian War, and the enduring legacy of Ancient Greece. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Ancient Greece you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

How did Ancient Greece’s Geography Affect its Civilization

Ancient Greece was mostly made up of many small and separated islands. Most people today know about the great Greek Philosophers, the Olympics, the battles, so most people should know at least a little of the history of ancient Greece. Many people don't know how Greece came to be a great civilization though. I think that the reason why many democracies and civilizations fought for Greece was because of where Greece was located. Ancient Greece's geography is the thing that […]

History of Ancient Greece

Between the Mediterranean and Aegean seas on a peninsula lies the land of Greece. A land sculpted by mountainous terrain with limited farmable land led the Greeks to be avid seafaring peoples. Ancient Greece has a very rich history separated by various periods that denote their success and decline as a civilization. A rather unconventional ancient civilization, early Greeks did not develop like their contemporaries, but grew to be quite isolated from one another due to the mountainous terrain that […]

Greek and Roman Affects on Western Civilization

After discussing Greek and Roman architecture and engineering in class, I wanted to garner a deeper understanding of just how much of an affect these two cultures had on modern Western Civilizations. For instance, what else have these magnificent cultures contributed to to other aspects of society. This paper will discuss the similarities and differences between the Greeks and Romans, as well as its influence on Western Civilizations that haven't already been discussed in our class. While both Roman and […]

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Culture Ancient Greece and the Odyssey

Ancient Greece had a very unique culture. In The Odyssey by Homer, it teaches us that Ancient Greece was based on fate power(ranking in society) and believing in many gods. Not only Odysseus but his son Telemachus were controlled by fate ancient. The Greek gods were the ones in control of the fate of and his family. Telemachus is a young boy when his father Odysseus leaves Ithaca to fight in the Trojan war. As Odysseus is away Telemachus grows […]

Women in Ancient Greece Theatre Practices

It is taught throughout history books that women were not in the early stages of Greek theatre. As theatre developed in Greece, the role of women in the theatre was greatly diminished. Scholars believe they were banned from the stages, and even from attending the performances. Is this true, or did women play a bigger role than once thought? Women were once the leaders of multiple religious rituals and ceremonies. What provoked the removal of them? Were they really not […]

Ancient Greek Contributions to Western Civilization

Greece has made invaluable contributions to worldwide civilization.  Greece has vastly influenced, Western Civilization, culture, and even our way of thought.    It has been written that Greece is the birthplace of western civilization. One of Greece's invaluable influences of Western Civilization is the arts.  The ancient Greeks were well-known for their temples, art work, and sculptures.  In fact, Greece introduced sculpturing into architecture, as evidenced in their columns, be it what is still used today, Dorian, Ionic and Corinthian design […]

Ancient Greece’s Three Types of Heroes

The definition of the word hero is quite skewed. People tend to have their own definitions and interpretations of what the word means. However, people can usually agree on who a hero is and what makes a person a hero. In most cases, a hero can be described as one who shows great courage and is admired for noble achievements and noble qualities. Greek heroes show all of these qualities. They were admired for achieving incredible mythological feats and were […]

Democracy in Ancient Greece

How did people in Athens and Sparta obtain the right to participate in public life and make decisions affecting the community? To be eligible to participate in government in either Athens or Sparta, one had to be a free male citizen of the polis. Athens had an additional requirement that the individual male be born of Athenian citizens, whereas Sparta had no such requirement. (Brand, 2010). In Athens, there was an additional subclass of people that were disenfranchised known as […]

Pan’s Labyrinth Greek Mythology

Pan's Labyrinth is a 2006 surreal fairytale film in which an 11-year-old girl named Ofelia deals with the reality of her bleak life on a military compound in 1944's fascist Spain with her sickly pregnant mother and her violent stepfather by seamlessly blending fantastical elements with reality. Ofelia in Pan's Labyrinth undergoes labors to reach an ultimate "happy" ending and the film draws from Greek myth, blending ancient narratives with modern culture and politics. Pan's Labyrinth, following the typical hero's […]

Theatrical Lighting in Ancient Greece

Lighting in ancient Greece was lit by daylight and the dramas were frequently designed to take advantage of the position of the sun. There were sites specifically placed to gain the best effects of the natural light. Most plays could begin in the morning and last until the evening, so there was no need for artificial lights. The history of Greek lighting would then evolve to use mirrors with the sun's light to alter the lighting for their plays. If […]

Alexander the Great – King of Macedonia and Ancient Greece

Who is Alexander the Great? Alexander the Great is was the king of Macedonia and Ancient Greece. He may be known as the greatest military commander in history. Alexander the Great was born July 20, 356 BC. Alexander died at a very young age at 32. At a young age he accomplished a lot of things in his short life. Alexander's accomplishments was to do so much in his lifetime even thought it was such a lasting affect to him. […]

An Important Role Free Will in Oedipus the King

Fate is often said to be inevitable, an adverse outcome, condition, or end and free will is the ability to choose at your own discretion. In our everyday life, we make decisions and are often told that life is about making choices. It is because we have free will that we make choices which may lead to positive consequences if the choice is rational and yet other times our decisions lead to negative consequences. Free will plays an important role in Oedipus the King and fate […]

Wars of Ancient Greece

In the ancient Greek world, warfare was seen as a necessary evil of the human condition. Whether it be small frontier battles between neighboring city-states, lengthy city-sieges, civil wars, or large-scale battles between multi-alliance blocks on land and sea, the vast rewards of war could outweigh the costs in material and lives. While there were long periods of peace and many examples of friendly alliances, the powerful motives of territorial expansion, war loot, revenge, honor, and the defense of liberty […]

The Architecture of Ancient Greece

The Greeks set a tone for Western world and art history we know today through their paintings, sculptures, architecture, and many other innovations. Although they were influenced highly from Egypt and Mesopotamia, they would develop their own independent identity. The biggest concern while building what would become such impactive architecture, dealt with the proportion, harmony, and perspective. This would lead to the creation of many temples, theatres, and stadia that would become staple features of their cities/towns antiquity onwards. Greek […]

Alexander the Great the Gleaming Pearl of Ancient Greece

In the history of the ancient world, there are outstanding leaders with strategic minds and the ability to defeat all enemies. Among the most talented kings in the world, the most important one is probably Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great (356 - 323 BC) was the emperor who crushed the mighty Persian Empire and built the Greek Empire. He was a natural military genius and also considered to be a great contributor to the development of the history of […]

Spartan Warfare and Society in Ancient Greece

Introduction Sparta experienced territorial expansion due to its well organized and trained army (Cartledge 3). The Spartans inhabited fertile lands located in Eurotas and Pamisos where they practiced agricultural activities (Cartledge 3). On the other hand, the Helots were pushed to marginalized lands. They were nevertheless allowed by Spartans to live semi-autonomous lives in spite of being slaves. The Spartan helots would also be allowed to serve as warriors (Whitmore 3). This paper will discuss the Spartan warfare and how […]

Sparta and Athens Society Compare and Contrast

The life of a man or a woman in Ancient Greek was really different from the lives we have today. What I say is not about technology but about human rights such as the right to participate in public life. In Ancient Greek, women had no right to elect or to be elected, and only free men had their voice in the government. In Sparta, most people did not have any role for decision making for the community and Spartan […]

Historical Events of Ancient Greece

What importance did the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, and the Punic Wars have for Ancient Greece and Rome? Ancient Greece: The battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion on Greece. Citizens of Athens and citizens of Plataea revolted against the Persian army. The battle was a very big victory for the Greeks. From this victory, they gained confidence in their defense system and a new battle tactic called phalanx. The phalanx tactic is […]

Daily Life in Ancient Greece

Daily life in Greece is much different from ours today. In today's world male and female should have equal rights. Men should help the women clean house, women can mow the lawn, women can build houses and do construction work if they desire to do so. In Greece, it's a totally different story. Men are required to take a roll of being very involved in the community. While the women's lives were ALWAYS being at home doing work around the […]

Ancient Greece Art Essay

Ancient Greece is one of my favorite subjects to talk and learn about. I love the history, the stories, and the art, Greece itself is a masterpiece. However, even though Greece has many legendary art works, there is one that I considered my favorite above all of them. There is a vase called “Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game” by the famous Exekias who was known as an ancient Greek vase-painter and potter. Exekias made many beautiful pieces of artwork […]

Ancient Greece: a Women’s Life

The treatment of Women in Ancient Greece was often based on the social economic class that they were born into, or married into. The rich women had less rights than the poor women. Women that were married to rich men were often confined to their homes. Their only jobs were to manage the house and to give birth to sons for the husband. These women also lived in different parts of the house away from the men. They even ate […]

The Role of Women and Stereotypes in the Greek Society in the Odyssey by Homer

The Odyssey is a classic poem by Homer ha revolves around the narrative of Odysseus an ancient Greek hero. Homer describes a full twenty-year journey that Odysseus spends fighting the Trojan War and traveling back to his family. The most significant theme is the nature and the role of women in Greek society. According to the story, men during the period were dominant and made most of the rules. However, Homer defies and illustrates the disparity in the role of […]

Ancient Greece Modern Comparison Project

Since the Grecian times, poems have been a very integral and influential part of every culture. Poems have affected whole countries at a time by expressing emotion, deep feelings, and a sense of what is beautiful about the world. From India to America, people have always drawn important parts of life and history from poems. A couple of the most unforgettable and prominent poets of all time include Homer and William Shakespeare. For my comparison essay, I will analyze the […]

Ancient Greece at the Met

Old Greek engineers tackle rigor and excellence of craftsmanship which are the trademark of Greek art universally. The methods they fabricated during the early sixth century B.C. still influence modern architecture. According to Sayre, H. M., (2013) there are two main principal orders in Classical and Archaic Greek architecture. They are commonly called Doric and the Ionic. In the Doric order, columns are fluted without any form of base. While with the Ionic order, bases support the columns, which have […]

Unveiling the Tapestry: the Pervasive Influence of Ancient Greece Geography

In the grand tapestry of human history, few threads are as intricately woven into the fabric as the geography of Ancient Greece. Beyond being a backdrop of azure seas and rugged mountains, the geographical features of this ancient land wielded a profound impact on the course of its history, culture, and societal structures. Let's embark on a journey through the undulating hills and craggy coastlines, unraveling the influence of Ancient Greece geography on the shaping of a civilization. The defining […]

Harmonies of History: the Lyre in Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks, known for their rich contributions to art, philosophy, and politics, also held a profound affinity for music, with the lyre standing as a testament to this cultural passion. This stringed instrument, deeply intertwined with Greek mythology, literature, and daily life, resonates not just with musical notes but also with historical significance. The lyre, with its elegant structure, typically consisted of a soundbox made from tortoiseshell or wood, with arms extending upwards and joined by a crossbar. Strings, […]

Oedipus and the Sphinx

The great sphinx is a famous landmark known around the world for its loin body and a human head. It was built for a pharaoh as a guide in the afterlife. There is so much to learn about the sphinx. Like when and where it as built, ancient Greek myths, and King Khafre (the head of this amazing monument). Not to mention all the astonishing facts about the statue. When and where was the great sphinx built? The sphinx was […]

The Contribution of Ancient Greece to the Western Civilization

The ancient Greeks gave many contributions to the western civilization. They gave the Pythagorean Theory, Hippocratic Oath, limited democracy and more. Today those contributions benefit us. Pythagoras gave the Pythagorean Theory to us. He made a formula (a2+b2=C2); this formula is used to calculate the relationship between the sides of a right triangle. Euclid was a Greek mathematician and is often called the father of geometry. He put together, scientifically arranged, and wrote portions of the mathematics textbook Elements. Very […]

Birthdays: a Wish for the Gods

Birthdays are celebrated to remember personal achievements, show appreciation to those we love and care for, and to simply acknowledge our existence. Although lives are measured by the ceaseless passing of time, birthdays are a time to be remembered. That is how birthdays are defined in America today. The single day that all people have to mark a time in history, celebrate youth or adulthood, highlight milestones, rites of passage, and feel recognized; it is a celebration of life. They […]

Conquests of Alexander the Great

Alexander was set up to succeed his dad Philip II through watchful direction. When his dad kicked the bucket, he had mentored him from multiple points of view and he had additionally set the ground for his successes. Alexander acquired a urbanized people, an efficient military, and philosophical and military training and he used his insight to vanquish Persia and different parts of Asia. His heritage comprised of his despotic governments and utilization of military power as a major aspect […]

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Greek Art Essays

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Greek Art Essay Examples

We have 4 free papers on greek art for you, essay examples, ancient greek art essay (705 words).

?Greek art is a very important in the upper paleolithic period. Art objects and artifacts areimportant sources of information about civilization prior to written history. The number ofartworks lost because of their impermanence can only be imagined, since many were created byusing organic materials subject to destruction by fire, flood, and decay. By comparison, objectsmade…

Perfection In Ancient Greek Art Essay

Over a period of time Greek art of the past has changed and evolved into what wevalue in todays society as true art and services as a blue print of ourtomorrow. As we take a closer look at the Geometric Period and stroll up throughthe Hellenistic Period allow me to demonstrate the changes and point…

Ancient Greek Arts Essay (784 words)

Ancient Greek

The Ancient Greeks were very proud of their art so it’s not surprising that it is one of the most valued things today. Art influenced the everyday activities of the Ancient Greeks so its very common to hear arts referenced throughout Ancient Greek history. The Ancient Greek culture was greatly influenced by the arts, like…

Roman Art Vs. Greek Art Essay (1160 words)

Throughout history art has consistently reflected the cultural values and social structures of individual civilizations. Ancient art serves as a useful tool to help historians decipher some important aspects of ancient culture. From art we can determine the basic moral and philosophical beliefs of many ancient societies. The differences in arts purpose in Greece and…

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Exemplar Essay On The Role Of The Greek Culture On The Etruscan Art And Architecture To Write After

Introduction

Ancient Greece Research Paper Topics

This page is an exhaustive guide to ancient Greece research paper topics , catering primarily to history students embarking on their research journey. It kicks off with an extensive list of 100 research paper topics, meticulously divided into ten categories, each encapsulating a distinctive facet of ancient Greek history. The guide further equips students with valuable tips on how to select the most suitable ancient Greece research paper topic and provides a step-by-step approach to writing a compelling research paper. This page also introduces iResearchNet’s customized writing services, enabling students to order a bespoke research paper on any topic related to ancient Greece.

Ancient Greece offers a rich and captivating history that has greatly influenced various aspects of modern society. From its remarkable achievements in art, literature, philosophy, and politics to its epic myths and legends, Ancient Greece provides a vast array of intriguing research paper topics. This comprehensive list will explore ten different categories, each containing ten unique research paper topics, allowing students to delve into the fascinating world of Ancient Greece and contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding this remarkable civilization.

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Ancient Greek Architecture

• The Evolution of Greek Temples: From the Doric to Ionic Styles
• The Parthenon: A Masterpiece of Classical Greek Architecture
• The Role of Architectural Proportions in Greek Temples
• Greek Theaters: Design, Acoustics, and Performances
• The Significance of Greek Architectural Orders in Public Buildings
• Urban Planning in Ancient Greece: The Design of Cities
• Greek Architectural Influence on Roman and Neoclassical Styles
• Temples of Ancient Greece: Sacred Spaces and Religious Rituals
• The Sanctuary of Delphi: A Center of Ancient Greek Worship
• The Architecture of Ancient Greek Agoras: Public Spaces and Political Life

Ancient Greek Mythology and Religion

• The Twelve Olympian Gods and Their Roles in Greek Mythology
• The Heroic Deeds of Heracles: Legends and Symbolism
• The Myth of Prometheus: Rebellion, Punishment, and Humanity
• The Journey of Odysseus: Adventures and Lessons in Homer’s Odyssey
• The Stories of Greek Tragic Heroes: Oedipus, Medea, and Antigone
• The Significance of Greek Creation Myths: Origins of the World
• The Cult of Dionysus: Rituals, Festivals, and Wine in Greek Society
• Greek Oracles and Prophecies: Delphi, Dodona, and Beyond
• Greek Funeral Rites and Beliefs about the Afterlife
• The Cult of Demeter and the Eleusinian Mysteries: Secrets of Initiation

Ancient Greek Literature and Philosophy

• The Works of Homer: The Iliad and The Odyssey
• The Philosophy of Socrates: Ideas, Influence, and Legacy
• The Dialogues of Plato: Exploring Philosophical Concepts
• Aristotle’s Contributions to Philosophy and Science
• The Tragedies of Sophocles: Themes, Symbolism, and Morality
• Euripides and the Complexities of Greek Tragedy
• The Poetry of Sappho: Love, Desire, and Feminine Expression
• Greek Historiography: Herodotus and Thucydides
• The Hellenistic Period: Literature and Philosophy
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Literature on Western Culture

Ancient Greek Art and Sculpture

• Classical Greek Sculpture: Beauty, Idealism, and Naturalism
• Black-figure and Red-figure Pottery: Techniques, Styles, and Themes
• The Iconography of Greek Vases: Mythology, Daily Life, and Rituals
• The Kouros and Kore Sculptures: Representations of Youth and Beauty
• The Development of Greek Bronze Sculpture: Techniques and Subjects
• Greek Mosaic Art: Techniques, Designs, and Symbolism
• Hellenistic Sculpture: Realism, Emotion, and Dramatic Expression
• The Greek Influence on Roman Statuary and Portraiture
• The Function and Symbolism of Greek Architectural Sculpture
• The Artistic Legacy of Ancient Greece in Modern Times

Ancient Greek History and Politics

• The Rise of the City-States: Athens, Sparta, and Thebes
• The Persian Wars: Causes, Battles, and Outcomes
• The Golden Age of Athens: Democracy, Leadership, and Cultural Flourishing
• The Peloponnesian War: Causes, Strategies, and Impacts
• Alexander the Great: Conquests, Empire, and Legacy
• The Hellenistic Kingdoms: Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Antigonid Empires
• Greek Colonization: Expansion, Trade, and Cultural Exchange
• The Life and Reign of Pericles: Influence and Achievements
• Greek Democracy: Origins, Principles, and Limitations
• The Role of Women in Ancient Greek Society and Politics

Ancient Greek Science and Mathematics

• Archimedes and his Contributions to Mathematics and Physics
• Hippocrates and the Birth of Western Medicine
• Euclid’s Elements: Geometry and Mathematical Principles
• The Scientific Achievements of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes
• The Concept of Atomism: Leucippus and Democritus
• Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Theorem: Mathematics and Philosophy
• Aristarchus of Samos: Heliocentrism and Early Astronomy
• Greek Medicine and Healing Practices: Asclepius and the Cult of Health
• Greek Engineering and Inventions: Contributions to Architecture and Warfare
• The Legacy of Ancient Greek Science in Modern Society

Ancient Greek Society and Daily Life

• The Greek Polis: Society, Governance, and Citizenship
• Slavery in Ancient Greece: Origins, Roles, and Treatment
• Education in Ancient Greece: Philosophical and Practical Aspects
• The Role of Women in Ancient Greek Society
• Ancient Greek Festivals and Religious Celebrations
• Greek Sports and Athletics: The Olympic Games and Beyond
• Ancient Greek Cuisine: Food, Drink, and Banquets
• Clothing and Fashion in Ancient Greece
• The Influence of Greek Music and Dance on Culture
• The Ancient Greek Family: Structure, Roles, and Values

Ancient Greek Warfare and Military Strategies

• The Spartan Military System: Training, Discipline, and Values
• The Battle of Marathon: Tactics, Heroes, and Significance
• The Hoplite Warfare: Phalanx Formation and Strategies
• The Peloponnesian War: Naval Warfare and Strategies
• The Macedonian Phalanx: Innovations in Ancient Warfare
• Siege Warfare in Ancient Greece: Methods and Technologies
• Alexander the Great’s Military Campaigns: Strategies and Conquests
• The Role of Mercenaries in Ancient Greek Warfare
• Naval Power in Ancient Greece: The Trireme and Naval Battles
• The Legacy of Ancient Greek Warfare in Military History

Ancient Greek Philosophy and Intellectual Movements

• The Pre-Socratic Philosophers: Exploring the Nature of Reality
• The Philosophy of Plato: Ideal Forms and the Theory of Forms
• Aristotle’s Ethics: Virtue, Happiness, and the Golden Mean
• The Stoic Philosophy: Principles and Practices for a Virtuous Life
• The Epicurean Philosophy: Pursuit of Pleasure and Freedom from Fear
• The Skepticism of Pyrrho: Doubt, Suspense, and Epistemic Inquiry
• Cynicism and Diogenes of Sinope: Rejecting Conventional Values
• The Hellenistic Philosophies: Eclecticism and Syncretism
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• Philosophy and Its Impact on Ancient Greek Society

Ancient Greek Art and Aesthetics

• Greek Pottery: Styles, Techniques, and Symbolism
• The Beauty and Harmony of Greek Sculpture: Idealized Human Form
• The Greek Art of Mosaics: Colors, Patterns, and Narrative
• Architectural Sculpture in Ancient Greece: Ornamentation and Function
• The Technique of Greek Vase Painting: Black-figure and Red-figure
• Greek Coinage: Artistic Representations and Political Symbols
• The Use of Color in Ancient Greek Art and Architecture
• Greek Frescoes: Wall Paintings and Decorative Arts
• Greek Jewelry and Adornment: Materials, Designs, and Symbolism
• Greek Textile Art: Weaving, Dyeing, and Pattern-making

The comprehensive list of ancient Greece research paper topics provides students with a wide range of fascinating subjects to explore within the realm of Greek history, culture, and civilization. From the realm of art, literature, and philosophy to politics, warfare, and daily life, these topics offer ample opportunities for in-depth research and scholarly inquiry. By delving into these captivating areas of study, students can gain a deeper understanding of Ancient Greece and contribute to the body of knowledge surrounding this extraordinary civilization.

Ancient Greece: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Ancient Greece is renowned for its rich history, culture, and enduring legacy. The study of Ancient Greece offers a vast array of research paper topics that delve into various aspects of this fascinating civilization. From its mythology and philosophy to its politics and art, Ancient Greece provides ample opportunities for in-depth exploration and scholarly inquiry. This section aims to explore the diverse range of research paper topics available in Ancient Greek history, offering students a glimpse into the breadth and depth of this captivating field of study.

• Greek Mythology : Explore the significance of Greek mythology in Ancient Greek society, examining the gods, heroes, and mythical narratives that shaped their religious beliefs, rituals, and cultural practices. Topics could include the role of gods in human affairs, the portrayal of women in mythology, or the connections between myth and historical events.
• Athenian Democracy : Investigate the development, functioning, and significance of Athenian democracy, focusing on key institutions such as the Assembly, Council, and courts. Examine topics such as the role of citizenship, political participation, and the impact of democracy on Athenian society.
• Greek Philosophy : Dive into the world of Greek philosophy and explore the works and ideas of influential thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Topics may include the nature of knowledge and reality, ethical theories, or the role of philosophy in shaping Ancient Greek society.
• Greek Theater : Analyze the origins, evolution, and cultural significance of Greek theater, examining prominent playwrights such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Topics could explore theatrical conventions, the portrayal of women in Greek drama, or the role of theater in Athenian democracy.
• Olympic Games : Investigate the origins, rituals, and cultural impact of the Ancient Greek Olympic Games. Topics may include the role of athletes in society, the connection between sport and religious festivals, or the political significance of the Games.
• Ancient Greek Warfare : Explore the military strategies, tactics, and technologies employed by the Ancient Greeks, focusing on notable battles and conflicts. Topics could include the rise of hoplite warfare, naval warfare in the Peloponnesian War, or the military legacy of Alexander the Great.
• Hellenistic Period : Examine the Hellenistic period that followed the conquests of Alexander the Great, exploring the political, social, and cultural developments of the successor kingdoms. Topics may include the spread of Greek culture, the impact of Hellenistic art and architecture, or the role of women in Hellenistic society.
• Greek Art and Architecture : Delve into the world of Greek art and architecture, studying iconic structures such as the Parthenon and the sculptures of the Classical period. Topics could explore the symbolism in Greek art, the evolution of architectural styles, or the influence of Greek art on later civilizations.
• Spartan Society : Investigate the unique society of Sparta, focusing on its military culture, social structure, and political system. Topics may include the Spartan education system, the role of women in Spartan society, or the Spartan military ethos.
• Alexander the Great : Analyze the life, achievements, and legacy of Alexander the Great, examining his military campaigns, empire-building strategies, and cultural impact. Topics could explore his leadership style, the blending of Greek and Eastern cultures, or the political implications of his conquests.

The study of Ancient Greece offers a vast array of research paper topics that cover a wide range of disciplines and themes. From mythology and philosophy to politics, art, and warfare, the world of Ancient Greece is ripe with opportunities for exploration and scholarly inquiry. This section has provided a glimpse into the diverse range of research paper topics available, showcasing the richness and significance of Ancient Greek history. Whether you are drawn to the mythical realm of gods and heroes or fascinated by the political systems and cultural achievements of the Greeks, there is a captivating research topic awaiting your exploration. Delve into the wonders of Ancient Greece and uncover its enduring legacy through the lens of your research paper.

Choosing Ancient Greece Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research paper topic on Ancient Greece can be an exciting yet challenging task. With such a vast and diverse history, it’s essential to select a topic that is engaging, relevant, and allows for comprehensive exploration. This section aims to provide expert advice and guidance on how to choose the perfect research paper topic in Ancient Greece. By following these tips and considerations, students can narrow down their options and select a topic that aligns with their interests and academic goals.

• Understand Your Interests : Reflect on your personal interests and passions within the field of Ancient Greece. Are you drawn to a particular aspect, such as art, philosophy, politics, or warfare? Identifying your interests will help you select a topic that resonates with you and keeps you motivated throughout the research process.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Before finalizing a topic, conduct preliminary research to familiarize yourself with the existing literature and scholarly discussions in Ancient Greek history. This will help you identify gaps in knowledge or areas that require further exploration, which can serve as potential research paper topics.
• Narrow Down Your Focus : Ancient Greece encompasses a wide range of time periods, regions, and themes. Narrow down your focus by selecting a specific time period or geographical region that interests you the most. For example, you may choose to focus on the Classical period, the city-state of Athens, or the impact of Greek colonization.
• Consider Unexplored Topics : While popular topics in Ancient Greece have been extensively researched, consider exploring lesser-known or under-researched areas. This can include examining marginalized groups in Greek society, lesser-known historical figures, or specific aspects of daily life that have received limited scholarly attention.
• Engage with Primary Sources : Dive into primary sources, such as ancient texts, inscriptions, or archaeological findings, to discover intriguing research paper topics. Analyzing primary sources allows for a deeper understanding of Ancient Greek culture and can lead to unique research questions and interpretations.
• Consult with Your Professor or Advisor : Seek guidance from your professor or academic advisor. They can offer valuable insights, suggest potential research paper topics based on your academic goals, and provide additional resources to support your research.
• Brainstorm and Refine Your Topic : Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate a list of potential research paper topics. Consider the feasibility, scope, and availability of sources for each topic. Refine your ideas by narrowing down the focus, formulating clear research questions, and ensuring the topic aligns with the requirements of your assignment.
• Consider Comparative Approaches : Explore topics that allow for comparative analysis between Ancient Greece and other civilizations or time periods. Comparative approaches can provide a fresh perspective and contribute to a broader understanding of Ancient Greek history and its interconnectedness with the wider world.
• Explore Interdisciplinary Connections : Ancient Greece has influenced various disciplines, including literature, philosophy, art, politics, and science. Consider exploring interdisciplinary connections by incorporating elements from other fields into your research paper topic. This can lead to innovative and multi-dimensional analyses.
• Stay Current with Scholarly Debates : Stay updated with the latest scholarly debates and discussions in the field of Ancient Greek history. Familiarize yourself with the current trends, research methodologies, and emerging topics of interest. Engaging with ongoing debates can inspire new research paper topics or offer opportunities for critical analysis and contribution to the academic discourse.

Choosing an ancient Greece research paper topic requires careful consideration, engagement with primary and secondary sources, and a clear understanding of your academic interests. By following the expert advice provided in this section, students can select a captivating and well-focused research topic that allows for in-depth exploration and contributes to the understanding of Ancient Greek history. Remember to consult with your professor or advisor for guidance and support throughout the research process. With the right topic, diligent research, and a passion for the subject, you can embark on a rewarding journey of uncovering the wonders of Ancient Greece.

How to Write an Ancient Greece Research Paper

Writing a research paper on Ancient Greece offers an exciting opportunity to delve into the captivating world of this ancient civilization. From its mythology and philosophy to its politics and art, Ancient Greece provides a wealth of topics for exploration and analysis. This section aims to provide you with a comprehensive guide on how to write an effective and engaging research paper on Ancient Greece. By following these tips and strategies, you can navigate the research process with confidence and produce a well-crafted paper that showcases your knowledge and critical thinking skills.

• Choose a Specific Topic : Start by selecting a specific topic within the realm of Ancient Greece that interests you the most. Narrow down your focus to a particular aspect, time period, or theme to ensure that your research remains manageable and focused.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Begin your research by consulting a variety of reputable sources, including books, scholarly articles, and academic journals. Utilize both online and offline resources to gather a comprehensive understanding of your chosen topic.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that presents the main argument or central idea of your research paper. Your thesis should be specific, arguable, and supported by evidence from your research.
• Organize Your Research : Create a well-structured outline to guide your writing process. Organize your main points, arguments, and supporting evidence in a logical manner. This will help you maintain a coherent flow throughout your paper.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : Engage with a combination of primary and secondary sources to support your arguments and provide historical context. Primary sources can include ancient texts, artifacts, and inscriptions, while secondary sources offer scholarly interpretations and analysis.
• Engage with Different Perspectives : Consider various viewpoints and interpretations of your chosen topic. Engaging with different perspectives will enhance the depth and breadth of your research and demonstrate your ability to critically evaluate historical evidence.
• Utilize Proper Citations : Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. Follow the appropriate citation style, such as MLA or APA, and adhere to the guidelines for both in-text citations and the bibliography or references page.
• Develop Strong Arguments : Structure your paper around well-developed arguments supported by evidence from your research. Present a clear line of reasoning and critically evaluate the sources to strengthen your arguments.
• Include Visuals and Illustrations : Consider incorporating visuals such as maps, diagrams, or images related to your topic. Visuals can enhance the understanding of complex concepts and provide visual evidence to support your arguments.
• Revise and Edit : Set aside ample time for revising and editing your research paper. Check for clarity, coherence, grammar, and punctuation errors. Ensure that your paper flows smoothly and effectively communicates your ideas.

Writing a research paper on Ancient Greece offers a fascinating journey into the world of this ancient civilization. By following these tips and strategies, you can navigate the research process with confidence and produce a well-crafted paper that showcases your knowledge and critical thinking skills. Remember to choose a specific and engaging topic, conduct in-depth research, develop a strong thesis statement, and organize your paper effectively. Engage with different perspectives, utilize proper citations, and develop strong arguments supported by evidence. With careful planning, thorough research, and diligent writing, you can create an exceptional research paper that illuminates the wonders of Ancient Greece for your readers.

iResearchNet’s Writing Services

At iResearchNet, we understand the challenges students face when it comes to writing research papers on Ancient Greece. The complexity of the subject matter, the extensive research required, and the need for critical analysis can be overwhelming. That’s why we are here to offer our professional writing services and be your trusted partner in crafting exceptional Ancient Greece research papers. With our team of expert writers and a commitment to excellence, we provide you with the support and assistance you need to excel in your academic endeavors.

• Expert Degree-Holding Writers : We have a team of highly qualified writers with advanced degrees in history and related fields. Our writers possess in-depth knowledge and expertise in Ancient Greece, ensuring that your research paper is in the hands of knowledgeable professionals.
• Custom Written Works : Every research paper we deliver is custom-written to meet your specific requirements. We understand the importance of originality and adhere to strict plagiarism guidelines. You can be confident that your paper will be unique and tailored to your academic needs.
• In-Depth Research : Our writers conduct extensive research to gather relevant and reliable sources for your Ancient Greece research paper. They are skilled in navigating scholarly databases, libraries, and reputable online sources to ensure your paper is well-supported and thoroughly researched.
• Custom Formatting : We understand the importance of adhering to specific formatting styles. Whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard, our writers are well-versed in the intricacies of formatting and will ensure your paper meets the required style guidelines.
• Top Quality : Quality is our top priority. We strive for excellence in every aspect of our writing services. Our writers meticulously craft each paper, paying attention to detail, accuracy, and coherence. Your research paper will meet the highest standards of quality.
• Customized Solutions : We understand that every student has unique needs and preferences. Our writing services are flexible and customizable to accommodate your specific requirements. You can communicate directly with your assigned writer to discuss any specific instructions or preferences.
• Flexible Pricing : We offer competitive and affordable pricing options to make our services accessible to students. Our pricing structure is transparent, with no hidden costs. We understand the budget constraints of students and aim to provide value for your investment.
• Short Deadlines : We recognize the importance of meeting deadlines. Our writers are experienced in working under time constraints and can deliver high-quality papers even with short deadlines. We offer the flexibility to choose deadlines that suit your schedule, with options for urgent orders.
• Timely Delivery : We guarantee timely delivery of your research paper. We understand the significance of meeting deadlines, and we work diligently to ensure your paper is delivered to you within the agreed-upon timeframe.
• 24/7 Support : Our customer support team is available 24/7 to assist you with any queries or concerns you may have. We are dedicated to providing prompt and reliable support throughout the writing process.
• Absolute Privacy : We prioritize the privacy and confidentiality of our clients. Your personal information and details of the project will be kept strictly confidential. You can trust us to handle your research paper with utmost discretion.
• Easy Order Tracking : We provide a user-friendly platform that allows you to easily track the progress of your research paper. You can communicate directly with your writer, ask for updates, and provide additional instructions if needed.
• Money-Back Guarantee : We are confident in the quality of our writing services. In the rare event that you are not satisfied with the final result, we offer a money-back guarantee. Your satisfaction is our priority, and we will work to resolve any issues to your utmost satisfaction.

When it comes to writing Ancient Greece research papers, iResearchNet is your reliable partner. With our team of expert writers, commitment to excellence, and dedication to customer satisfaction, we provide you with the support and assistance you need to achieve academic success. Our services are designed to alleviate the stress and challenges of research paper writing, allowing you to focus on other important aspects of your academic journey. Trust iResearchNet to be your partner in crafting exceptional Ancient Greece research papers that meet the highest standards of quality and professionalism.

Unleash Your Potential with iResearchNet

Are you ready to embark on a fascinating journey through the rich history of Ancient Greece? Do you want to delve into the captivating world of Greek civilization and uncover its profound influence on art, philosophy, politics, and more? Look no further! iResearchNet is here to support you in your exploration of Ancient Greece through our exceptional writing services. Whether you need assistance with choosing a research paper topic, crafting a well-researched paper, or navigating the complexities of academic writing, we are your dedicated partner in achieving academic success.

Are you ready to embark on a transformative journey into the captivating world of Ancient Greece? Let iResearchNet be your guiding light. With our team of expert writers, commitment to excellence, and dedication to your success, we provide you with the support and assistance you need to excel in your academic pursuits. Don’t miss the opportunity to unleash your potential and make a lasting impact with your Ancient Greece research papers. Trust iResearchNet to be your partner in crafting exceptional papers that showcase your knowledge, critical thinking, and passion for this remarkable civilization. Unlock the secrets of Ancient Greece and embark on a rewarding academic journey with iResearchNet today!

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