problem based learning dan problem solving

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

What is Problem-Based Learning (PBL)? PBL is a student-centered approach to learning that involves groups of students working to solve a real-world problem, quite different from the direct teaching method of a teacher presenting facts and concepts about a specific subject to a classroom of students. Through PBL, students not only strengthen their teamwork, communication, and research skills, but they also sharpen their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities essential for life-long learning.

By working with PBL, students will:

Become engaged with open-ended situations that assimilate the world of work
Participate in groups to pinpoint what is known/ not known and the methods of finding information to help solve the given problem.
Investigate a problem; through critical thinking and problem solving, brainstorm a list of unique solutions.
Analyze the situation to see if the real problem is framed or if there are other problems that need to be solved.

How to Begin PBL

Establish the learning outcomes (i.e., what is it that you want your students to really learn and to be able to do after completing the learning project).
Find a real-world problem that is relevant to the students; often the problems are ones that students may encounter in their own life or future career.
Discuss pertinent rules for working in groups to maximize learning success.
Practice group processes: listening, involving others, assessing their work/peers.
Explore different roles for students to accomplish the work that needs to be done and/or to see the problem from various perspectives depending on the problem (e.g., for a problem about pollution, different roles may be a mayor, business owner, parent, child, neighboring city government officials, etc.).
Determine how the project will be evaluated and assessed. Most likely, both self-assessment and peer-assessment will factor into the assignment grade.

Designing Classroom Instruction

How to Orchestrate a PBL Activity

Explain Problem-Based Learning to students: its rationale, daily instruction, class expectations, grading.
Serve as a model and resource to the PBL process; work in-tandem through the first problem
Help students secure various resources when needed.
Supply ample class time for collaborative group work.
Give feedback to each group after they share via the established format; critique the solution in quality and thoroughness. Reinforce to the students that the prior thinking and reasoning process in addition to the solution are important as well.

Teacher’s Role in PBL

The Role of the Students

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Resource library.

Establishing Community Agreements and Classroom Norms
Sample group work rubric
Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse of Activities, University of Delaware

Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning  (PBL) is a student-centered approach in which students learn about a subject by working in groups to solve an open-ended problem. This problem is what drives the motivation and the learning. 

Why Use Problem-Based Learning?

Nilson (2010) lists the following learning outcomes that are associated with PBL. A well-designed PBL project provides students with the opportunity to develop skills related to:

Working in teams.
Managing projects and holding leadership roles.
Oral and written communication.
Self-awareness and evaluation of group processes.
Working independently.
Critical thinking and analysis.
Explaining concepts.
Self-directed learning.
Applying course content to real-world examples.
Researching and information literacy.
Problem solving across disciplines.

Considerations for Using Problem-Based Learning

Rather than teaching relevant material and subsequently having students apply the knowledge to solve problems, the problem is presented first. PBL assignments can be short, or they can be more involved and take a whole semester. PBL is often group-oriented, so it is beneficial to set aside classroom time to prepare students to  work in groups  and to allow them to engage in their PBL project.

Students generally must:

Examine and define the problem.
Explore what they already know about underlying issues related to it.
Determine what they need to learn and where they can acquire the information and tools necessary to solve the problem.
Evaluate possible ways to solve the problem.
Solve the problem.
Report on their findings.

Getting Started with Problem-Based Learning

Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students may encounter in their future careers or lives. Cases are often the basis of PBL activities. Previously developed PBL activities can be found online through the University of Delaware’s PBL Clearinghouse of Activities .
Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves. Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of government officials, local business owners, etc.
Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer assessments a part of the assignment grade.

Nilson, L. B. (2010). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (2nd ed.).  San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 

Problem-Based Learning

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David H. Jonassen 2 &
Woei Hung 3

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Inquiry-based learning ; Project-based learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an instructional method aimed at preparing students for real-world settings. By requiring students to solve problems, PBL enhances students’ learning outcomes by promoting their abilities and skills in applying knowledge, solving problems, practicing higher order thinking, and self-directing their own learning. PBL was originally conceived and implemented in the 1950s in response to medical students’ unsatisfactory clinical performances. This under-desired performance was attributed to the emphasis on memorization of fragmented biomedical knowledge in traditional health science education (Barrows and Tamblyn 1980 ). The format and processes of PBL seen today were first developed in the medical school at McMaster University in the 1960s and 1970s (Barrows 1996 ). Since then, PBL has become a prominent instructional method in medical and health science education throughout the world, such as...

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Achilles, C. M., & Hoover, S. P. (1996). Exploring problem-based learning (PBL) in grades 6–12 . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Tuscaloosa.

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Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48 (4), 63–85.

Savery, J. R., & Duffy, T. M. (1996). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 135–148). Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology.

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Jonassen, D.H., Hung, W. (2012). Problem-Based Learning. In: Seel, N.M. (eds) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_210

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Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning

Problem based learning.

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy based on the constructivist learning theory through collaboration and self-directed learning. With PBL, students create knowledge and comprehension of a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem without a defined solution. Rather than focusing on learning problem-solving, PBL allows for the development of self-directed knowledge acquisition, along with enhanced teamwork and communication skills. Although originally developed for medical education, its use has expanded to other disciplines.

With PBL, the instructor’s role is to guide and challenge the learning process, rather than provide knowledge, while students engage in knowledge construction through teamwork. In alignment with constructivist theory, PBL promotes lifelong learning through inquiry.

Advantages:

Student-centered learning;
Promotes self-learning and self-motivation;
Focuses on comprehension and higher level learning, rather than facts;
Enhances critical appraisal skills;
Develops literature retrieval and evaluation skills;
Develops interpersonal skills and teamwork; and
Promotes lifelong learning

Disadvantages:

Instructor comfort with removing themselves from the central role;
Student lack of acceptance of a different format of learning;
Need for assessments that measure new knowledge and skills, such as practical exams, essays, peer and self assessments; and
Time necessary to prepare course materials and assess

During the PBL process, students work in groups of 10-15 students supported by a tutor. The students are presented with a problem and, through group collaboration, activate their prior knowledge. The group develops hypotheses to explain the problem and identify issues to be researched which will help them to construct a shared explanation of the problem. After the initial teamwork, students work independently to research the identified issues, followed by discussion with the group about their findings and creation of a final explanation of the problem based on what they learned. The cycle can be repeated as needed.

The seven steps in the Maastricht PBL process are:

Discuss the case to ensure everyone understands the problem;
Identify questions in need of answers to fully understand the problem;
Brainstorm what prior knowledge the group already has and identify potential solutions;
Analyze and structure the findings from the brainstorming session;
Formulate learning objectives for any lacking knowledge;
Independently, research the information necessary to achieve the learning objectives defined as a group; and
Discuss the findings with the group to develop a collective explanation of the problem.

In PBL learning, students in the group all serve a role. The roles should alternate through students for different problems. The tutor role is typically held by a instructor or teaching assistant who facilitates learning.

Facilitates learning by supporting and guiding;
Monitors the learning process
Aims to build students' confidence
Checks group understanding
Assesses performance
Encourages all group members to participate
Keeps group on topic
Assists with group dynamics
Assists with time keeping
Ensures records kept by scribe are accurate
Leads group through process
Ensures group remains on topic
Encourages members to participate
Maintains group dynamics
Ensures scribe can keep up with accurate documentation

Group Member

References and Resources:

Duch, Barbara J.; Groh, Susan; Allen, Deborah E. (2001). The power of problem-based learning : a practical "how to" for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline (1st ed.). Sterling, VA: Stylus Pub.

Schmidt, Henk G; Rotgans, Jerome I; Yew, Elaine HJ (2011). "The process of problem-based learning: What works and why". Medical Education. 45 (8): 792–806.

Wood, D. F. (2003). "ABC of learning and teaching in medicine: Problem based learning"

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What Is Problem-Based Learning?

By Maureen Leming

Take a little bit of creativity, add a dash of innovation, and sprinkle in some critical thinking. This recipe makes for a well-rounded and engaged student who's ready to tackle life beyond the classroom. It's called Problem-Based Learning (PBL), and it teaches concepts and inspires lifelong learning at the same time.

This open-ended problem-based learning style presents students with a real-world issue and asks them to come up with a well-constructed answer. They can tap into online resources, use their previously-taught knowledge, and ask critical questions to brainstorm and present a solid solution. Unlike traditional learning, there might not be just one right answer, but the process encourages young minds to stay active and think for themselves.

We're all about the problem-based learning approach at The Hun School of Princeton . Through this article, you'll discover why — and what it looks like in real time.

An Overview of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a teaching style that pushes students to become the drivers of their learning education.

Problem-based learning uses complex, real-world issues as the classroom's subject matter, encouraging students to develop problem-solving skills and learn concepts instead of just absorbing facts.

This can take shape in a variety of different ways. For example, a problem-based learning project could involve students pitching ideas and creating their own business plans to solve a societal need. Students could work independently or in a group to conceptualize, design, and launch their innovative product in front of classmates and community leaders.

At the Hun School of Princeton, a problem-based learning mode is offered in conjunction with course content. This approach has been shown to help students develop critical thinking and communication skills as well as problem-solving abilities.

Aspects of Problem-Based Learning

Problem-based learning can be applied to any school subject, from social studies and literature to mathematics and science. No matter the field, a good problem-based learning approach should embody features like :

Challenging students to understand classroom concepts on a deeper level.
Pushing students to make decisions they're able to defend.
Clearly connecting current course objectives to previous courses and knowledge.
Encouraging students to work as a group to solve the complex issue at hand.
Engaging students to solve an open-ended problem in multiple complex stages.

Benefits of Student-Led, Problem-Based Learning

Student-led learning is one of the most empowering ways to seat students at the forefront of their own educational experience.

It pushes students to be innovative, creative, open-minded, and logical. It also offers opportunities to collaborate with others in a hands-on, active way.

As part of our immersive educational model, we've discovered many benefits of problem-based learning:

Promote self-learning : As a student-centered approach, problem-based learning pushes kids to take initiative and responsibility for their own learning. As they're pushed to use research and creativity, they develop skills that will benefit them into adulthood.
Highly engaging : Instead of sitting back, listening and taking notes, problem-based learning puts students in the driver's seat. They have to stay sharp, apply critical thinking, and think outside the box to solve problems.
Develop transferable skills: The abilities students develop don't just translate to one classroom or subject matter. They can be applied to a plethora of school subjects as well as life beyond, from taking leadership to solving real-world dilemmas.
Improve teamwork abilities : Many problem-based learning projects have students collaborate with classmates to come up with a solution. This teamwork approach challenges kids to build skills like collaboration, communication, compromise, and listening.
Encourage intrinsic rewards : With problem-based learning projects, the reward is much greater than simply an A on an assignment. Students earn the self-respect and satisfaction of knowing they've solved a riddle, created an innovative solution, or manufactured a tangible product.

Five Examples of Problem-Based Learning in Action

With a little context in mind, it's time to take a look at problem-based learning in the real world. One of the best parts of this learning style is that it's very flexible. You can adapt it to your classroom, content, and students. The following five examples are success stories of problem-based learning in action:

Maritime discovery: Students explore maritime culture and history through visits to a nearby maritime museum. They're tasked with choosing a specific voyage, researching it, and crafting their own museum display. Throughout their studies, they'll create a captain's log, including mapping out voyages and building their own working sextant.
Urban planning : Perfect for humanities classes, this example challenges students to observe and interview members of their community and determine the biggest local issue. They formulate practical solutions that they will then pitch to a panel of professional urban planners.
Zoo habitats : This scientific example starts with a visit to a local zoo. Students use their observations and classroom knowledge to form teams and create research-supported habitat plans, presented to professional zoologists.
Codebreakers : Instead of regular math lessons, let students lead with a code-breaking problem-based learning assignment. Students take on the role of a security agent tasked with decrypting a message, coding a new one in return, and presenting their findings to the classroom.
Financial advisors : Challenge students to step into the role of a financial advisor and decide how to spend an allotted amount of money in a way that most benefits their community. Have them present their solution and explain their reasoning to the class.

The Hun School: Problem-Based Learning in Action

The Hun School of Princeton brings problem-based learning to life in our classrooms. Our collaborative school culture places a unique emphasis on hands-on, skilled-based education. NextTerm is just one example of problem-based learning in action here at The Hun School.

NextTerm gives students the opportunity to apply classroom knowledge to solve real-world problems on a local, national, and global scale. Take our Migration and Identity class, for example. Students in this course travel to the U.S.-Mexican border to speak directly to border patrol agents, ranchers, and immigrants in order to learn about the complex issue of migration straight from the source. Of course, this location is one of many that our students can explore. Our mandatory three-week mini-course , NextTerm , brings students beyond the campus and into a new environment, from domestic locations in Arizona, Montana, and Memphis to international locales in France and Ghana.

At our campus in Princeton, Hun students explore a relevant issue in collaboration with each other and field experts. They could be learning about the complexity of Ghanian economics or experiencing the modern-day impact of French history. This real-world immersion gives new power to their knowledge and helps them see the link between the classroom and the world at large. As they solve problems, Hun students can develop as individuals and teammates.

Ready to learn more about The Hun School approach and see problem-based learning strategies at work?

Inquire about Hun or schedule a tour to see problem-based learning in action!

Request More Information

Problem based learning: a teacher's guide

December 10, 2021

Find out how teachers use problem-based learning models to improve engagement and drive attainment.

Main, P (2021, December 10). Problem based learning: a teacher's guide. Retrieved from https://www.structural-learning.com/post/problem-based-learning-a-teachers-guide

What is problem-based learning?

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a style of teaching that encourages students to become the drivers of their learning process . Problem-based learning involves complex learning issues from real-world problems and makes them the classroom's topic of discussion ; encouraging students to understand concepts through problem-solving skills rather than simply learning facts. When schools find time in the curriculum for this style of teaching it offers students an authentic vehicle for the integration of knowledge .

Embracing this pedagogical approach enables schools to balance subject knowledge acquisition with a skills agenda . Often used in medical education, this approach has equal significance in mainstream education where pupils can apply their knowledge to real-life problems.

PBL is not only helpful in learning course content , but it can also promote the development of problem-solving abilities , critical thinking skills , and communication skills while providing opportunities to work in groups , find and analyse research materials , and take part in life-long learning .

PBL is a student-centred teaching method in which students understand a topic by working in groups. They work out an open-ended problem , which drives the motivation to learn. These sorts of theories of teaching do require schools to invest time and resources into supporting self-directed learning. Not all curriculum knowledge is best acquired through this process, rote learning still has its place in certain situations. In this article, we will look at how we can equip our students to take more ownership of the learning process and utilise more sophisticated ways for the integration of knowledge .

Philosophical Underpinnings of PBL

Problem-Based Learning (PBL), with its roots in the philosophies of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and Jerome Bruner, aligns closely with the social constructionist view of learning. This approach positions learners as active participants in the construction of knowledge, contrasting with traditional models of instruction where learners are seen as passive recipients of information.

Dewey, a seminal figure in progressive education, advocated for active learning and real-world problem-solving, asserting that learning is grounded in experience and interaction. In PBL, learners tackle complex, real-world problems, which mirrors Dewey's belief in the interconnectedness of education and practical life.

Montessori also endorsed learner-centric, self-directed learning, emphasizing the child's potential to construct their own learning experiences. This parallels with PBL’s emphasis on self-directed learning, where students take ownership of their learning process.

Jerome Bruner’s theories underscored the idea of learning as an active, social process. His concept of a 'spiral curriculum' – where learning is revisited in increasing complexity – can be seen reflected in the iterative problem-solving process in PBL.

Webb’s Depth of Knowledge (DOK) framework aligns with PBL as it encourages higher-order cognitive skills. The complex tasks in PBL often demand analytical and evaluative skills (Webb's DOK levels 3 and 4) as students engage with the problem, devise a solution, and reflect on their work.

The effectiveness of PBL is supported by psychological theories like the information processing theory, which highlights the role of active engagement in enhancing memory and recall. A study by Strobel and Van Barneveld (2009) found that PBL students show improved retention of knowledge, possibly due to the deep cognitive processing involved.

As cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham aptly puts it, "Memory is the residue of thought." PBL encourages learners to think critically and deeply, enhancing both learning and retention.

Here's a quick overview:

John Dewey : Emphasized learning through experience and the importance of problem-solving.
Maria Montessori : Advocated for child-centered, self-directed learning.
Jerome Bruner : Underlined learning as a social process and proposed the spiral curriculum.
Webb’s DOK : Supports PBL's encouragement of higher-order thinking skills.
Information Processing Theory : Reinforces the notion that active engagement in PBL enhances memory and recall.

This deep-rooted philosophical and psychological framework strengthens the validity of the problem-based learning approach, confirming its beneficial role in promoting valuable cognitive skills and fostering positive student learning outcomes.

What are the characteristics of problem-based learning?

Adding a little creativity can change a topic into a problem-based learning activity. The following are some of the characteristics of a good PBL model:

The problem encourages students to search for a deeper understanding of content knowledge;
Students are responsible for their learning. PBL has a student-centred learning approach . Students' motivation increases when responsibility for the process and solution to the problem rests with the learner;
The problem motivates pupils to gain desirable learning skills and to defend well-informed decisions ;
The problem connects the content learning goals with the previous knowledge. PBL allows students to access, integrate and study information from multiple disciplines that might relate to understanding and resolving a specific problem—just as persons in the real world recollect and use the application of knowledge that they have gained from diverse sources in their life.
In a multistage project, the first stage of the problem must be engaging and open-ended to make students interested in the problem. In the real world, problems are poorly-structured. Research suggests that well-structured problems make students less invested and less motivated in the development of the solution. The problem simulations used in problem-based contextual learning are less structured to enable students to make a free inquiry.

In a group project, the problem must have some level of complexity that motivates students towards knowledge acquisition and to work together for finding the solution. PBL involves collaboration between learners. In professional life, most people will find themselves in employment where they would work productively and share information with others. PBL leads to the development of such essential skills . In a PBL session, the teacher would ask questions to make sure that knowledge has been shared between pupils;
At the end of each problem or PBL, self and peer assessments are performed. The main purpose of assessments is to sharpen a variety of metacognitive processing skills and to reinforce self-reflective learning.
Student assessments would evaluate student progress towards the objectives of problem-based learning. The learning goals of PBL are both process-based and knowledge-based. Students must be assessed on both these dimensions to ensure that they are prospering as intended from the PBL approach. Students must be able to identify and articulate what they understood and what they learned.

Why is Problem-based learning a significant skill?

Using Problem-Based Learning across a school promotes critical competence, inquiry , and knowledge application in social, behavioural and biological sciences. Practice-based learning holds a strong track record of successful learning outcomes in higher education settings such as graduates of Medical Schools.

Educational models using PBL can improve learning outcomes by teaching students how to implement theory into practice and build problem-solving skills. For example, within the field of health sciences education, PBL makes the learning process for nurses and medical students self-centred and promotes their teamwork and leadership skills. Within primary and secondary education settings, this model of teaching, with the right sort of collaborative tools , can advance the wider skills development valued in society.

At Structural Learning, we have been developing a self-assessment tool designed to monitor the progress of children. Utilising these types of teaching theories curriculum wide can help a school develop the learning behaviours our students will need in the workplace.

Curriculum wide collaborative tools include Writers Block and the Universal Thinking Framework . Along with graphic organisers, these tools enable children to collaborate and entertain different perspectives that they might not otherwise see. Putting learning in action by using the block building methodology enables children to reach their learning goals by experimenting and iterating.

Scaffolding problem based learning with classroom tools

How is problem-based learning different from inquiry-based learning?

The major difference between inquiry-based learning and PBL relates to the role of the teacher . In the case of inquiry-based learning, the teacher is both a provider of classroom knowledge and a facilitator of student learning (expecting/encouraging higher-order thinking). On the other hand, PBL is a deep learning approach, in which the teacher is the supporter of the learning process and expects students to have clear thinking, but the teacher is not the provider of classroom knowledge about the problem—the responsibility of providing information belongs to the learners themselves.

As well as being used systematically in medical education, this approach has significant implications for integrating learning skills into mainstream classrooms .

Using a critical thinking disposition inventory, schools can monitor the wider progress of their students as they apply their learning skills across the traditional curriculum. Authentic problems call students to apply their critical thinking abilities in new and purposeful ways. As students explain their ideas to one another, they develop communication skills that might not otherwise be nurtured.

Depending on the curriculum being delivered by a school, there may well be an emphasis on building critical thinking abilities in the classroom. Within the International Baccalaureate programs, these life-long skills are often cited in the IB learner profile . Critical thinking dispositions are highly valued in the workplace and this pedagogical approach can be used to harness these essential 21st-century skills.

What are the Benefits of Problem-Based Learning?

Student-led Problem-Based Learning is one of the most useful ways to make students drivers of their learning experience. It makes students creative, innovative, logical and open-minded. The educational practice of Problem-Based Learning also provides opportunities for self-directed and collaborative learning with others in an active learning and hands-on process. Below are the most significant benefits of problem-based learning processes:

Self-learning: As a self-directed learning method, problem-based learning encourages children to take responsibility and initiative for their learning processes . As children use creativity and research, they develop skills that will help them in their adulthood.
Engaging : Students don't just listen to the teacher, sit back and take notes. Problem-based learning processes encourages students to take part in learning activities, use learning resources , stay active , think outside the box and apply critical thinking skills to solve problems.
Teamwork : Most of the problem-based learning issues involve students collaborative learning to find a solution. The educational practice of PBL builds interpersonal skills, listening and communication skills and improves the skills of collaboration and compromise.
Intrinsic Rewards: In most problem-based learning projects, the reward is much bigger than good grades. Students gain the pride and satisfaction of finding an innovative solution, solving a riddle, or creating a tangible product.
Transferable Skills: The acquisition of knowledge through problem-based learning strategies don't just help learners in one class or a single subject area. Students can apply these skills to a plethora of subject matter as well as in real life.
Multiple Learning Opportunities : A PBL model offers an open-ended problem-based acquisition of knowledge, which presents a real-world problem and asks learners to come up with well-constructed responses. Students can use multiple sources such as they can access online resources, using their prior knowledge, and asking momentous questions to brainstorm and come up with solid learning outcomes. Unlike traditional approaches , there might be more than a single right way to do something, but this process motivates learners to explore potential solutions whilst staying active.

Solving authentic problems using problem based learning

Embracing problem-based learning

Problem-based learning can be seen as a deep learning approach and when implemented effectively as part of a broad and balanced curriculum , a successful teaching strategy in education. PBL has a solid epistemological and philosophical foundation and a strong track record of success in multiple areas of study. Learners must experience problem-based learning methods and engage in positive solution-finding activities. PBL models allow learners to gain knowledge through real-world problems, which offers more strength to their understanding and helps them find the connection between classroom learning and the real world at large.

As they solve problems, students can evolve as individuals and team-mates. One word of caution, not all classroom tasks will lend themselves to this learning theory. Take spellings , for example, this is usually delivered with low-stakes quizzing through a practice-based learning model. PBL allows students to apply their knowledge creatively but they need to have a certain level of background knowledge to do this, rote learning might still have its place after all.

Key Concepts and considerations for school leaders

1. Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational method that involves active student participation in solving authentic problems. Students are given a task or question that they must answer using their prior knowledge and resources. They then collaborate with each other to come up with solutions to the problem. This collaborative effort leads to deeper learning than traditional lectures or classroom instruction .

Key question: Inside a traditional curriculum , what opportunities across subject areas do you immediately see?

2. Deep Learning

Deep learning is a term used to describe the ability to learn concepts deeply. For example, if you were asked to memorize a list of numbers, you would probably remember the first five numbers easily, but the last number would be difficult to recall. However, if you were taught to understand the concept behind the numbers, you would be able to remember the last number too.

Key question: How will you make sure that students use a full range of learning styles and learning skills ?

3. Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of knowledge . It examines the conditions under which something counts as knowledge.

Key question: As well as focusing on critical thinking dispositions, what subject knowledge should the students understand?

4. Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general truths about human life. Philosophers examine questions such as “What makes us happy?”, “How should we live our lives?”, and “Why does anything exist?”

Key question: Are there any opportunities for embracing philosophical enquiry into the project to develop critical thinking abilities ?

5. Curriculum

A curriculum is a set of courses designed to teach specific subjects. These courses may include mathematics , science, social studies, language arts, etc.

Key question: How will subject leaders ensure that the integrity of the curriculum is maintained?

6. Broad and Balanced Curriculum

Broad and balanced curricula are those that cover a wide range of topics. Some examples of these types of curriculums include AP Biology, AP Chemistry, AP English Language, AP Physics 1, AP Psychology , AP Spanish Literature, AP Statistics, AP US History, AP World History, IB Diploma Programme, IB Primary Years Program, IB Middle Years Program, IB Diploma Programme .

Key question: Are the teachers who have identified opportunities for a problem-based curriculum?

7. Successful Teaching Strategy

Successful teaching strategies involve effective communication techniques, clear objectives, and appropriate assessments. Teachers must ensure that their lessons are well-planned and organized. They must also provide opportunities for students to interact with one another and share information.

Key question: What pedagogical approaches and teaching strategies will you use?

8. Positive Solution Finding

Positive solution finding is a type of problem-solving where students actively seek out answers rather than passively accept what others tell them.

Key question: How will you ensure your problem-based curriculum is met with a positive mindset from students and teachers?

9. Real World Application

Real-world application refers to applying what students have learned in class to situations that occur in everyday life.

Key question: Within your local school community , are there any opportunities to apply knowledge and skills to real-life problems?

10. Creativity

Creativity is the ability to think of ideas that no one else has thought of yet. Creative thinking requires divergent thinking, which means thinking in different directions.

Key question: What teaching techniques will you use to enable children to generate their own ideas ?

11. Teamwork

Teamwork is the act of working together towards a common goal. Teams often consist of two or more people who work together to achieve a shared objective.

Key question: What opportunities are there to engage students in dialogic teaching methods where they talk their way through the problem?

12. Knowledge Transfer

Knowledge transfer occurs when teachers use their expertise to help students develop skills and abilities .

Key question: Can teachers be able to track the success of the project using improvement scores?

13. Active Learning

Active learning is any form of instruction that engages students in the learning process. Examples of active learning include group discussions, role-playing, debates, presentations, and simulations .

Key question: Will there be an emphasis on learning to learn and developing independent learning skills ?

14. Student Engagement

Student engagement is the degree to which students feel motivated to participate in academic activities.

Key question: Are there any tools available to monitor student engagement during the problem-based curriculum ?

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Classroom Practice

Perbedaan PBL dan Problem Solving: Mana yang Lebih Efektif dalam Pembelajaran?

Saat belajar atau menghadapi masalah, mungkin kamu sering kali mendengar istilah PBL dan Problem Solving. Namun, apa sebenarnya perbedaan antara PBL dan problem solving tersebut? Sebelumnya, PBL atau Problem-Based Learning merupakan salah satu metode pembelajaran di mana siswa akan bersama-sama mengidentifikasi masalah dan merancang solusi untuk memecahkannya. Sedangkan, Problem Solving adalah kemampuan untuk mengatasi masalah dengan cara yang efektif dan efisien, dari tahap analisis hingga implementasi solusi.

Meski tampak serupa, PBL dan Problem Solving memiliki perbedaan yang cukup signifikan. PBL lebih menekankan pada proses pembelajaran dan kemampuan siswa dalam menjawab pertanyaan-pertanyaan yang muncul. Pada teknik ini, siswa dihadapkan pada masalah yang diharapkan dapat menggugah material dasar yang sedang dipelajari. Sementara itu, Problem Solving pada dasarnya merupakan bagian dari proses pembelajaran di mana seseorang memecahkan masalah yang sedang dihadapinya dengan kemampuan dan pengetahuan yang dimilikinya.

Bagaimana dengan cara belajar yang cocok dengan kamu? Apakah lebih memilih dihadapkan pada masalah atau menyelesaikannya? Salam belajar! Perbedaan PBL dan Problem Solving

Metode Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah (PBL) dan metode Problem Solving merupakan dua pendekatan pembelajaran yang sering digunakan di dunia pendidikan dan bisnis. Meskipun keduanya memiliki kesamaan dalam menyelesaikan masalah, namun pada dasarnya terdapat perbedaan signifikan antara PBL dan Problem Solving.

PBL adalah pendekatan pembelajaran yang menekankan pada pengembangan kemampuan berpikir kritis dan kreatif siswa. Dalam metode ini, siswa diberikan masalah kompleks dan realistis untuk dipecahkan secara mandiri atau dalam kelompok. Siswa diharapkan untuk dapat melibatkan diri secara aktif dalam memecahkan masalah tersebut dan mengintegrasikan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang telah diperoleh.
Sedangkan Problem Solving adalah suatu pendekatan untuk menyelesaikan masalah dengan konsep dan strategi yang sistematis. Pendekatan ini biasanya digunakan dalam konteks bisnis, dimana tim atau individu harus mencari solusi terbaik untuk masalah yang dihadapi. Dalam Problem Solving, para profesional memanfaatkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan yang dimiliki untuk memecahkan masalah dengan cara yang efektif dan efisien.

Perbedaan utama antara PBL dan Problem Solving adalah dalam konteks penggunaannya. PBL lebih sering digunakan dalam dunia pendidikan untuk mempromosikan pembelajaran yang aktif, sementara Problem Solving lebih sering dipraktikkan di dalam konteks profesional untuk menyelesaikan masalah bisnis. Meskipun begitu, keduanya memiliki unsur yang sama yaitu proses berpikir yang sistematis dan strategis untuk mencari solusi terbaik.

Seperti yang dapat dilihat pada tabel berikut, terdapat perbedaan lain antara PBL dan Problem Solving:

PBL	Problem Solving
Ditekankan pada pembelajaran aktif	Ditekankan pada penyelesaian masalah
Digunakan dalam pengajaran di dunia pendidikan	Digunakan dalam konteks professional dan bisnis
Cocok untuk mempromosikan kreativitas dan keterampilan berpikir kritis	Cocok untuk memecahkan masalah yang terstruktur

Secara keseluruhan, PBL dan metode Problem Solving adalah dua pendekatan pembelajaran yang berbeda. Keduanya memiliki manfaat yang unik tergantung pada konteks penggunaannya. PBL dapat membantu siswa untuk belajar secara mandiri dan meningkatkan keterampilan berpikir kritis, sedangkan Problem Solving dapat membantu profesional dan bisnis untuk menyelesaikan masalah dengan cara yang efektif dan efisien.

Pada setiap metode pembelajaran, tentunya memiliki tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Begitu pula dengan PBL (Problem Based Learning) yang memiliki tujuan yang spesifik dalam pengaplikasiannya di dalam dunia pendidikan. Tujuan PBL antara lain:

Melatih keterampilan pemecahan masalah.
Meningkatkan kemampuan kritis dan kreatif siswa.
Melatih keterampilan kerjasama dan komunikasi diantara sesama siswa.

Tujuan-tujuan tersebut tentunya menjadi hal yang penting dalam dunia pendidikan, dimana dengan memperkuat keterampilan-keterampilan tersebut, siswa diharapkan dapat menjadi pribadi yang tangkas dan mampu menghadapi tantangan yang ada di masyarakat.

Jenis-jenis Problem Solving

Problem solving adalah aktivitas yang dilakukan oleh seseorang atau kelompok untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi. Ada banyak jenis-jenis problem solving yang ada, di antaranya:

Heuristik: Jenis problem solving ini dilakukan dengan cara menggunakan pengetahuan dan pengalaman untuk menyelesaikan masalah.
Algoritma: Jenis problem solving ini dilakukan dengan cara mengikuti langkah-langkah tertentu yang sudah ditentukan untuk menyelesaikan masalah.
Metode trial dan error: Jenis problem solving ini dilakukan dengan mencoba-coba dan melakukan kesalahan untuk menyelesaikan masalah.
Pemecahan masalah sistematis: Jenis problem solving ini dilakukan dengan cara mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan menyelesaikan masalah secara sistematis.
Collaborative problem solving: Jenis problem solving ini dilakukan oleh kelompok atau tim, di mana setiap anggota saling berkolaborasi untuk menyelesaikan masalah.

Pemecahan Masalah Sistematis

Pemecahan masalah sistematis adalah metode problem solving yang populer dan banyak digunakan di berbagai bidang, seperti bisnis, teknologi, dan pendidikan. Pemecahan masalah sistematis dilakukan dengan cara mengikuti langkah-langkah tertentu, yaitu:

Mengidentifikasi masalah atau situasi yang memerlukan penyelesaian.
Mengumpulkan data dan informasi yang diperlukan untuk menganalisis masalah.
Menganalisis masalah dengan cara mengevaluasi informasi dan mengidentifikasi akar masalah.
Mengembangkan alternatif solusi yang dapat diimplementasikan.
Memilih solusi terbaik dan mengimplementasikannya.
Mengevaluasi solusi yang telah diterapkan untuk memberikan umpan balik dan melihat apakah solusi tersebut efektif atau tidak.

Pemecahan masalah sistematis dapat membantu seseorang atau kelompok untuk menyelesaikan masalah dengan lebih tepat dan efektif. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan sistematis, masalah akan dipahami dan dipecahkan dengan cara yang lebih terorganisir dan terstruktur.

Collaborative Problem Solving

Collaborative problem solving adalah metode problem solving yang melibatkan tim atau kelompok yang bekerja sama untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Metode ini dapat meningkatkan kemampuan dan keterampilan dalam menyelesaikan masalah secara efektif. Ada banyak keuntungan yang didapat dari collaborative problem solving, di antaranya:

Meningkatkan kualitas solusi yang dihasilkan.
Meningkatkan kreativitas dan inovasi dalam menyelesaikan masalah.
Meningkatkan dukungan sosial yang diberikan oleh tim atau kelompok.
Meningkatkan kepercayaan diri dan motivasi untuk menyelesaikan masalah.
Meningkatkan kemampuan untuk bekerja sama dalam suatu tim atau kelompok.

Dalam collaborative problem solving, setiap anggota tim atau kelompok akan berkontribusi dengan cara yang berbeda untuk mencapai tujuan bersama. Mereka akan membagikan pengetahuan, pengalaman, dan keterampilan dalam menyelesaikan masalah. Hal ini dapat membantu untuk menghasilkan solusi yang lebih inovatif dan efektif.

Jenis Problem Solving	Kelebihan	Kekurangan
Heuristik	Menggunakan pengetahuan dan pengalaman yang sudah ada.	Tidak selalu menghasilkan solusi yang optimal.
Algoritma	Langkah-langkah yang diajarkan dapat diikuti dengan mudah.	Hanya dapat digunakan untuk masalah yang sudah terstruktur dengan baik.
Trial dan Error	Dapat menghasilkan solusi yang tidak terduga.	Memerlukan waktu yang lama untuk menemukan solusi yang tepat.
Pemecahan Masalah Sistematis	Memungkinkan untuk menyelesaikan masalah secara terstruktur dan efektif.	Dapat memakan waktu yang lama untuk melalui setiap langkah.
Collaborative Problem Solving	Dapat meningkatkan kualitas dan kreativitas solusi yang dihasilkan.	Memerlukan waktu dan usaha untuk berkoordinasi dengan anggota tim atau kelompok.

Dalam memilih metode problem solving yang tepat, seseorang atau kelompok harus mempertimbangkan sumber daya yang tersedia, waktu yang tersedia, dan tujuan yang ingin dicapai. Setiap jenis problem solving memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan masing-masing, oleh karena itu penting untuk memilih metode yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan kondisi yang ada.

Langkah-langkah PBL

Project-Based Learning atau PBL merupakan suatu metode belajar yang memungkinkan siswa untuk memecahkan masalah dengan mengerjakan proyek-relevan di lingkungan sekitar mereka. Ada beberapa langkah yang harus dilakukan dalam PBL untuk mencapai target dan tujuan pembelajaran. Dalam artikel ini, kita akan membahas setiap langkah dari PBL secara rinci.

Langkah 1 – Identifikasi topik dan masalah

Siswa harus memilih topik dan masalah yang relevan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Hal ini akan membantu siswa untuk memecahkan masalah yang nyata dan signifikan. Sebagai contoh, siswa dapat memilih topik seputar lingkungan atau masalah sosial dalam masyarakat.

Langkah 2 – Perencanaan proyek

Pada langkah ini, siswa perlu merencanakan proyek yang akan mereka kerjakan. Siswa perlu mengidentifikasi sumber daya yang dibutuhkan dan menentukan bagaimana tugas akan diselesaikan mengikuti batas waktu yang ditentukan.

Langkah 3 – Penyelesaian proyek

Setelah merencanakan proyek, siswa melanjutkan dengan menyelesaikan proyek tersebut. Siswa akan bekerja sama dalam tim untuk mencapai tujuan mereka dan menyelesaikan tugas secara efisien.

Langkah 4 – Evaluasi proyek

Perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving

Kedua metodologi belajar ini serupa dalam hal siswa menyelesaikan masalah. Akan tetapi, perbedaan yang utama adalah dalam pendekatan yang digunakan. Problem Solving adalah sebuah teknik yang menggunakan pendekatan kritis untuk memecahkan masalah, sedangkan PBL lebih menekankan pada keterampilan bekerja sama dalam tim dan memberikan pengalaman langsung dalam menyelesaikan masalah nyata.

Melalui PBL, siswa dapat memecahkan masalah nyata sambil belajar dan mengembangkan keterampilan seperti bekerja sama dalam tim, berkomunikasi, dan kepemimpinan. Melalui langkah-langkah PBL, siswa dapat meningkatkan keterampilan multitasking, mempercepat proses pembelajaran, dan membentuk rasa percaya diri serta mandiri dalam memecahkan masalah.

Langkah-langkah PBL	Problem Solving
Menggunakan proyek nyata	Menggunakan masalah
Bekerja dalam kelompok	Individu atau kelompok kecil
Memecahkan masalah melalui proyek	Memecahkan masalah secara kritis

Tabel 1. Perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving.

Keunggulan PBL Perbedaan antara metode pembelajaran PBL dan problem solving terletak pada pendekatan dan fokus pembelajarannya. PBL berfokus pada pembelajaran dengan melibatkan siswa dalam proses riset dan kolaborasi untuk menyelesaikan sebuah masalah kompleks. Sedangkan problem solving fokus pada pembelajaran dengan menyelesaikan masalah yang diberikan tanpa melibatkan riset mendalam.

Namun, terdapat beberapa keunggulan PBL dibandingkan problem solving:

Peningkatan rasa percaya diri: Siswa yang terlibat dalam PBL merasa lebih percaya diri dengan kemampuan mereka dalam memecahkan masalah kompleks sehingga meningkatkan keterampilan problem solving mereka secara umum.
Meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir kritis: Dalam PBL, siswa dihadapkan pada masalah yang tidak memiliki satu jawaban pasti sehingga mereka harus berpikir kritis dan kreatif dalam mencari solusi.
Menumbuhkan kemampuan kolaborasi: Pembelajaran PBL melibatkan kolaborasi antar siswa dalam mencari solusi masalah sehingga mereka dapat belajar bagaimana bekerja dalam tim dan menyampaikan ide secara efektif.

Pada akhirnya, salah satu keunggulan terbesar dari PBL adalah dukungan yang diberikan pada siswa dalam mengembangkan keterampilan problem solving dan menciptakan lingkungan pembelajaran yang aktif dan interaktif. Oleh karena itu, method PBL adalah pilihan yang tepat untuk siswa yang ingin meningkatkan kemampuan problem solving mereka secara efektif dan menyenangkan.

Sumber: The Tim Ferriss Show Podcast: PBL vs Problem Solving

Perbedaan PBL dan Problem Solving

Problem-based learning (PBL) dan problem solving adalah dua metode pembelajaran yang berfokus pada pemecahan masalah, namun keduanya memiliki perbedaan utama.

PBL adalah pendekatan pembelajaran yang menempatkan mahasiswa sebagai pengambil keputusan aktif dalam memecahkan masalah melalui diskusi dan kolaborasi dengan sesama mahasiswa.
Problem solving, di sisi lain, fokus pada solusi dari masalah yang diberikan, dengan pendekatan yang lebih struktural dan terstruktur
Meskipun keduanya berfokus pada pemecahan masalah, PBL memiliki aspek berorientasi pada masalah yang lebih kuat daripada problem solving.

PBL sebagai Pembelajaran Berbasis Masalah

Dalam PBL, mahasiswa diberikan masalah nyata dan kompleks, kemudian diberikan waktu dan sumber daya untuk mengembangkan pemahaman mereka sendiri tentang masalah tersebut dan mencari solusi.

Mahasiswa melakukan diskusi dalam kelompok untuk mencari solusi masalah serta menyusun ide-ide untuk mulai menyelesaikan masalah tersebut. Misalnya, dalam kasus matematika, mahasiswa diminta untuk menyelesaikan perhitungan matematika rumit yang melibatkan banyak variabel dan faktor.

Problem Solving Sebagai Metode Struktural

Problem solving, pada dasarnya, adalah sekelompok teknik yang digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan menyelesaikan masalah. Pendekatan struktural digunakan untuk mengontrol solusi dari masalah yang diberikan dan pastinya lebih terstruktur dari PBL.

Berikut adalah contoh tabel yang membandingkan PBL dan Proble Solving

PBL	Problem Solving
Mahasiswa berkolaborasi untuk mendefinisikan masalah dan mencari solusinya	Solusi diberikan melalui pendekatan terstruktur dan metodis
Lebih berfokus pada pemahaman masalah dan konsep-konsep yang terkait	Lebih berfokus pada menyelesaikan masalah yang diberikan

Dari tabel tersebut, dapat dilihat bahwa meskipun keduanya berfokus pada pemecahan masalah, PBL dan problem solving memiliki perbedaan yang signifikan dalam pendekatan dan fokus mereka.

Problem-based Learning (PBL) dan Problem Solving adalah dua pendekatan pembelajaran yang sering digunakan di sekolah dan universitas. Meskipun terdengar mirip, kedua konsep ini memiliki perbedaan dalam pendekatannya dan cara mereka diterapkan. Di bawah ini adalah beberapa perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving:

Perbedaan Pendekatan dan Tujuan

PBL adalah pendekatan pembelajaran di mana siswa bekerja sama dalam kelompok untuk menemukan solusi atas masalah yang mereka hadapi. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengembangkan keterampilan berpikir kritis, keterampilan sosial, dan kemampuan belajar sepanjang hayat.
Problem Solving adalah proses untuk menyelesaikan masalah dengan mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan menyelesaikan masalah yang dihadapi. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengembangkan keterampilan analitis dan pemecahan masalah.

Perbedaan pada Jenis Masalah

PBL mengarah pada masalah yang kompleks dan lebih luas. Masalahnya biasanya tidak memiliki satu jawaban benar dan mengharuskan siswa untuk melakukan penelitian yang mendalam. Proble Solving terfokus pada masalah yang lebih spesifik dengan solusi yang jelas.

Perbedaan pada Pembelajaran Berbasis Proyek

PBL cenderung mengintegrasikan pembelajaran ke dalam proyek untuk memecahkan masalah yang kompleks. Siswa akan mengembangkan proyek mereka sendiri, mengeksplorasi isu-isu yang terkait dengan masalah, dan mempresentasikan solusi mereka. Sebaliknya, Problem Solving tidak selalu terkait dengan proyek lebih banyak berfokus pada pembuatan keputusan dari solusi yang ada.

Perbedaan pada Keterlibatan Dosen

Dosen lebih terlibat dalam memberikan panduan dan umpan balik dalam PBL karena ada penggunaan kelompok yang berinteraksi, meskipun banyak belajar juga bisa dilakukan oleh murid itu sendiri. Di sisi lain, pada Problem Solving, dosennya hanya membantu dalam menetapkan batasan masalah yang akan diselesaikan oleh siswa.

Perbedaan pada Evaluasi

PBL	Problem Solving
Menggambarkan pemahaman siswa melalui presentasi dan laporan kelompok	Menggambarkan pemahaman siswa melalui tes dan ujian yang cenderung menguji pemahaman siswa di bidang khusus

Dalam pengajaran, penting untuk memahami perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving. PBL mendorong siswa untuk berpikir dan belajar secara kritis dalam konteks kehidupan nyata, sementara Problem Solving membantu siswa mengembangkan keterampilan analitis ketika mereka menemukan solusi atas masalah yang diberikan.

Konsep dan Prinsip Dasar PBL

PBL atau Problem Based Learning adalah pendekatan pembelajaran yang mengutamakan pemecahan masalah sebagai landasan utama dalam proses pembelajaran. Terdapat beberapa prinsip dasar yang mendasari PBL.

Pembelajaran berpusat pada peserta didik
Peserta didik menjadi aktif dalam proses pembelajaran
Peserta didik bekerja dalam kelompok untuk memecahkan masalah
Problem solving menjadi fokus utama pembelajaran
Pembelajaran dilakukan dengan pendekatan interdisipliner
Materi pembelajaran bersifat autentik dan relevan dengan kehidupan nyata

Dalam PBL, peserta didik akan dihadapkan pada masalah atau situasi yang kompleks dan berbeda-beda pada setiap kesempatan. Peserta didik kemudian diminta untuk mencari solusi dari masalah tersebut melalui proses pengamatan, pemikiran, dan refleksi secara kritis dan kreatif.

Didalam PBL, prinsip dasar tersebut menjadi pedoman bagi pengajar untuk merancang pembelajaran yang menantang dan membangun kemampuan berpikir siswa secara holistik. Selain itu, PBL juga dapat meningkatkan kemampuan siswa dalam berkomunikasi, bekerja sama, dan memecahkan masalah yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan sehari-hari.

Persamaan	Perbedaan
Focus pada masalah	Focus pada pemecahan masalah
Memperhatikan hasil belajar	Memperhatikan proses belajar
Merancang materi utama merupakan tugas pengajar	Merancang materi merupakan tugas siswa
Melakukan pembelajaran secara kolektif dan individu	Melakukan pembelajaran secara kelompok

Jadi, PBL dan problem solving memang memiliki kesamaan dalam hal fokus pada masalah. Namun, PBL lebih menekankan pada proses pemecahan masalah secara kreatif dan holistik, sedangkan problem solving hanya berfokus pada solusi dari masalah itu sendiri. Selain itu, PBL juga memberikan peran yang lebih aktif pada peserta didik, baik dalam merancang materi maupun mengambil keputusan.

Peran Guru dalam PBL

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) adalah metode pembelajaran yang memperkenalkan siswa pada kasus atau masalah dunia nyata sebagai titik awal untuk belajar. Proses belajar berpusat pada pemecahan masalah untuk menyelesaikan kasus tersebut. Guru memiliki peran penting dalam menjalankan metode pembelajaran PBL agar dapat efektif dan efisien.

Sebagai fasilitator pembelajaran: Guru berperan sebagai fasilitator dalam proses pembelajaran PBL. Mereka tidak lagi hanya memberikan materi, tetapi membantu siswa dalam memahami materi dan menunjukkan cara untuk memecahkan masalah.
Memilih kasus yang relevan: Guru juga memiliki peran dalam memilih kasus atau masalah dunia nyata yang relevan dengan materi pembelajaran. Kasus yang dipilih harus menarik dan menggugah minat siswa untuk belajar lebih dalam.
Mendorong kolaborasi antar siswa: Pada metode pembelajaran PBL, siswa bekerja sama dalam kelompok untuk menyelesaikan masalah. Guru berperan dalam memastikan adanya kolaborasi antar siswa, sehingga mereka dapat memecahkan masalah dengan lebih efektif.

Guru juga perlu memberikan bimbingan kepada siswa dalam menerapkan metode PBL. Berikut adalah beberapa hal yang dapat dilakukan oleh guru untuk memberikan bimbingan secara efektif:

Memberikan arahan: Guru memberikan arahan atau petunjuk yang jelas mengenai langkah-langkah yang perlu diambil untuk memecahkan masalah.
Mendorong refleksi: Guru mendorong siswa untuk merefleksikan proses pembelajaran dan mengevaluasi hasil yang telah dicapai.
Mendorong kreativitas: Selama proses pembelajaran, guru perlu mendorong siswa untuk berpikir kreatif dan memunculkan ide-ide terbaru.

Pada dasarnya, PBL dan Problem Solving memiliki konsep yang sama, yaitu memecahkan masalah. Namun, terdapat perbedaan mendasar antara keduanya:

PBL lebih fokus pada proses pembelajaran, sedangkan Problem Solving lebih fokus pada pencarian solusi.
PBL melibatkan kelompok siswa dalam pemecahan masalah, sedangkan Problem Solving lebih sering dilakukan secara individu.
PBL menggunakan masalah dunia nyata sebagai titik awal pembelajaran, sedangkan Problem Solving dapat menggunakan masalah apa saja sebagai bahan untuk mencari solusi.

Tabel Perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving

	PBL	Problem Solving
Fokus	Proses pembelajaran	Pencarian solusi
Jumlah siswa yang terlibat	Kelompok	Individu
Titik awal pembelajaran	Masalah dunia nyata	Bisa apa saja

Dengan mengetahui perbedaan antara PBL dan Problem Solving, guru dapat memutuskan metode pembelajaran mana yang sesuai untuk diimplementasikan pada materi pembelajaran yang dimiliki.

Peran Siswa dalam PBL

Problem-based learning (PBL) dapat dikatakan sebagai metode pembelajaran aktif yang menekankan pada peran siswa dalam memecahkan masalah. Oleh karena itu, peran siswa dalam PBL sangat penting dan harus dimengerti dengan baik. Berikut ini adalah penjelasan mengenai peran siswa dalam PBL:

Siswa sebagai pemecah masalah: Dalam PBL, siswa adalah pemecah masalah yang sebenarnya. Mereka dituntut untuk memecahkan suatu masalah atau tantangan yang diberikan dengan menggunakan berbagai macam sumber informasi.
Siswa sebagai pembelajar aktif: Siswa diharapkan untuk sangat aktif dalam pembelajaran karena mereka harus memecahkan suatu masalah. Mereka harus mencari sumber daya, berfikir kritis, dan mempresentasikan hasil pekerjaan mereka.
Siswa sebagai pengorganisasi: Siswa harus bertanggung jawab dalam mengorganisir pekerjaan mereka. Mereka harus merencanakan dan menjadwalkan kegiatan mulai dari analisis awal hingga presentasi akhir.
Siswa sebagai pemimpin: Dalam PBL, siswa diberi kebebasan untuk menentukan dan memimpin tim mereka sendiri. Hal ini menuntut siswa untuk bisa bekerja dalam kelompok dan memimpin kelompok tersebut agar dapat mencapai tujuan bersama.
Siswa sebagai evaluator: Siswa harus mengevaluasi pekerjaan mereka sendiri dan juga pekerjaan anggota tim mereka. Hal ini bertujuan untuk memastikan bahwa pekerjaan yang dihasilkan memenuhi standar yang diharapkan.

Selain peran di atas, siswa juga harus memiliki kemampuan-kemampuan tertentu agar dapat berhasil dalam PBL, antara lain:

Kemampuan mencari sumber daya: Siswa harus mampu mencari dan mengambil sumber daya secara efektif dan efisien untuk memecahkan masalah yang diberikan.
Kemampuan berkolaborasi: Siswa harus mampu bekerja sama dengan anggota tim mereka dan berkolaborasi dengan baik.
Kemampuan berfikir kritis: Siswa harus mampu mengembangkan kemampuan berfikir kritis untuk mengidentifikasi isu-isu yang muncul dalam pemecahan masalah.
Kemampuan presentasi: Siswa harus mampu membuat presentasi yang baik dan efektif untuk mempresentasikan hasil pekerjaan mereka.

Berdasarkan tabel di bawah ini, dapat dilihat bahwa keberhasilan PBL sangat bergantung pada peran siswa dalam proses pembelajaran:

	Peran Guru	Peran Siswa
PBL berhasil	Mendukung pembelajaran	Memimpin pemecahan masalah
PBL tidak berhasil	Berperan sebagai ahli	Menunggu informasi

Dalam PBL, siswa memiliki peran yang sangat penting dalam memecahkan masalah dan mencapai tujuan pembelajaran. Oleh karena itu, siswa harus berperan aktif dan memiliki kemampuan-kemampuan tertentu agar dapat berhasil dalam PBL.

Penggunaan Teknologi dalam PBL

PBL atau problem-based learning adalah metode pembelajaran di mana siswa diajak untuk menyelesaikan masalah dalam dunia nyata sebagai sarana untuk belajar. Penggunaan teknologi di dalam PBL memainkan peran penting dalam membantu siswa mencapai tujuan pembelajaran yang telah ditetapkan. Berikut adalah beberapa cara di mana teknologi dapat digunakan di dalam PBL:

Mempelajari dasar-dasar teknologi: Setiap proyek PBL menuntut siswa untuk menggunakan beberapa jenis teknologi, misalnya untuk membangun website atau membuat video. Penting bagi siswa untuk memahami dasar-dasar teknologi ini agar dapat melaksanakan proyek dengan baik. Maka, guru dapat menyediakan panduan tutorial video atau live demo untuk membantu siswa memahami penggunaan teknologi secara tepat.
Menyelesaikan masalah menggunakan software: Ada berbagai jenis software yang dapat membantu siswa memecahkan masalah yang mereka hadapi. Misalnya, Microsoft Excel dapat membantu mengelola data dan mengekstrak informasi dari data tersebut. Software presentasi seperti Powerpoint dan Prezi dapat membantu siswa menyusun informasi mereka ke dalam presentasi yang efektif. Guru dapat melatih siswa dalam penggunaan software tersebut agar mereka dapat memanfaatkan teknologi sebaik mungkin.
Penggunaan internet: Internet menyediakan sumber informasi yang melimpah yang dapat membantu siswa dalam menyelesaikan masalah mereka. Misalnya, mereka dapat melakukan penelitian tentang topik tertentu atau mencari solusi bagi masalah yang dihadapi. Meskipun seperti itu, guru harus memperhatikan untuk memberi panduan tentang bagaimana siswa dapat mengakses dan menggunakan informasi yang tepat dan berkualitas dari internet.

Penggunaan Teknologi secara Global

Penggunaan teknologi dalam PBL dapat membantu siswa memperluas pandangan mereka secara global. Beberapa cara di mana teknologi dapat membantu siswa lebih memahami dunia adalah sebagai berikut:

Komunikasi: Teknologi seperti Skype dan e-mail memungkinkan siswa untuk berkomunikasi secara online dengan orang seluruh dunia. Hal ini membuka peluang untuk menjalin hubungan dengan orang-orang dari budaya yang berbeda dan dapat membantu meningkatkan wawasan siswa tentang cara berpikir dan bekerja di negara lain.
Platform pembelajaran online: Ada banyak platform pembelajaran online yang tersedia, misalnya seperti Edmodo, Moodle, dan Google Classroom. Platform-platform ini dapat membantu siswa belajar melalui kursus online yang tersedia dari mana saja di dunia dan belajar melalui diskusi dan tugas yang terstruktur.
Penggunaan media sosial: Media sosial dapat membantu siswa membangun jaringan dan koneksi dengan orang-orang di seluruh dunia. Melalui media sosial, siswa dapat berhubungan dengan peneliti atau ahli dalam bidang tertentu untuk memperdalam pemahaman mereka tentang proyek PBL yang sedang dilakukan.

Tabel Perbandingan PBL dan Problem Solving

PBL dan problem solving adalah metode pembelajaran yang mirip, namun ada perbedaan utama antara keduanya. Berikut adalah tabel perbandingan di antara keduanya:

PBL	Problem Solving
Lebih terstruktur dan terorganisir dengan tujuan pembelajaran yang jelas.	Tidak terstruktur dan lebih fokus pada memecahkan masalah.
Siswa diajak untuk menyelesaikan masalah di dunia nyata.	Siswa diajak untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang abstrak atau teoretis.
Lebih fokus pada proses pembelajaran dan pembangunan keterampilan “soft-skill” seperti kemampuan berpikir kritis, pemecahan masalah, berkolaborasi, dan komunikasi.	Lebih fokus pada hasil yang dapat diukur seperti solusi atau jawaban yang ditemukan.

PBL versus Metode Konvensional

Problem Based Learning (PBL) dan problem solving merupakan dua metode pembelajaran yang sering digunakan di dalam pendidikan. Dalam hal ini, PBL dan problem solving memiliki beberapa perbedaan yang signifikan.

PBL mengajarkan para siswa untuk belajar dari pengalaman dan mencari solusi terhadap masalah yang dihadapi. Sedangkan metode konvensional lebih cenderung pada pemberian materi secara teoritis dan memberikan tes atau tugas yang berkaitan langsung dengan materi tersebut.
PBL lebih menekankan pada kemampuan berpikir kritis, kreatif, dan berkolaborasi dari para siswa. Sedangkan metode konvensional lebih fokus pada penguasaan materi dan keterampilan berhitung.
Para siswa pada PBL harus belajar bagaimana menyelesaikan masalah, sedangkan pada metode konvensional lebih banyak mengerjakan soal yang serupa.

Secara keseluruhan, perbedaan paling signifikan antara PBL dan metode konvensional terletak pada pendekatan pembelajaran yang digunakan. PBL lebih menekankan pada pengalaman dan penerapan nyata dalam menyelesaikan masalah, sedangkan metode konvensional lebih menekankan pada penguasaan konsep dan keterampilan.

Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa siswa yang belajar dengan metode PBL cenderung memiliki tingkat pemahaman yang lebih baik dan kemampuan berpikir kritis yang lebih tinggi daripada mereka yang belajar dengan metode konvensional. Namun, pada saat yang sama, PBL juga memiliki kelemahan, seperti memerlukan waktu lebih lama untuk menyelesaikan tugas dan memerlukan upaya lebih besar dari para siswa untuk mencari solusi terhadap masalah yang diberikan.

PBL	Metode Konvensional
Belajar dari pengalaman	Pemberian materi secara teoritis
Mengembangkan kemampuan berpikir kritis, kreatif, dan berkolaborasi	Lebih fokus pada penguasaan materi dan keterampilan berhitung
Menyelesaikan masalah	Mengerjakan soal yang serupa

Jadi, PBL dan metode konvensional memiliki kelebihan dan kekurangan masing-masing. Namun, ketika dipilih dengan tepat dan disesuaikan dengan karakteristik siswa, kedua metode ini dapat menjadi cara yang efektif untuk meningkatkan kemampuan siswa dalam menghadapi permasalahan dan memperkuat pemahaman konsep yang diperoleh.

Sampai Jumpa Lagi, Teman-Teman!

Itulah perbedaan antara PBL dan problem solving, teman-teman. Semoga artikel ini dapat memberikan manfaat bagi kalian yang sedang belajar, terutama dalam memilih metode pembelajaran yang tepat. Terima kasih sudah membaca artikel ini sampai selesai. Jangan lupa untuk selalu kunjungi website kami untuk mendapatkan informasi menarik dan bermanfaat lainnya. Sampai jumpa lagi!

Perbedaan PBL dan PJBL: Apa yang Harus Anda Ketahui? Apa Itu Strategi Pembelajaran dan Bagaimana Cara Memilih yang Tepat? Perbedaan CTL dan PBL: Metode Pembelajaran yang Berbeda Namun Efektif Perbedaan PBL dan PJBL PDF: Membedah Kelebihan dan Kekurangan Kedua Metode Pembelajaran

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Problem-Based and Inquiry-Based Learning: What’s the difference?

Sep 30th, 2019 by Kathryn Mulholland

“If your goal is to engage students in critical thinking… you need to present interesting challenges to solve, rather than simply explaining how other smart people have already solved those challenges.” – Therese Huston

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) are both student-centered teaching pedagogies that encourage active learning and critical thinking through investigation. Both methods offer students interesting problems to consider. And research shows that both PBL and IBL are effective models of learning.

So, what’s the difference between the two?

According to Banchi and Bell [4], there are four different levels of inquiry.

Confirmation Inquiry: Students confirm a principle through an activity when the results are known in advance.
Structured Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure.
Guided Inquiry: Students investigate a teacher-presented question using student designed or selected procedures.
Open Inquiry: Students investigate questions that are student formulated through student designed or selected procedures.

Most academics define Inquiry-Based-Learning as a pedagogy that is based on one of these levels. So IBL can be as methodical as guiding students through a procedure to discover a known result or as free-form as encouraging students to formulate original questions. For example, in a Physics laboratory, suppose the topic is Newton’s Second Law of Motion. The lab instructions could define a procedure to record the mass and impact force of various objects. Multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity, the students should recover the force they recorded, thus confirming Newton’s Second Law.

Problem-Based-Learning can be classified as guided inquiry where the teacher-presented question is an unsolved, real-world problem. For example, in a Middle Eastern Studies course, the main problem posed by the instructor could be “Propose a solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.” This question will motivate the study of the history of the region, the theological differences between Judaism and Islam, and current events. At the end of the semester, students would be expected to present and justify their solution.

Therefore, using the definition above, PBL is a type of IBL .

PBL is great because it motivates course content and maximizes learning via investigation, explanation, and resolution of real and meaningful problems. At any level, inquiry can be an effective method of learning because it is student-centered and encourages the development of practical skills and higher-level thinking.

As you plan for your next class, I invite you to reflect on your method of content delivery. Is it motivated? How? Would your students benefit from a day based on inquiry?

References.

Inquiry Based Learning. University of Notre Dame Notes on Teaching and Learning. https://sites.nd.edu/kaneb/2014/11/10/inquiry-based-learning/ .
Problem-Based Learning. Cornell University Center for Teaching Innovation . https://teaching.cornell.edu/teaching-resources/engaging-students/problem-based-learning .
Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E.; Duncan, Ravit Golan; Chinn, Clark A. (2007). “Scaffolding and Achievement in Problem-Based and Inquiry Learning: A Response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)”. Educational Psychologi st. 42 (2): 99–107. doi : 10.1080/00461520701263368 .
Banchi, H., & Bell R. (2008). The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children.

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Med Sci Educ
v.31(3); 2021 Jun

Effective Learning Behavior in Problem-Based Learning: a Scoping Review

Azril shahreez abdul ghani.

1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Kulliyah of Medicine, Bandar Indera Mahkota Campus, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan, 25200 Pahang Malaysia

2 Department of Medical Education, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, 16150 Kelantan Malaysia

Ahmad Fuad Abdul Rahim

Muhamad saiful bahri yusoff, siti nurma hanim hadie.

3 Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Kubang Kerian, 16150 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Malaysia

Problem-based learning (PBL) emphasizes learning behavior that leads to critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaborative skills in preparing students for a professional medical career. However, learning behavior that develops these skills has not been systematically described. This review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in a PBL context, using the protocol by Arksey and O’Malley. The protocol identified the research question, selected relevant studies, charted and collected data, and collated, summarized, and reported results. We discovered three categories of elements—intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills—proven effective in the achievement of learning outcomes in PBL.

Introduction

Problem-based learning (PBL) is an educational approach that utilizes the principles of collaborative learning in small groups, first introduced by McMaster Medical University [ 1 ]. The shift of the higher education curriculum from traditional, lecture-based approaches to an integrated, student-centered approach was triggered by concern over the content-driven nature of medical knowledge with minimal clinical application [ 2 ]. The PBL pedagogy uses a systematic approach, starting with an authentic, real-life problem scenario as a context in which learning is not separated from practice as students collaborate and learn [ 3 ]. The tutor acts as a facilitator who guides the students’ learning, while students are required to solve the problems by discussing them with group members [ 4 ]. The essential aspect of the PBL process is the ability of the students to recognize their current knowledge, determine the gaps in their knowledge and experience, and acquire new knowledge to bridge the gaps [ 5 ]. PBL is a holistic approach that gives students an active role in their learning.

Since its inception, PBL has been used in many undergraduate and postgraduate degree programs, such as medicine [ 6 , 7 ], nursing [ 8 ], social work education [ 9 ], law [ 10 ], architecture [ 11 ], economics [ 12 ], business [ 13 ], science [ 14 ], and engineering [ 15 ]. It has also been applied in elementary and secondary education [ 16 – 18 ]. Despite its many applications, its implementation is based on a single universal workflow framework that contains three elements: problem as the initiator for learning, tutor as a facilitator in the group versions, and group work as a stimulus for collaborative interaction [ 19 ]. However, there are various versions of PBL workflow, such as the seven-step technique based on the Maastricht “seven jumps” process. The tutor’s role is to ensure the achievement of learning objectives and to assess students’ performance [ 20 , 21 ].

The PBL process revolves around four types of learning principles: constructive, self-directed, collaborative, and contextual [ 19 ]. Through the constructive learning process, the students are encouraged to think about what is already known and integrate their prior knowledge with their new understanding. This process helps the student understand the content, form a new opinion, and acquire new knowledge [ 22 ]. The PBL process encourages students to become self-directed learners who plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning, enabling them to become lifelong learners [ 23 ]. The contextualized collaborative learning process also promotes interaction among students, who share similar responsibilities to achieve common goals relevant to the learning context [ 24 ]. By exchanging ideas and providing feedback during the learning session, the students can attain a greater understanding of the subject matter [ 25 ].

Dolmans et al. [ 19 ] pointed out two issues related to the implementation of PBL: dominant facilitators and dysfunctional PBL groups. These problems inhibit students’ self-directed learning and reduce their satisfaction level with the PBL session. A case study by Eryilmaz [ 26 ] that evaluated engineering students’ and tutors’ experience of PBL discovered that PBL increased the students’ self-confidence and improved essential skills such as problem-solving, communications, critical thinking, and collaboration. Although most of the participants in the study found PBL satisfactory, many complained about the tutor’s poor guidance and lack of preparation. Additionally, it was noted that 64% of the first-year students were unable to adapt to the PBL system because they had been accustomed to conventional learning settings and that 43% of students were not adequately prepared for the sessions and thus were minimally involved in the discussion.

In a case study by Cónsul-giribet [ 27 ], newly graduated nursing professionals reported a lack of perceived theoretical basic science knowledge at the end of their program, despite learning through PBL. The nurses perceived that this lack of knowledge might affect their expertise, identity, and professional image.

Likewise, a study by McKendree [ 28 ] reported the outcomes of a workshop that explored the strengths and weaknesses of PBL in an allied health sciences curriculum in the UK. The workshop found that problems related to PBL were mainly caused by students, the majority of whom came from conventional educational backgrounds either during high school or their first degree. They felt anxious when they were involved in PBL, concerned about “not knowing when to stop” in exploring the learning needs. Apart from a lack of basic science knowledge, the knowledge acquired during PBL sessions remains unorganized [ 29 ]. Hence, tutors must guide students in overcoming this situation by instilling appropriate insights and essential skills for the achievement of the learning outcomes [ 30 ]. It was also evident that the combination of intention and motivation to learn and desirable learning behavior determined the quality of learning outcomes [ 31 , 32 ]. However, effective learning behaviors that help develop these skills have not been systematically described. Thus, this scoping review aimed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior in the PBL context.

Scoping Review Protocol

This scoping review was performed using a protocol by Arksey and O’Malley [ 33 ]. The protocol comprises five phases: (i) identification of research questions, (ii) identification of relevant articles, (iii) selection of relevant studies, (iv) data collection and charting, and (v) collating, summarizing, and reporting the results.

Identification of Research Questions

This scoping review was designed to unearth the elements of effective learning behavior that can be generated from learning through PBL instruction. The review aimed to answer one research question: “What are the effective learning behavior elements related to PBL?” For the purpose of the review, an operational definition of effective learning behavior was constructed, whereby it was defined as any learning behavior that is related to PBL instruction and has been shown to successfully attain the desired learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, skill, or affective)—either quantitatively or qualitatively—in any intervention conducted in higher education institutions.

The positive outcome variables include student viewpoint or perception, student learning experience and performance, lecturer viewpoint and expert judgment, and other indirect variables that may be important indicators of successful PBL learning (i.e., attendance to PBL session, participation in PBL activity, number of interactions in PBL activity, and improvement in communication skills in PBL).

Identification of Relevant Articles

An extensive literature search was conducted on articles published in English between 2015 and 2019. Three databases—Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed—were used for the literature search. Seven search terms with the Boolean combination were used, whereby the keywords were identified from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) databases. The search terms were tested and refined with multiple test searches. The final search terms with the Boolean operation were as follows: “problem-based learning” AND (“learning behavior” OR “learning behaviour”) AND (student OR “medical students” OR undergraduate OR “medical education”).

Selection of Relevant Articles

The articles from the three databases were exported manually into Microsoft Excel. The duplicates were removed, and the remaining articles were reviewed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. These criteria were tested on titles and abstracts to ensure their robustness in capturing the articles related to learning behavior in PBL. The shortlisted articles were reviewed by two independent researchers, and a consensus was reached either to accept or reject each article based on the set criteria. When a disagreement occurred between the two reviewers, the particular article was re-evaluated independently by the third and fourth researchers (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), who have vast experience in conducting qualitative research. The sets of criteria for selecting abstracts and final articles were developed. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are listed in Table Table1 1 .

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Criteria	Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria
Criteria for abstract selection	1. Describe at least one effective learning behaviour in PBL setting in higher education setting 2. Provides evidence of a robust study design that is not limited to randomized controlled trials 3. Provides evidence of evaluation of a PBL 4. Outcomes of the study that are measurable either quantitatively or qualitatively	1. Primary and secondary students’ populations 2. Primary and secondary education context
Criteria for full article selection	1. Elaboration on the elements of effective learning behaviour are provided 2. Clear methodology on the measurement of the outcome 3. PBL context 4. Functional element that has been proven to promote learning 5. Well design research intervention	1. Review articles, published theses, books, research report, editorial and letters will be excluded from the searching process

Criteria

Inclusion criteria

Exclusion criteria

Criteria for abstract selection

1. Describe at least one effective learning behaviour in PBL setting in higher education setting

2. Provides evidence of a robust study design that is not limited to randomized controlled trials

3. Provides evidence of evaluation of a PBL

4. Outcomes of the study that are measurable either quantitatively or qualitatively

1. Primary and secondary students’ populations

2. Primary and secondary education context

Criteria for full article selection

1. Elaboration on the elements of effective learning behaviour are provided

2. Clear methodology on the measurement of the outcome

3. PBL context

4. Functional element that has been proven to promote learning

5. Well design research intervention

1. Review articles, published theses, books, research report, editorial and letters will be excluded from the searching process

Data Charting

The selected final articles were reviewed, and several important data were extracted to provide an objective summary of the review. The extracted data were charted in a table, including the (i) title of the article, (ii) author(s), (iii) year of publication, (iv) aim or purpose of the study, (v) study design and method, (iv) intervention performed, and (v) study population and sample size.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

A content analysis was performed to identify the elements of effective learning behaviors in the literature by A.S.A.G and S.N.H.H, who have experience in conducting qualitative studies. The initial step of content analysis was to read the selected articles thoroughly to gain a general understanding of the articles and extract the elements of learning behavior which are available in the articles. Next, the elements of learning behavior that fulfil the inclusion criteria were extracted. The selected elements that were related to each other through their content or context were grouped into subtheme categories. Subsequently, the combinations of several subthemes expressing similar underlying meanings were grouped into themes. Each of the themes and subthemes was given a name, which was operationally defined based on the underlying elements. The selected themes and subthemes were presented to the independent researchers in the team (M.S.B.Y and A.F.A.R), and a consensus was reached either to accept or reformulate each of the themes and subthemes. The flow of the scoping review methods for this study is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 40670_2021_1292_Fig1_HTML.jpg

The flow of literature search and article selection

Literature Search

Based on the keyword search, 1750 articles were obtained. Duplicate articles that were not original articles found in different databases and resources were removed. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria of title selection, the eligibility of 1750 abstracts was evaluated. The articles that did not fulfil the criteria were removed, leaving 328 articles for abstract screening. A total of 284 articles were screened according to the eligibility criteria for abstract selection. Based on these criteria, 284 articles were selected and screened according to the eligibility criteria for full article selection. Fourteen articles were selected for the final review. The information about these articles is summarized in Table Table2 2 .

Studies characteristics

Author (year)	Location	Study design/method	Subjects	Intervention	Outcome
Arana-Arexolaleiba et al. [ ]	Spain	Quasi-experimental design (one group pretest–posttest design) Questionnaire only	97 undergraduate engineering students and 20 tutors	Assessing PBL learning environment and supervision on student learning approach	Environments with higher constructive variables and supervisor formative assessment stimulate deeper learning approach in students
Khoiriyah et al. [ ]	Indonesia	Quasi-experimental design (one group posttest-only design) and semi-structured interview Questionnaire & Interview protocol	310 undergraduate students, 10 tutors and 15 content experts	Evaluating self-assessment scale for active learning and critical thinking (SSACT) in PBL	SSACT improves students critical thinking and self-directed learning
Khumsikiew et al. [ ]	Thailand	Quasi-experimental design (one group pretest–posttest design) Questionnaire only	36 undergraduate pharmacy students	Assessing the effect of student competence in PBL with clinical environment	Student clinical skills performance and satisfaction was significantly increase in the PBL with clinical environment
Rakhudu [ ]	South Africa	Sequential explanatory mixed method design and focus group discussion Questionnaire	135 undergraduate nursing students (2011–2013 academic year) 21 participate in FGD 114 participate in questionnaire	Evaluating the effect of PBL scenario in quality improvement in health care unit on nursing student	PBL scenario effective in promoting interdisciplinary and interinstitutional collaboration
Tarhan et al. [ ]	Turkey	Quasi-experimental design (one group pretest–posttest design) and semi-structured interview Questionnaire and Interviews protocol	36 undergraduate biochemistry course students	Evaluating the effect of PBL on student interest in biochemistry course	PBL Improve students investigating process, associate information’s, collaborative skills, responsibility and idea expressions
Chou et al. [ ]	China	Sequential explanatory mixed method design Observation checklist and post-PBL homework reflections	45 undergraduate medical students and 44 undergraduate nursing students All students participate All students participate but only the IP groups were analyzed	Assessing the effect interprofessional PBL in learning clinical ethics	The IPE learning through PBL improve respect towards each other and avoid the development of stereotyped behavior
Chung et al. [ ]	China	Quasi-experimental design (one group pretest–posttest design) and action research Observation, instructional journal, interviews protocol and questionnaire	51 undergraduate business students	Evaluating the effect of PBL on students learning outcome s of industrial-oriented competences	Significantly enhanced students’ learning motivation, learning outcomes and development of instructional knowledge and capability
Geitz et al. [ ]	Netherlands	Semi-structured interview Interview protocol	62 undergraduate students and 4 tutors in business administration 8 students (selected randomly) and all 4 tutors were selected for the qualitative study	Evaluating the effect of sustainable feedback on self-efficacy and goal orientation given during the PBL sessions	PBL participants positively valued the feedback, their personal characteristics, previous experience with feedback and concomitant perceptions appeared to have greatly influenced both tutors’ and students’ specific, individual behavior, and responses
Dawilai et al. [ ]	Thailand	Quasi-experimental design (one group posttest-only design) and interview Questionnaire and interview protocol	29 English foreign language students All participate in the questionnaire 10 students with improvement in writing course were selected for the interview	Evaluating self-regulated learning in problem-based blended learning (PBBL)	PBBL students reported to apply cognitive strategy and effectively used their time and study environment
Gutman [ ]	Israel	Quasi-experimental design (non-equivalent control group posttest-only design) Questionnaire only	62 pre-service teachers	Evaluating achievement goal motivation (AGM) and research literacy skills (RL) between PBL process scaffolding with moderator-based learning (OLC + M) and social based learning (OLC + S)	The PBL participants reported to show significant improvement in AGM Only OLC + S showed significant improvement in RL
Li [ ]	China	Semi-structured interview Interview protocol	14 students	Evaluating student learning outcome and attitude between single disciplinary course PBL and lecture	The PBL participants reported to have better outcome in interdisciplinary learning, self-directed learning, problem solving, creative thinking, communication and knowledge retentions. They also showed positive attitude of PBL is they recognize its effectiveness in skill development rather than exam oriented
Asad et al. [ ]	Saudi Arabia	Cross-sectional study (period cross sectional) Questionnaire only	120 undergraduate medical students	Evaluating student opinion on effectiveness of PBL and interactive lectures	The PBL participants reported to have better outcome in modes of learning facilitation, professional development, learning behavior, and environment
Hursen [ ]	Cyprus	Quasi-experimental design (one group pretest–posttest design) and interview Questionnaire and interview protocol	25 students	Evaluating the effect of using Facebook in PBL on adults’ self-efficacy perception for research inquiry	The PBL participants reported to have positive increase in perception of self-efficacy for sustaining research
William et al. [ ]	Singapore	Quasi-experimental design (non-equivalent control group posttest-only design) Questionnaire only	149 students	Evaluating the effect of supply chain game in PBL environment	The game based PBL reported to increase score on metacognition function and motivation function. The game based PBL also showed significant correlation between motivation and positive game experience with the students’ perceived learning

Study Characteristics

The final 14 articles were published between 2015 and 2019. The majority of the studies were conducted in Western Asian countries ( n = 4), followed by China ( n = 3), European countries ( n = 2), Thailand ( n = 2), Indonesia ( n = 1), Singapore ( n = 1), and South Africa ( n = 1). Apart from traditional PBL, some studies incorporated other pedagogic modalities into their PBL sessions, such as online learning, blended learning, and gamification. The majority of the studies targeted a single-profession learner group, and one study was performed on mixed interprofessional health education learners.

Results of Thematic Analysis

The thematic analysis yielded three main themes of effective learning behavior: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Intrinsic empowerment overlies four proposed subthemes: proactivity, organization, diligence, and resourcefulness. For entrustment, there were four underlying subthemes: students as assessors, students as teachers, feedback-giving, and feedback-receiving. The functional skills theme contains four subthemes: time management, digital proficiency, data management, and collaboration.

Theme 1: Intrinsic Empowerment

Intrinsic empowerment enforces student learning behavior that can facilitate the achievement of learning outcomes. By empowering the development of these behaviors, students can become lifelong learners [ 34 ]. The first element of intrinsic empowerment is proactive behavior. In PBL, the students must be proactive in analyzing problems [ 35 , 36 ] and their learning needs [ 35 , 37 ], and this can be done by integrating prior knowledge and previous experience through a brainstorming session [ 35 , 38 ]. The students must be proactive in seeking guidance to ensure they stay focused and confident [ 39 , 40 ]. Finding ways to integrate content from different disciplines [ 35 , 41 ], formulate new explanations based on known facts [ 34 , 35 , 41 ], and incorporate hands-on activity [ 35 , 39 , 42 ] during a PBL session are also proactive behaviors.

The second element identified is “being organized” which reflects the ability of students to systematically manage their roles [ 43 ], ideas, and learning needs [ 34 ]. The students also need to understand the task for each learning role in PBL, such as chairperson or leader, scribe, recorder, and reflector. This role needs to be assigned appropriately to ensure that all members take part in the discussion [ 43 ]. Similarly, when discussing ideas or learning needs, the students need to follow the steps in the PBL process and organize and prioritize the information to ensure that the issues are discussed systematically and all aspects of the problems are covered accordingly [ 34 , 37 ]. This team organization and systematic thought process is an effective way for students to focus, plan, and finalize their learning tasks.

The third element of intrinsic empowerment is “being diligent.” Students must consistently conduct self-revision [ 40 ] and keep track of their learning plan to ensure the achievement of their learning goal [ 4 , 40 ]. The students must also be responsible for completing any given task and ensuring good understanding prior to their presentation [ 40 ]. Appropriate actions need to be undertaken to find solutions to unsolved problems [ 40 , 44 ]. This effort will help them think critically and apply their knowledge for problem-solving.

The fourth element identified is “being resourceful.” Students should be able to acquire knowledge from different resources, which include external resources (i.e., lecture notes, textbooks, journal articles, audiovisual instructions, the Internet) [ 38 , 40 , 45 ] and internal resources (i.e., students’ prior knowledge or experience) [ 35 , 39 ]. The resources must be evidence-based, and thus should be carefully selected by evaluating their cross-references and appraising them critically [ 37 ]. Students should also be able to understand and summarize the learned materials and explain them using their own words [ 4 , 34 ]. The subthemes of the intrinsic empowerment theme are summarized in Table Table3 3 .

Intrinsic empowerment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Intrinsic empowerment
• Analyze problems and learning needs • Seek guidance • Integrate subjects from different disciplines • Incorporate hands on activities	• Organize PBL team by assigning roles • Organize discussed ideas or learning needs • Prioritize ideas or learning needs	• Consistent in self-study • Keep track with plans • Responsible in completing the task • Responsible in understanding the learning materials	• Use various resources • Appraise the resources • Use evidence-based resources • Paraphrase the resources

Intrinsic empowerment

Proactive

Being organized

Being diligent

Resourceful

• Analyze problems and learning needs

• Seek guidance

• Integrate subjects from different disciplines

• Incorporate hands on activities

• Organize PBL team by assigning roles

• Organize discussed ideas or learning needs

• Prioritize ideas or learning needs

• Consistent in self-study

• Keep track with plans

• Responsible in completing the task

• Responsible in understanding the learning materials

• Use various resources

• Appraise the resources

• Use evidence-based resources

• Paraphrase the resources

Theme 2: Entrustment

Entrustment emphasizes the various roles of students in PBL that can promote effective learning. The first entrusted role identified is “student as an assessor.” This means that students evaluate their own performance in PBL [ 46 ]. The evaluation of their own performance must be based on the achievement of the learning outcomes and reflect actual understanding of the content as well as the ability to apply the learned information in problem-solving [ 46 ].

The second element identified in this review is “student as a teacher.” To ensure successful peer teaching in PBL, students need to comprehensively understand the content of the learning materials and summarize the content in an organized manner. The students should be able to explain the gist of the discussed information using their own words [ 4 , 34 ] and utilize teaching methods to cater to differences in learning styles (i.e., visual, auditory, and kinesthetic) [ 41 ]. These strategies help capture their group members’ attention and evoke interactive discussions among them.

The third element of entrustment is to “give feedback.” Students should try giving constructive feedback on individual and group performance in PBL. Feedback on individual performance must reflect the quality of the content and task presented in the PBL. Feedback on group performance should reflect the ways in which the group members communicate and complete the group task [ 47 ]. To ensure continuous constructive feedback, students should be able to generate feedback questions beforehand and immediately deliver them during the PBL sessions [ 44 , 47 ]. In addition, the feedback must include specific measures for improvement to help their peers to take appropriate action for the future [ 47 ].

The fourth element of entrustment is “receive feedback.” Students should listen carefully to the feedback given and ask questions to clarify the feedback [ 47 ]. They need to be attentive and learn to deal with negative feedback [ 47 ]. Also, if the student does not receive feedback, they should request it either from peers or teachers and ask specific questions, such as what aspects to improve and how to improve [ 47 ]. The data on the subthemes of the entrustment theme are summarized in Table Table4 4 .

Entrustment subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Entrustment
• Evaluate individual performance • Evaluate group performance	• Prepare teaching materials • Use various learning styles	• Give feedback on individual task • Give feedback on group learning process • Prepare feedback questions beforehand • Suggest measures for future improvement	• Clarify feedback • Request feedback from peers and teachers

Entrustment

Student as assessor

Student as teacher

Give feedback

Receive feedback

• Evaluate individual performance

• Evaluate group performance

• Prepare teaching materials

• Use various learning styles

• Give feedback on individual task

• Give feedback on group learning process

• Prepare feedback questions beforehand

• Suggest measures for future improvement

• Clarify feedback

• Request feedback from peers and teachers

Theme 3: Functional Skills

Functional skills refer to essential skills that can help students learn independently and competently. The first element identified is time management skills. In PBL, students must know how to prioritize learning tasks according to the needs and urgency of the tasks [ 40 ]. To ensure that students can self-pace their learning, a deadline should be set for each learning task within a manageable and achievable learning schedule [ 40 ].

Furthermore, students should have digital proficiency, the ability to utilize digital devices to support learning [ 38 , 40 , 44 ]. The student needs to know how to operate basic software (e.g., Words and PowerPoints) and the basic digital tools (i.e., social media, cloud storage, simulation, and online community learning platforms) to support their learning [ 39 , 40 ]. These skills are important for peer learning activities, which may require information sharing, information retrieval, online peer discussion, and online peer feedback [ 38 , 44 ].

The third functional skill identified is data management, the ability to collect key information in the PBL trigger and analyze that information to support the solution in a problem-solving activity [ 39 ]. Students need to work either individually or in a group to collect the key information from a different trigger or case format such as text lines, an interview, an investigation, or statistical results [ 39 ]. Subsequently, students also need to analyze the information and draw conclusions based on their analysis [ 39 ].

The fourth element of functional skill is collaboration. Students need to participate equally in the PBL discussion [ 41 , 46 ]. Through discussion, confusion and queries can be addressed and resolved by listening, respecting others’ viewpoints, and responding professionally [ 35 , 39 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, the students need to learn from each other and reflect on their performance [ 48 ]. Table Table5 5 summarizes the data on the subthemes of the functional skills theme.

Functional skills subtheme with the learning behavior elements

Functional skills
• Create learning schedule • Set up deadline for each task • Prioritize work for each task	• Use digital devices • Use digital tools	• Collect data • Analyze data	• Discuss professionally • Learn from each other

Functional skills

Time management

Digital proficiency

Data management

Collaborative skill

• Create learning schedule

• Set up deadline for each task

• Prioritize work for each task

• Use digital devices

• Use digital tools

• Collect data

• Analyze data

• Discuss professionally

• Learn from each other

This scoping review outlines three themes of effective learning behavior elements in the PBL context: intrinsic empowerment, entrustment, and functional skills. Hence, it is evident from this review that successful PBL instruction demands students’ commitment to empower themselves with value-driven behaviors, skills, and roles.

In this review, intrinsic empowerment is viewed as enforcement of students’ internal strength in performing positive learning behaviors related to PBL. This theme requires the student to proactively engage in the learning process, organize their learning activities systematically, persevere in learning, and be intelligently resourceful. One of the elements of intrinsic empowerment is the identification and analysis of problems related to complex scenarios. This element is aligned with a study by Meyer [ 49 ], who observed students’ engagement in problem identification and clarification prior to problem-solving activities in a PBL session related to multiple engineering design. Rubenstein and colleagues [ 50 ] discovered in a semi-structured interview the importance of undergoing a problem identification process before proposing a solution during learning. It was reported that the problem identification process in PBL may enhance the attainment of learning outcomes, specifically in the domain of concept understanding [ 51 ].

The ability of the students to acquire and manage learning resources is essential for building their understanding of the learned materials and enriching discussion among team members during PBL. This is aligned with a study by Jeong and Hmelo-Silver [ 52 ], who studied the use of learning resources by students in PBL. The study concluded that in a resource-rich environment, the students need to learn how to access and understand the resources to ensure effective learning. Secondly, they need to process the content of the resources, integrate various resources, and apply them in problem-solving activities. Finally, they need to use the resources in collaborative learning activities, such as sharing and relating to peer resources.

Wong [ 53 ] documented that excellent students spent considerably more time managing academic resources than low achievers. The ability of the student to identify and utilize their internal learning resources, such as prior knowledge and experience, is also important. A study by Lee et al. [ 54 ] has shown that participants with high domain-specific prior knowledge displayed a more systematic approach and high accuracy in visual and motor reactions in solving problems compared to novice learners.

During the discussion phase in PBL, organizing ideas—e.g., arranging relevant information gathered from the learning resources into relevant categories—is essential for communicating the idea clearly [ 34 ]. This finding is in line with a typology study conducted by Larue [ 55 ] on second-year nursing students’ learning strategies during a group discussion. The study discovered that although the content presented by the student is adequate, they unable to make further progress in the group discussion until they are instructed by the tutor on how to organize the information given into a category [ 55 ].

Hence, the empowerment of student intrinsic behavior may enhance students’ learning in PBL by allowing them to make a decision in their learning objectives and instilling confidence in them to achieve goals. A study conducted by Kirk et al. [ 56 ] proved that highly empowered students obtain better grades, increase learning participation, and target higher educational aspirations.

Entrustment is the learning role given to students to be engaging and identify gaps in their learning. This theme requires the student to engage in self-assessment, prepare to teach others, give constructive feedback, and value the feedback received. One of the elements of entrustment is the ability to self-assess. In a study conducted by Mohd et al. [ 57 ] looking at the factors in PBL that can strengthen the capability of IT students, they discovered that one of the critical factors that contribute to these skills is the ability of the student to perform self-assessment in PBL. As mentioned by Daud, Kassim, and Daud [ 58 ], the self-assessment may be more reliable if the assessment is performed based on the objectives set beforehand and if the criteria of the assessment are understood by the learner. This is important to avoid the fact that the result of the self-assessment is influenced by the students’ perception of themselves rather than reflecting their true performance. However, having an assessment based on the learning objective only focuses on the immediate learning requirements in the PBL. To foster lifelong learning skills, it should also be balanced with the long-term focus of assessment, such as utilizing the assessment to foster the application of knowledge in solving real-life situations. This is aligned with the review by Boud and Falchikov [ 59 ] suggesting that students need to become assessors within the concept of participation in practice, that is, the kind that is within the context of real life and work.

The second subtheme of entrustment is “students as a teacher” in PBL. In our review, the student needs to be well prepared with the teaching materials. A cross-sectional study conducted by Charoensakulchai and colleagues discovered that student preparation is considered among the important factors in PBL success, alongside other factors such as “objective and contents,” “student assessment,” and “attitude towards group work” [ 60 ]. This is also aligned with a study conducted by Sukrajh [ 61 ] using focus group discussion on fifth-year medical students to explore their perception of preparedness before conducting peer teaching activity. In this study, the student in the focus group expressed that the preparation made them more confident in teaching others because preparing stimulated them to activate and revise prior knowledge, discover their knowledge gaps, construct new knowledge, reflect on their learning, improve their memory, inspire them to search several resources, and motivate them to learn the topics.

The next element of “student as a teacher” is using various learning styles to teach other members in the group. A study conducted by Almomani [ 62 ] showed that the most preferred learning pattern by the high school student is the visual pattern, followed by auditory pattern and then kinesthetic. However, in the university setting, Hamdani [ 63 ] discovered that students prefer a combination of the three learning styles. Anbarasi [ 64 ] also explained that incorporating teaching methods based on the student’s preferred learning style further promotes active learning among the students and significantly improved the long-term retrieval of knowledge. However, among the three learning styles group, he discovered that the kinesthetic group with the kinesthetic teaching method showed a significantly higher post-test score compared to the traditional group with the didactic teaching method, and he concluded that this is because of the involvement of more active learning activity in the kinesthetic group.

The ability of students to give constructive feedback on individual tasks is an important element in promoting student contribution in PBL because feedback from peers or teachers is needed to reassure themselves that they are on the right track in the learning process. Kamp et al. [ 65 ] performed a study on the effectiveness of midterm peer feedback on student individual cognitive, collaborative, and motivational contributions in PBL. The experimental group that received midterm peer feedback combined with goal-setting with face-to-face discussion showed an increased amount of individual contributions in PBL. Another element of effective feedback is that the feedback is given immediately after the observed behavior. Parikh and colleagues survey student feedback in PBL environments among 103 final-year medical students in five Ontario schools, including the University of Toronto, McMaster University, Queens University, the University of Ottawa, and the University of Western Ontario. They discovered that there was a dramatic difference between McMaster University and other universities in the immediacy of feedback they practiced. Seventy percent of students at McMaster reported receiving immediate feedback in PBL, compared to less than 40 percent of students from the other universities, in which most of them received feedback within one week or several weeks after the PBL had been conducted [ 66 ]. Another study, conducted among students of the International Medical University of Kuala Lumpur examining the student expectation on feedback, discovered that immediate feedback is effective if the feedback is in written form, simple but focused on the area of improvement, and delivered by a content expert. If the feedback is delivered by a content non-expert and using a model answer, it must be supplemented with teacher dialogue sessions to clarify the feedback received [ 67 ].

Requesting feedback from peers and teachers is an important element of the PBL learning environment, enabling students to discover their learning gaps and ways to fill them. This is aligned with a study conducted by de Jong and colleagues [ 68 ], who discovered that high-performing students are more motivated to seek feedback than low-performing students. The main reason for this is because high-performing students seek feedback as a tool to learn from, whereas low-performing students do so as an academic requirement. This resulted in high-performing students collecting more feedback. A study by Bose and Gijselaers [ 69 ] examined the factors that promote feedback-seeking behavior in medical residency. They discovered that feedback-seeking behavior can be promoted by providing residents with high-quality feedback to motivate them to ask for feedback for improvement.

By assigning an active role to students as teachers, assessors, and feedback providers, teachers give them the ownership and responsibility to craft their learning. The learner will then learn the skills to monitor and reflect on their learning to achieve academic success. Furthermore, an active role encourages students to be evaluative experts in their own learning, and promoting deep learning [ 70 ].

Functional skills refer to essential abilities for competently performing a task in PBL. This theme requires the student to organize and plan time for specific learning tasks, be digitally literate, use data effectively to support problem-solving, and work together efficiently to achieve agreed objectives. One of the elements in this theme is to have a schedule of learning tasks with deadlines. In a study conducted by Tadjer and colleagues [ 71 ], they discovered that setting deadlines with a restricted time period in a group activity improved students’ cognitive abilities and soft skills. Although the deadline may initially cause anxiety, coping with it encourages students to become more creative and energetic in performing various learning strategies [ 72 , 73 ]. Ballard et al. [ 74 ] reported that students tend to work harder to complete learning tasks if they face multiple deadlines.

The students also need to be digitally literate—i.e., able to demonstrate the use of technological devices and tools in PBL. Taradi et al. [ 75 ] discovered that incorporating technology in learning—blending web technology with PBL—removes time and place barriers in the creation of a collaborative environment. It was found that students who participated in web discussions achieved a significantly higher mean grade on a physiology final examination than those who used traditional methods. Also, the incorporation of an online platform in PBL can facilitate students to develop investigation and inquiry skills with high-level cognitive thought processes, which is crucial to successful problem-solving [ 76 ].

In PBL, students need to work collaboratively with their peers to solve problems. A study by Hidayati et al. [ 77 ] demonstrated that effective collaborative skills improve cognitive learning outcomes and problem-solving ability among students who undergo PBL integrated with digital mind maps. To ensure successful collaborative learning in PBL, professional communication among students is pertinent. Research by Zheng and Huang [ 78 ] has proven that co-regulation (i.e., warm and responsive communication that provides support to peers) improved collaborative effort and group performance among undergraduate and master’s students majoring in education and psychology. This is also in line with a study by Maraj and colleagues [ 79 ], which showed the strong team interaction within the PBL group leads to a high level of team efficacy and academic self-efficacy. Moreover, strengthening communication competence, such as by developing negotiation skills among partners during discussion sessions, improves student scores [ 80 ].

PBL also includes opportunities for students to learn from each other (i.e., peer learning). A study by Maraj et al. [ 79 ] discovered that the majority of the students in their study perceived improvement in their understanding of the learned subject when they learned from each other. Another study by Lyonga [ 81 ] documented the successful formation of cohesive group learning, where students could express and share their ideas with their friends and help each other. It was suggested that each student should be paired with a more knowledgeable student who has mastered certain learning components to promote purposeful structured learning within the group.

From this scoping review, it is clear that functional skills equip the students with abilities and knowledge needed for successful PBL. Studies have shown that strong time management skills, digital literacy, data management, and collaborative skills lead to positive academic achievement [ 77 , 82 , 83 ].

Limitation of the Study

This scoping review is aimed to capture the recent effective learning behavior in problem-based learning; therefore, the literature before 2015 was not included. Without denying the importance of publication before 2015, we are relying on Okoli and Schabram [ 84 ] who highlighted the impossibility of retrieving all the published articles when conducting a literature search. Based on this ground, we decided to focus on the time frame between 2015 and 2019, which is aligned with the concepts of study maturity (i.e., the more mature the field, the higher the published articles and therefore more topics were investigated) by Kraus et al. [ 85 ]. In fact, it was noted that within this time frame, a significant number of articles have been found as relevant to PBL with the recent discovery of effective learning behavior. Nevertheless, our time frame did not include the timing of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic outbreak, which began at the end of 2019. Hence, we might miss some important elements of learning behavior that are required for the successful implementation of PBL during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Surprisingly, the results obtained from this study are also applicable for the PBL sessions administration during the COVID-19 pandemic situation as one of the functional skills identified is digital proficiency. This skill is indeed important for the successful implementation of online PBL session.

This review identified the essential learning behaviors required for effective PBL in higher education and clustered them into three main themes: (i) intrinsic empowerment, (ii) entrustment, and (iii) functional skills. These learning behaviors must coexist to ensure the achievement of desired learning outcomes. In fact, the findings of this study indicated two important implications for future practice. Firstly, the identified learning behaviors can be incorporated as functional elements in the PBL framework and implementation. Secondly, the learning behaviors change and adaption can be considered to be a new domain of formative assessment related to PBL. It is noteworthy to highlight that these learning behaviors could help in fostering the development of lifelong skills for future workplace challenges. Nevertheless, considerably more work should be carried out to design a solid guideline on how to systematically adopt the learning behaviors in PBL sessions, especially during this COVID-19 pandemic situation.

This study was supported by Postgraduate Incentive Grant-PhD (GIPS-PhD, grant number: 311/PPSP/4404803).

Declarations

The study has received an ethical approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia.

No informed consent required for the scoping review.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Problem-based learning and the case method

By Emma Simmons , January 2016

What does problem-based learning (PBL) offer in management education, and how does it relate to teaching with cases? Connect explores.

In the September 2015 Academy of Management Learning & Education , researchers and teachers at four US universities initiated a discussion on how PBL, as practiced in some medical schools, might provide a pedagogical approach to remedy certain perceived shortcomings in management education graduates. The article, Problem-Based Learning: Lessons From Medical Education and Challenges for Management Education identifies, in particular, the ‘call for greater emphasis on relevant skills’ as being often inadequately addressed by other teaching approaches commonly used at business schools, including the case method.

What is problem-based learning?

As the name suggests, PBL places working on a ‘problem’ at the heart of an active learning session (as opposed to passively listening to a lecture, for example). According to the authors: ‘The essential defining characteristic is learning structured around an ambiguous and complex problem in which the professor becomes a facilitator supporting and guiding students in their attempts to solve a real-world problem.’ At the heart of the methodology is the idea of integrating content knowledge with skills development applicable to real-life situations. They write: ‘The PBL process develops critical thinking and problem-solving skills, problem synthesis skills, imagination and creativity, information search and evaluation skills, ability to deal with ambiguity and uncertainty, oral and written communication skills and collaboration skills.’ To achieve this, students will typically work in groups, interspersing team time with their own independent investigation, reflection and feedback, all ‘guided’ and challenged by the instructor.

PBL is widely practiced in medical schools, though not in all; as in management education, debate continues as to which pedagogies produce the best professionals. The underlying rationale for those that do use PBL is that future patients of medical students will present with unique combinations of symptoms, and that before proceeding to diagnosis of the ailment(s), let alone proposing remedies, it is imperative that doctors know how to analyse competently, and be able to uncover, often in collaboration with other medical professionals, what is really going on, in all its complexity; ie identify the right problem(s). Accurate diagnosis will always be crucial for the eventual success of treatment, and in medicine, the stakes around ‘getting it right’ are some of the highest in society. To do this, the future doctor will need to be able to skilfully apply to his or her medical knowledge, based on the literature and best practice, the appropriate skills of investigative thinking, teamwork, and practical resource deployment.

The authors suggest that it is useful to see parallels between the presentation of a sick patient and the unpredictable business situations that will, just as inevitably, present themselves to executives. There is a consequent need to develop teaching that will provide business students, too, with the necessary skills to deal effectively with new and real ‘problems’. We spoke with lead author, Toni Ungaretti, of Johns Hopkins University. For her, the questions business and management educators, like their medical counterparts, need to be asking are: ‘How do you maximise learning for students? How can we produce ‘authentic’ learning? How can we prepare our students for problems we don’t know?’

Keeping it in the family?

While Ungaretti and her co-authors suggest PBL as a powerful way to address these challenges, there are certainly similarities and parallels between both the objectives and practice of PBL, and that of case-based learning, which they refer to as PBL’s ‘better known relative.’ Many aspects are common to both pedagogies. A problem – frequently a ‘dilemma’ in cases – is the starting point for both, though in PBL students will usually delve deeper, back, into the analysis and understanding of the actual problem. The process of seeking a path towards possible solutions is, in both, participant-centred under the skilful guidance of the instructor - rather than being handed to them by the teacher. A true PBL experience is open to possible outcomes that are supported by evidence; the authors summarise: ‘CBL (case-based learning) provides cases that have solutions, whereas PBL provides problems that are yet to be solved’. Some case practitioners might take issue with this distinction, for example, when cases focus on rapidly evolving technologies or business models, when case subjects are composites or constructions rather than real companies, when cases present situations with deliberately uncertain outcomes, or, when a case class might decide that the outcome that really occurred in life was not, in fact, an adequate ‘solution’ at all.

Nevertheless, cases are often used to effectively develop many of the same desirable ‘real world’ thinking as PBL – if not actual ‘practical,’ real-world skills - including those of analysis, research, team-thinking, dealing with ambiguity and discussion, while allowing for relevant theory to be imparted alongside the process. The very point of a case class is for the instructor to create an environment in which exploration of ‘real’ or ‘quasi-real’ dilemmas can be carried out, but, in safety. But, also in this respect, the authors seek to distinguish the two pedagogies: ‘CBL provides a safe environment in which to take risks; whereas PBL provides a risky environment with a safety net.’ According to Toni Ungaretti, ‘the group work environment of PBL is less orchestrated and may appear chaotic, but it is in fact highly structured to facilitate the discovery of viable, evidence-based solutions.’

Indeed, the same skilful ‘orchestration and behind the scenes work’ she highlights can also be observed in a successful case instructor; their respective class preparation needs to be at least as detailed as that of each other. Ungaretti points out: ‘Physicians gradually assume more responsibilities as they grow in competence and their instructors develop confidence in their abilities to make independent judgements – they are creating the environment for students to construct their own learning.’ Just as with business school case teaching, this seemingly simple instructor process may appear effortless – even to the students. But it is highly skilled, and, in the view of Ungaretti and her co-authors, any teachers interested in using PBL for the first time will need support and collaboration to develop materials and to facilitate learning. New case teachers and writers undoubtedly also require support from their institutions and colleagues. One can also assume that both pedagogies may often find themselves competing for time in those academic environments where research output prevails as the number one objective set for faculty.

A perspective from history

Could it be then, that PBL and case-based learning are in fact much closer ‘relatives’? In Making the Case , published in 2003 in Harvard Magazine , David Garvin provides a fascinating overview of the evolution of the case method at Harvard University, from its cradle at the Law School in 1870, through its adoption at Harvard Business School in 1920, to its introduction at Harvard Medical School in 1985. According to Garvin: ‘All professional schools face the same difficult challenge: how to prepare students for the world of practice ... how to diagnose, decide, and act. A surprisingly wide range of professional schools ... have concluded that the best way to teach these skills is by the case method.’

What strikes the reader of Garvin’s article is that although case teaching, originally modelled on the Socratic method, was separately deployed in each school, its incarnation has differed according to the interpretation of the requirements of each profession, with each school having ‘tailored the method to its own ends, focusing on distinctive aptitudes and skills’ – but, while still essentially remaining the case method. While the initial approach at the Law School ‘viewed law as a science and appellate court decisions as the “specimens” from which general principles should be induced’, the first programme of case writing at the Business School was ‘built around real business issues and yet-to-be-made decisions.’ At the Law School, the goal was to develop precise, analytical thinking (ie to learn to ‘think like a lawyer’); at the Business School, the goal was to cultivate persuasive skills and the ‘courage to act’.

Harvard Medical School’s much later move towards ‘active learning’ was ‘designed to cement students’ understanding of basic science by linking it immediately to practical problems – typically, the case histories of individual patients.’ Here, the rigorous requirements of medical practice, and the outpouring of research (the sheer volume of published articles meant that keeping up with the latest findings had to be an ongoing activity), led the case method to evolve in new ways; ‘... discovery ... lies at the heart of the medical school’s case method. The cycle of case presentation, identification of a learning agenda, and independent study is repeated as additional segments of a case unfold.’ Cases ‘are springboards for self-study, not documents prepared in advance of discussion. Because the problem is presented before students have learned all of the associated scientific or clinical concepts, cases serve as catalysts for learning, not as the primary content.’ The classical medical case process, Garvin explains, ‘goes by the name of “problem-based learning”’ and he acknowledges its original development by some pioneering medical schools in the 1960s and 1970s, notably Canada’s McMaster University.

Achieving ‘authentic’ learning

While a discussion of PBL and case pedagogies provides interesting and valuable insights, at its heart lies the shared desire of educators to prepare their students as effectively as possible for the professional challenges they will face after graduation. We also spoke with David Garvin for this article. ‘A re-examination of PBL in a management education context responds to the valid concern that we need to better equip our students with the practical skills they will need through ‘real-world’ exposure,’ he observes. ‘Really strong management cases can get close to the actual experience of a real situation, , including such complex human elements as biased reasoning, political manoeuvring, taken-for-granted assumptions, incomplete or filtered information, and the like, but, they can be hard to identify – and the issues still get worked out in class.’ However, ‘PBL itself faces challenges in offering totally authentic problems to work on,’ he adds. ‘Companies can be reluctant to provide details of the full scope of the problem(s) they face, especially when they involve sensitive people issues, and, in many cases a company will already have a particular course of action in mind, so the genuinely open search for information leading to a ‘real’ solution by the students will be curtailed.’

This raises the question as to whether ‘real-world’ learning can ever be adequately achieved in a classroom and Garvin observes that some proposed examples of PBL are, actually, closer to field, or consulting-based, student projects. He reminds us how, in 2008, Harvard Business School first conceived the FIELD Program , which, in one of its three component experiences, sees students spending at least two weeks, anywhere in the world, working on real projects in real environments. FIELD was created precisely to address the challenges of helping participants acquire and practise skills such as as giving and receiving feedback, developing self-awareness, global and integration intelligence, and research in a live business context. Since 2012, the program has become an established component of the Harvard MBA alongside the other largely case-based elements.

Ultimately, most instructors seem to agree that a mix of pedagogies, underpinned by clear and focused learning objectives, will be necessary to comprehensively equip graduates with the breadth of theoretical and practical skills they will need for a rich, meaningful and successful career after business school. As so often in discussions about different pedagogies, the bottom line turns out to be quality. As Toni Ungaretti and her co-authors put it ‘In short, we see the need for a blend of pedagogies .... The issue is not that one is better than the other, but how both can be done well.’

Our feature in the April issue of Connect will examine in more detail what skills employers actually want in business school graduates .

This article was published in Connect , Issue 19, January 2016.

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