research paper on clothing industry

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Making Fashion Sustainable: Waste and Collective Responsibility

Debbie moorhouse.

1 Department of Fashion & Textiles, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, UK

Fashion is a growing industry, but the demand for cheap, fast fashion has a high environmental footprint. Some brands lead the way by innovating to reduce waste, improve recycling, and encourage upcycling. But if we are to make fashion more sustainable, consumers and industry must work together.

As the demand for apparel and shoes has increased worldwide, the fashion industry has experienced substantial growth. In the last 15 years, clothing production has doubled, accounting for 60% of all textile production. 1 One particular trend driving this increase is the emergence of fast fashion. The newest trends in celebrity culture and bespoke fashion shows rapidly become available from affordable retailers. In recent years, a designer’s fashion calendar can consist of up to five collections per year, and in the mass-produced market, new stock is being produced every 2 weeks. As with many commodities today, mass production and consumption are often accompanied by mass wastage, and fashion is no different.

In fashion, trends rapidly change, and a drive to buy the latest style can leave many items with a short lifespan and consigned to the waste bin. Given that 73% of clothing ends up in landfills and less than 1% is recycled into new clothing, there are significant costs with regard to not only irreplaceable resources but also the economy via landfilling clothing. At present, it is estimated that £140 million worth of clothing is sent to landfills in the UK each year. 2 Although a significant proportion of recycled fibers are downgraded into insulation materials, industrial wipes, and stuffing, they still constitute only 12% of total discarded material.

The world is increasingly worried about the environmental and social costs of fashion, particularly items that have short lifespans. Mass-produced fashion is often manufactured where labor is cheap, but working conditions can be poor. Sweatshops can even be found in countries with stricter regulations. The transport of products from places of manufacture to points of sale contributes to the textile industry’s rising carbon footprint; 1.2 billion metric tons of CO 2 were reportedly emitted in 2015. 1 Textile dyeing and finishing are thought to contribute to 20% of the world’s water pollution, 3 and microfiber emission during washing amounts to half a million metric tons of plastic pollution annually. 4 Fashion’s water footprint is particularly problematic. Water is used throughout clothing production, including in the growth of crops such as cotton and in the weaving, manufacturing, washing, and dyeing processes. The production of denim apparel alone uses over 5,000 L of water 5 for a single pair of jeans. When you add this to consumer overuse of water, chemicals, and energy in the laundry process and the ultimate discard to landfills or incineration, the environmental impact becomes extremely high.

As demand for fast fashion continues to grow, so too does the industry’s environmental footprint. Negative impacts are starkly evidenced throughout the entire supply chain—from the growth of raw materials to the disposal of scarcely used garments. As awareness of the darker side of fashion grows, so too does demand for change—not just from regulatory bodies and global action groups but also from individual consumers. People want ethical garments. Sustainability and style. But achieving this is complicated.

Demand for Sustainable Fashion

Historically, sustainable brands were sought by a smaller consumer base and were typically part of the stereotype “hippy” style. But in recent years, sustainable fashion has become more mainstream among both designers and consumers, and the aesthetic appeal has evolved to become more desirable to a wider audience. As a result, the consumer need not only buy into the ethics of the brand but also purchase a desirable, contemporary garment.

But the difficulty for the fashion industry lies in addressing all sustainability and ethical issues while remaining economically sustainable and future facing. Sustainable and ethical brands must take into account fairer wages, better working conditions, more sustainably produced materials, and a construction quality that is built for longevity, all of which ultimately increase the cost of the final product. The consumer often wrestles with many different considerations when making a purchase; some of these conflict with each other and can lead the consumer to prioritize the monetary cost.

Many buyers who place sustainability over fashion but cannot afford the higher cost of sustainable garments will often forsake the latest styles and trends to buy second hand. However, fashion and second-hand clothing need not be mutually exclusive, as can be seen by the growing trend of acquiring luxury vintage pieces. Vintage clothing is in direct contrast to the whole idea of “fast fashion” and is sought after as a way to express individuality with the added value of saving something precious from landfills. Where vintage might have once been purchased at an exclusive auction, now many online sources trade in vintage pieces. Celebrities, fashion influencers, and designers have all bought into this vintage trend, making it a very desirable pre-owned, pre-loved purchase. 6 In effect, the consumer mindset is changing such that vintage clothing (as a timeless, more considered purchase) is more desirable than new products because of its uniqueness, a virtue that stands against the standardization of mass-market production.

Making Fashion Circular

In an ideal system, the life cycle of a garment would be a series of circles such that the garment would continually move to the next life—redesigned, reinvented, and never discarded—eliminating the concept of waste. Although vintage is growing in popularity, this is only one component of a circular fashion industry, and the reality is that the linear system of “take, make, dispose,” with all its ethical and environmental problems, continues to persist.

Achieving sustainability in the production of garments represents a huge and complex challenge. It is often quoted that “more than 80% of the environmental impact of a product is determined at the design stage,” 7 meaning that designers are now being looked upon to solve the problem. But the responsibility should not solely lie with the designer; it should involve all stakeholders along the supply chain. Designers develop the concept, but the fashion industry also involves pattern cutters and garment technologists, as well as the manufacturers: both producers of textiles and factories where garment construction takes place. And finally, the consumer should not only dispose, reuse, or upcycle garments appropriately but also wash and care for the garment in a way that both is sustainable and ensures longevity of the item. These stakeholders must all work together to achieve a more sustainable supply chain.

The challenge of sustainability is particularly pertinent to denim, which, as already mentioned, is one of the more problematic fashion items. Traditionally an expression of individualism and freedom, denim jeans are produced globally at 1.7 billion pairs per year 8 through mass-market channels and mid-tier and premium designer levels, and this is set to rise. In the face of growing demand, some denim specialists are looking for ways to make their products more sustainable.

Reuse and recycling can play a role here, and designers and brands such as Levi Strauss & Co. and Mud Jeans are taking responsibility for the future life of their garments. They are offering take-back services, mending services, and possibilities for recycling to new fibers at end of life. Many brands have likewise embraced vintage fashion. Levi’s “Authorized Vintage” line, which includes upcycled, pre-worn vintage pieces, not only exemplifies conscious consumption but also makes this vintage trend more sought after by the consumer because of its iconic status. All material is sourced from the company’s own archive, and all redesigns “are a chance to relive our treasured history.” 9

Mud Jeans in particular is working toward a circular business model by taking a more considered, “seasonless” approach to their collections by instead focusing on longevity and pieces that transcend seasons. In addition, they offer a lease service where jeans can be returned for a different style and a return service at end of life for recycling into new fiber. The different elements that make up a garment, such as the base fabrics (denim in the case of Mud jeans) and fastenings, are limited so the company can avoid overstocking and reduce deadstock. 10 This model of keeping base materials to a minimum has been adopted by brands that don’t specialize in denim, such as Adidas’s production of a recyclable trainer made from virgin thermoplastic polyurethane. 11 The challenge with garments, as with footwear, is that they are made up of many different materials that are difficult to separate and sort for recycling. These business models have a long way to go to be truly circular, but some companies are paving the way forward, and their transparency is highly valuable to other companies that wish to follow suit.

Once a product is purchased, its future is in the hands of the consumer, and not all are aware of the recycling options available to them or that how they care for their garments can have environmental impacts. Companies are helping to inform them. In 2009, Levi Strauss & Co. introduced “Care Tag for Our Planet,” which gives straightforward washing instructions to save water and energy and guidance on how to donate the garment when it is no longer needed. Mud Jeans follows a similar process by highlighting the need to break the habit of regular unnecessary washing and even suggesting “air washing.” 10

At the same time, designers are moving away from the traditional seasonal production cycle and into a more seasonless calendar. In light of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, Gucci’s creative director, Alessandro Michele, has announced (May 2020) that the Italian brand will end the traditional five fashion shows per year and will “hold shows just twice a year instead to reduce waste.” 12 This is a brave decision because it goes against the practice whereby designers were pressured for decades to produce more collections per year, but the hope is that it will be quickly followed by more brands and designers.

Transparency

The discussion around sustainable fashion practices has led to a growing demand from consumers for transparency in the supply chain and life cycle of fashion garments. Consumers want to be informed. They are skeptical of media hype and “greenwashing” by fast-fashion companies wanting to make their brand appear responsible. They want to know the origin of the product and its environmental and social impact.

Some companies are responding by seeking a better understanding of the environmental impacts of their products. In 2015, denim specializer Levi Strauss & Co. extensively analyzed the garment life cycle to consider the environmental impact of a core set of products from its range. The areas highlighted for greatest water usage and negative environmental impact were textile production and consumer laundry care; the consumer phase alone consumed 37% of energy, 13 fiber and textile production accounted for 36% of energy usage, and the remaining 27% was spent on garment production, transport, logistics, and packaging. 14 This life-cycle analysis has led to innovation in waterless finishing processes that use 96% less water than traditional fabric finishing. 15 As noted previously, transparency here also inspires the wider industry to do likewise. Other companies have also introduced dyeing processes that need much less water, and much work is focused on improving textile recycling.

But this discussion does not just apply to production. Some high-street brands are using a “take back” scheme whereby customers are invited to bring back unwanted clothing either for a discount on future purchases or as a way to offload unwanted items of clothing. Not only might this encourage consumers to buy more without feeling guilty, but the ultimate destination of these returned garments can also be unclear. Without further transparency, a consumer cannot make fully informed decisions about the end-of-life fate of their garments.

Collective Responsibility

The buck should not be passed when it comes to sustainability; it is about collective responsibility. Professionals in the fashion industry often feel that it is in the hands of the consumer—they have the buying power, and their choices determine how the industry reacts. One train of thought is that the consumer needs to buy less and that the fashion retail industry can’t be asked to sell less. However, if a sustainable life cycle is to be achieved, stakeholders within the cycle must also be accountable, and there are growing demands for the fashion industry to be regulated.

With the global demand for new clothing, there is an urgent need to discover new materials and to find new markets for used clothing. At present, garments that last longer reduce production and processing impacts, and designers and brands can make efforts in the reuse and recycling of clothing. But environmental impact will remain high if large quantities of new clothing continue to be bought.

If we want a future sustainable fashion industry, both consumers and industry professionals must engage. Although greater transparency and sustainability are being pursued and certain brands are leading the way, the overconsumption of clothing is so established in society that it is difficult to say how this can be reversed or slowed. Moreover, millions of livelihoods depend on this constant cycle of fashion production. Methods in the recycling, upcycling, reuse, and remanufacture of apparel and textiles are short-term gains, and the real impact will come from creating new circular business models that account for the life cycle of a garment and design in the initial concept. If we want to maximize the value from each item of clothing, giving them second, third, and fourth lives is essential.

Acknowledgments

Thank you for support, in writing this Commentary, to Dr. Rina Arya, Professor of Visual Culture and Theory at the School of Art, Design, and Architecture of the University of Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, UK.

Declaration of Interests

The author is the co-founder of the International Society for Sustainable Fashion.

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Textile recycling and buying secondhand can keep fabric waste and used clothes out of landfills. | iStock/undrey

A bit of retail therapy can feel like harmless fun. Yet getting a great deal on a new shirt or pair of shoes may come with a hidden price tag: greenhouse gas emissions, resource depletion, and the mistreatment of workers and animals. The average cotton T-shirt, for example, requires about 700 gallons of water to make. A fast-fashion polyester top is made from petroleum, sheds microfibers, and may spend decades decomposing in a landfill.

And the apparel industry’s footprint has been expanding. Global fiber production has more than doubled since 2000, and consumers are buying more clothes as fast-fashion brands churn out inexpensive looks. To mitigate the environmental and social issues associated with the apparel industry, companies and consumers alike must shift toward sustainability, says Barchi Gillai , the associate director of the Value Chain Innovation Initiative (VCII) at Stanford Graduate School of Business. “It’s a responsibility that all of us share,” she says.

In a new white paper , Gillai and her colleagues examine the production processes behind three essential everyday materials: polyester, cotton, and leather. Coauthored by Hau Lee , VCII’s faculty codirector and a professor emeritus of operations, information, and technology; Jessica Landzberg , MBA ’23; and Nina Sabharwal , MBA ’23, the paper explores each material’s unique impacts and details potential solutions.

Polyester is a durable, lightweight material composed of fibers made from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), which is derived from fossil fuels. The production of polyester and other synthetic fibers requires large amounts of energy, accounting for about 1.35% of global oil consumption. This results in greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming. Possible solutions to these problems include switching to renewable energy and substituting virgin polyester with alternative materials such as biosynthetics and fibers that utilize carbon dioxide waste.

The cotton supply chain starts on a farm instead of a factory, but it also has a unique set of environmental impacts. Cotton cultivation often involves a variety of pesticides that can cause serious health issues in farm workers and contaminate freshwater systems, soil, and animal habitats. Cotton also consumes large amounts of water. To address these issues, cotton growers can implement non-chemical methods of pest control such as crop rotation and conserve water through drip irrigation.

Leather production has also grown over the past three decades. One of the primary concerns surrounding leather goods is animal cruelty. To ensure ethical sourcing of raw hides, brands can utilize certification programs that verify the humane treatment of farm animals. However, acquiring raw materials is only the first step in leather production. Transforming these raw hides into wearable fabrics requires several chemical-heavy processes, many of them relying on toxic materials. Moreover, 30%-45% of the toxic chromium used in the tanning process is not absorbed in the leather, and can potentially contaminate the environment when it is discarded. Finally, as much as 75% of the leather that enters the production process of leather goods does not end up in the finished product. Rather, these scraps and leftovers will likely be sent to landfills or incinerated.

Slowing down fast fashion

A garment’s impact continues even after it has been sold. Used garments often wind up in landfills or incinerators, wasting potentially valuable and non-renewable resources, and releasing greenhouse gases as they decay. The paper offers a range of strategies that clothing brands can adopt to increase the lifespans of garments and improve their reusability and recyclability. For instance, high-quality garments with timeless designs may be enjoyed for many years. Switching to single-material composition can make fabrics easier to recycle. And garments made from 100% natural materials are more suitable for composting.

Unfortunately, some of the available solutions that address a problem in one part of a product’s life cycle might lead to unwanted consequences later on. For example, while producing polyester from recycled PET uses less oil, fabrics made from these materials tend to release more microfibers into the environment. “We’ve seen quite a few of those solutions that are helpful in one respect, but also have some drawbacks to them,” Gillai says. “It’s therefore important to figure out the total environmental impact of any solution we consider implementing.” The paper recommends that manufacturers use life-cycle assessments to help them choose solutions that offer the most positive impact throughout a garment’s lifespan.

While some companies have taken steps in the right direction, the apparel industry as a whole is showing no signs of becoming more sustainable. This is largely due to the popularity of “fast fashion”: low-quality garments with frequently-changing designs that are mass produced for little cost and viewed by consumers as almost disposable. The rise of fast fashion has fueled a surge in garment production, leading to an increase in textile waste.

The paper encourages companies to find new ways to generate revenue without producing more garments. One option is to start garment collection or buyback programs in conjunction with opening secondhand stores where consumers can purchase pre-owned items at a discount. “Slowing down the rate of production doesn’t have to come at the expense of profitability,” Gillai says.

Gillai also highlights the importance of textile-to-textile recycling. “Such closed-loop, garment-to-garment recycling solutions not only keep textile waste out of landfills, but also reduce the amount of resources that we use to make clothes, as well as the pollution associated with these production processes.”

While much of the paper describes how companies can practice sustainability, it ends with a discussion of the important role played by consumers. “To achieve meaningful results it is crucial for consumers to take a part in this effort,” Gillai says. “Try to donate items that are still wearable. Consider buying secondhand clothes. And think of renting items needed for a special occasion,” she advises. “If we embrace the need for change and if our shopping habits reflect this understanding, then we can help drive change in this industry.”

Consumer values, online purchase behaviour and the fashion industry: an emerging market context

PSU Research Review

ISSN : 2399-1747

Article publication date: 21 September 2021

Supplementary Material

This study examines consumer online purchase behaviour in the Nigerian fashion industry.

Design/methodology/approach

A cross-sectional study was conducted with a total useable sample size of 241 respondents contacted through on-site visitation. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to test the influence of customer value on online purchase behaviour in the fashion industry.

Consumer values are categorised into terminal (happiness, love and satisfaction) and instrumental (time-saving, price-saving discount, service convenience and merchandise assortment) values. The findings show that both values have significant influence on online consumer purchase behaviour, while fashion consciousness moderates the relationship between consumer values and online purchase behaviour.

Practical implications

Online fashion retailers should focus on increasing the terminal and instrumental values of their products and making available goods that meet the needs of different generational cohorts in society.

Originality/value

Studies have examined various factors, for example, consumer values that are determinants of consumer online purchase in the fashion industry; however, there has been limited focus on the nature of fashion and online purchasing in emerging markets, particularly those in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Customer values
Online purchase behaviour
Digital retailing
Technology innovation

Adeola, O. , Moradeyo, A.A. , Muogboh, O. and Adisa, I. (2021), "Consumer values, online purchase behaviour and the fashion industry: an emerging market context", PSU Research Review , Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/PRR-04-2021-0019

Emerald Publishing Limited

Published in PSU Research Review . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

The fashion industry dates back to over a hundred thousand years, right from the availability and use of textiles by mankind ( Botti, 2019 ). The industry, over time, has added economic and material value to humanity, evolving with society, making it a very relevant aspect of human life and also a common area of research, particularly in this technology-driven world ( Bruce and Daly, 2006 ; Botti, 2019 ; Kilduff, 2005 ; Xue et al. , 2019 ). Globally, the fashion industry contributes about US$3000 bn, an estimated 2% of the world's gross domestic product (GDP) ( Botti, 2019 ). Today, technological revolution and the Internet have enabled the establishment of online fashion retail systems to displace aspects of the traditional store patronage ( Johnstone et al. , 2013 ; Kautish and Sharma, 2018 ; Pantano and Viassone, 2015 ).

The term “fashion” is a concept that is widely accepted by committees, class or groups of people and is directly affected by marketing factors, such as low predictability, high impulse purchase, short-life cycle and the high volatility of market demand ( Fernie and Sparks, 1998 ; Bhardwaj and Fairhurst, 2010 ).

Digital retailing in the fashion industry has gained prominence, providing ample opportunities for marketers to reach out to different generational cohorts (i.e. generations X, Y and Z) ( Pentecost and Andrews, 2010 ). Generational cohort is a theoretical approach to understanding the diverse group of individuals in a society. The term is used to describe individuals who share similar political, social, cultural and economic events during their childhood ( Fernández-Durán, 2016 ). The most widely used categorisation is Gen X, Y and Z ( Sima, 2016 ). Individuals who fall into these classifications are considered to share similar behaviour, perceptions of reality, values and consumption patterns, which must be understood from a marketing standpoint ( Fernández-Durán, 2016 ; Liang and Xu, 2018 ; Mahmoud et al. , 2021 ; Sima, 2016 ; Tan et al. , 2019 ). For example, individuals in Gen X (1965–1981) are regarded as digital immigrants while Gen Y (1982–1999) and Gen Z (2000–2012) are regarded as digital natives ( Mahmoud et al. , 2021 ). To contextualise the distribution of consumers in the fashion market, this classification must be well understood.

Retail digitisation has changed the process of shopping for consumers and the process of selling for organisations in the fashion industry by providing convenient and affordable services ( Hagberg et al. , 2016 ; Kautish and Sharma, 2018 ; Renko and Druzijanic, 2014 ). Consumers' desire to shop for clothing online has, however, been hindered by challenges of “fit” and “size” of cloths ( Miell et al. , 2018 ). There have been several studies (e.g. Loker et al. , 2004 , 2008 ; Song and Ashdown, 2012 ; Kim and LaBat, 2013 ; Beck and Crié, 2018 ) that focused on providing solutions to the challenges that can impede the benefits of online fashion retailing for businesses, shoppers, and generally hinder the growth of the industry.

These challenges have negatively influenced consumers' perception of online purchases in the fashion industry, especially with clothing purchase. Digital “fit” and “sizing” technologies have been introduced to address this challenge and give customers the needed satisfaction in their online fashion purchases in developed nations ( Miell et al. , 2018 ). Online purchase is gaining prominence in Nigeria ( Aminu, 2013 ; Usman and Kumar, 2020 ), but the rate and pace of online fashion (apparel) purchase have been low despite having a large population of Internet users ( Falode et al. , 2016 ). Falode et al. , investigated online and offline shopping motivation of apparel consumers in Ibadan, Nigeria and found that consumers prefer offline purchase of apparel to online. This is quite worrying as Nigeria has an active online population which offers fashion organisations enormous opportunities ( Falode et al. , 2016 ). Hence, understanding the factors that will engender the consumer's online purchase in the fashion industry is sacrosanct to the sustainability of the online fashion space in Nigeria.

Extant studies have attempted to provide predictive direction regarding what influences consumers' online purchases in the fashion industry. For example, Schmidt et al. (2015) posit that what consumers see and hear online, influences their buying behaviour. Pentecost and Andrews (2010) established that gender influences the rate of purchase and that females purchase more items in the fashion industry than their male counterparts. Pentecost and Andrews also found that Gen Y consumers have higher purchase frequency and impulse buying than other generational cohorts. Kautish and Sharma (2018) examined consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intentions in the online fashion retail sector and found a significant relationship between consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intention of the consumers in India. Their study was conducted to highlight the basic factors that influence consumer purchase and patronage of online retailing in the country's fashion industry. The authors identified three variables that determine the consumer's online behaviour: consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intentions.

Generally, countries in Africa are known for their distinct socio-cultural values, which influence their fashion behaviour ( Aminu, 2013 ; Falode et al. , 2016 ). The role of socio-cultural values on consumer purchase behaviour has also been explored (see Agnihotri and Bhattacharya, 2019 ; Ansari, 2018 ; Craig and Douglas, 2006 ; Kacen and Lee, 2002 ; Koon et al. , 2020 ; Nwankwo et al. , 2014 ; Pepper et al. , 2009 ; Tendai and Crispen, 2009 ); however, there is a dearth of studies on consumer online purchase behaviour, in the fashion industry, with reference to sub-Saharan Africa. A key country in this region is Nigeria, known for its multi-ethnicity and large population. The country's median age is 18.4 years, which indicates the propensity of a technology-driven youthful population ( Varrella, 2020 ). With the challenge of “fit” and “size” and patronage of online fashion space in Nigeria ( Falode et al. , 2016 ; Ogbuji and Udom, 2018 ), this study assesses consumer purchase behaviour in online fashion retailing of an emerging market, particularly in a technology-driven society. Following Kautish and Sharma's (2018) study, we adopt the variables – values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intention to purchase – as predictors of online consumer purchase behaviour in the Nigerian fashion industry.

Theoretical framework

Theory of planned behaviour.

This paper adopts the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) by Azjen (1985 , 1991 ) to explain the purchase and patronage of online fashion retailing. Azjen (1991) asserts that an individual's behaviour is not spontaneous but rather is influenced and determined by various factors, such as intention, social norm and perceived control over certain phenomena. TPB is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (TRA) ( Azjen and Fishbein, 1980 ; George, 2004 ). The TRA proposed that intention is crucial in exhibiting certain behaviours, and it is measured by attitude and subjective norms ( Hagger, 2019 ). The theory focused on explaining behaviours within the individual's control, and the scope did not capture explanations on why individuals are not in total control of some of their behaviours, and this led to TPB. Azjen extended TRA with the propositions of the TPB and included the construct of perceived behavioural control to explain behaviours beyond the control of the individual ( Hagger, 2019 ).

According to George (2004) , the attitude towards a target behaviour and the subjective norms surrounding it determine intention. Several studies have applied the assumptions of TPB to purchase behaviour ( Arora and Sahney, 2018 ; Conner, 2020 ; George, 2004 ; Verma and Chandra, 2018 ) and also in studies on Internet purchasing behaviour (i.e. Battacherjee, 2000 ; George, 2002 , 2004 ; Jarvenpaa and Todd, 1997a , b ; Khalifa and Limayem, 2003 ; Limayem et al. , 2000 ; Pavlou, 2002 ; Song and Zahedi, 2001 ; Singh and Srivastava, 2019 ; Suh and Han, 2003 ; Tan and Teo, 2000 ; Verma and Chandra, 2018 ). The three antecedents of online-purchasing behaviour are measured and defined on the premise of TPB ( Ham et al. , 2015 ). These include attitude and intention (Do I want to do that?), subjective norms (Do others want me to do that?) and perceived control (Do I have the necessary ability to do that?).

Azjen (1991) proposes that intention is determined by an individual's attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control. Attitude can either be positive or negative, and it is influenced by an individual's beliefs, which, in turn, inform the norms. Azjen (1991) adds that an individual's possession of resources and opportunities needed to engage in the behaviour would influence whether the individual will exhibit such behaviour. In other words, it is not sufficient to have intentions to purchase; individuals must also have the ability to purchase the product. For example, two individuals might have the same level of intention and belief in purchasing a particular product, but the one with the resources to purchase the product is more likely to make the purchase decision.

In the context of this study, behaviour is determined by intentions and beliefs (social norms) that align with the individual's values. Individuals will act in calculative ways, such that decisions are made based on the most favourable outcome. This paper hypothesises that consumers' values (terminal and instrumental values) and consumers' fashion consciousness are factors that determine their online purchases in the fashion industry. This implies that in an emerging market, despite the challenges of fit and size of apparels bought online ( Kaushik et al. , 2020 ), consumers' instrumental values, terminal values and fashion consciousness will stimulate purchase using the same medium. TPB is, therefore, adopted to explain and predict consumer online purchase behaviour in the fashion industry and in an emerging market; this is premised on the tenets of the theory that consumers' values (instrumental, terminal) and fashion consciousness will determine consumers' purchase in the online fashion industry.

Technology and the fashion industry

The retail business is experiencing continuous changes due to the dynamics in taste, innovation and consumer behaviour in the market ( Kennedy et al. , 2019 ; Suzuki and Park, 2018 ; Tendai and Crispen, 2009 ). The fashion industry, which is one of the oldest industries in the history of mankind, has been very dynamic, evolving according to the tastes, trends and needs of society. Xue et al. (2019) emphasise that retailers must understand how to use technology to facilitate consumer purchase behaviour in local and global markets of this era. Xue et al. (2019) project that proper investment in electronic retailing would enhance the business performance of retailers, sustain their competitive advantage and attract a larger population to the electronic market, if the purchase behaviours of consumers within the markets are understood. The fashion industry has evolved and imbibed the online retailing system to attract the attention of the majority in the market. As society is becoming more technology-driven, the fashion industry must position itself in line with this trend; however, some studies show that challenges emanating from online fashion commodities, like apparels, have negatively affected rather than boost retail sales ( Bonetti et al. , 2018 ; Hope-Allwood, 2016 ; Xue et al. , 2019 ).

Therefore, having a technology-driven retail strategy without understanding or paying attention to factors that influence consumer purchase behaviour will result in negative sales outcome, for consumers are driven by social and psychological factors in their purchase intention. Niemeier et al. (2013) as well as Xue et al. (2019) found hedonic factors, convenience (friendly-user interface and easy process) and entertainment as determinants of consumers' purchase of virtual products. Contributing to the array of knowledge on consumer purchase of virtual products, consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intention are tested in this study.

Consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intentions in the online fashion retail sector

Instrumental value influences consumer online purchase behaviour in emerging markets.

Terminal values influence consumer online purchase behaviours in an emerging market

Fashion consciousness influences consumer online purchase behaviour in the fashion industry

The relationship between consumer values (terminal and instrumental) and consumer online purchase behaviour is moderated by consumers' fashion consciousness

Research sample

We employed a cross-sectional design and surveyed 282 individuals through convenience sampling. The data collection method yielded a useable total of 241 survey reports through onsite visitation, representing a response rate of 88.5%, which is considered adequate. The remaining 41 survey reports were rejected due to incomplete information. The survey questionnaire contained close-ended questions and was administered to the respondents in August 2019. The study was conducted in an environment comprising both students and the working class, where a major public university in Lagos, Nigeria, is situated. The demographic characteristics of respondents are as follows: 52.3% of the respondents are students; 13.3% are unemployed; 2.90% are self-employed and the remaining 31.5% constitute other professions ( Table 1 ). Most of the respondents in the study fall within Generation Y (21–30 years, 45.6%; 31–40 years, 21%) and Z (Below 20, 28%) category. The descriptive statistics and correlation of the constructs are provided in Table 2 .

To ensure high content validity, all the measurement scales used for the consumer values, fashion consciousness and online consumer purchase behaviour were adopted from extant literature ( Kautish and Sharma, 2018 ). The survey asked respondents to indicate on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = “strongly disagree” through to 7 = “strongly agree”, the extent to which each statement applied to them.

Control variables

We controlled for four variables in the analyses to account for other factors that were not captured in the research but could affect customer online purchase behaviour in Nigeria. These control variables include age of respondent, educational qualification, monthly income and online purchase frequency.

Scale validity and reliability

The Cronbach alpha reliability test ( α ), which shows internal consistency for each item that makes up a construct is as follows: consumer value has α value of 0.70; fashion consciousness has α value of 0.72 and consumer online purchase behaviour has α value of 0.80. These Cronbach alpha values are all above 0.7, which is the recommended minimum acceptable level ( Hair et al. , 1998 ). Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) of the adopted measures which confirm the discriminant validity are as follows: normed chi-square value ( χ 2 = 537.48; df = 129), the fit indices Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI) = 0.70, Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.70, Goodness of Fit (GFI) = 0.80, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.74, p -value = 0.00000 and Root Mean Square Error (RMSEA) = 0.115. The CFA results confirmed the discriminant validity of the constructs. Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlations of the variables. The ( χ 2 /df) value for the model is 4.2, which is within the acceptable range of 2–5 ( MacCallum et al. , 1999 ; Marsh et al. , 1988 , 1998 ; Kautish and Sharma, 2018 ).

Analysis and results

The following regression model was used to estimate the consumer online purchase behaviour influence of the two independent constructs: consumer value and fashion consciousness: Y i = β 0 + β 1 C V + β 2 F C + β 3 C V F C + e i

The subscript i denotes each respondent ( i = 1,…, 241). Y is the dependent variable (Consumer online purchase behaviour). CV represents the vector for the variants, terminal and instrumental values, FC represents the vector for fashion consciousness, CVFC represents the vector for the moderating effects and e i is the error term. β 1 – β 3 represent the parameters of the coefficients. Figure 1 shows the research model.

Multiple regression analysis was carried out using the hierarchical method ( Cohen and Cohen, 1983 ). In this case, the independent variables were sequentially introduced, one after the other. The hierarchical regression analysis was carried out using six separate multiple regression analyses, as shown in Table 3 . In the first regression model, all the control variables were included. In the second regression model, consumer terminal value was regressed on the consumer online purchase behaviour and the control variables. In the third regression model, the instrumental value was regressed on the consumer online purchase behaviour and the control variables. In the fourth regression model, consumer values (terminal and instrumental values) were regressed on the consumer online purchase behaviour and the control variables. Finally, the interaction terms and consumer values (terminal and instrumental values) were regressed on the consumer online purchase behaviour and the control variables.

Overall, the four hypotheses are supported, as indicated in Table 3 . From model 1, none of the control variables is significant. From model 2, the results show that terminal value is significantly positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.633 at p < 0.01), thus, supporting H1 ; all the control variables are not significant. From model 3, the results show that instrumental value is significantly positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.451 at p < 0.01), thus supporting H2 ; all the control variables are not significant. From model 4, the results show that fashion consciousness is significantly positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.413 at p < 0.01), thus supporting H3 ; almost all the control variables are not significant, except the age of respondents, which is significant ( β = −0.169 at p < 0.05). From model 5, the results show that terminal value is significantly positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.048 at p < 0.01), thus also supporting H1 . Instrumental value is significantly positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.219 at p < 0.01), thus also supporting H2 .

Fashion consciousness is significantly and positively related to consumer online purchase behaviour ( β = 0.142 at p > 0.05), thus also supporting H3 . All the control variables are found to be insignificant. From model 6, the results show that the interaction term (terminal value × instrumental value × fashion consciousness) is significantly positively related to consumer online behaviour, thus supporting H4 . Instrumental value is not significant, whereas terminal value is significantly related to consumer online purchase behaviour. Fashion consciousness is not significantly related to consumer online purchase behaviour.

All the control variables are found to be insignificant. From model 6, the interaction between consumer value and fashion consciousness accounted for significantly more variance than just consumer value and fashion consciousness alone; R 2 change = 0.008, p < 0.01, indicating that there is potentially significant moderation between consumer value and fashion consciousness on consumer online purchase behaviour. The Durbin–Watson ranges from 1.6–1.9, which are approximately 2, and shows no evidence of autocorrelation ( Gujarati, 2003 ). The overall statistical measures, such as ( R 2 , R , F and p -value) indicate the adequacy of the model (see Table 3 ).

Discussions and implication

The role of consumer values in influencing online purchase has been documented in the literature ( Limayem et al. , 2000 ; Nwankwom et al. , 2014 ; Kautish and Sharma, 2018 ). However, very few studies have examined the role of technological innovation in influencing customer value towards online purchase, especially as related to the fashion industry. Kautish and Sharma (2018) examined consumer values, fashion consciousness and behavioural intentions in India's online fashion retail sector and suggested that similar studies should be conducted in emerging economies with diverse cultures. This study, thus, fills this gap by examining consumer values and purchase in the fashion industry through technological platforms in emerging markets, like Nigeria.

Consumer values were grouped into instrumental and terminal values to illustrate the practical implications of the study. The first hypothesis examined the influence of instrumental value on consumer online purchase behaviour in an emerging market, and the result shows that there is a positive significant relationship between instrumental values and online purchase of fashion apparels. This implies that purchasing apparel online saves consumers' time, cost of purchase, convenience, discount in services received and it offers varieties of goods to choose and buy. In other words, key factors that attract and influence the purchase of fashion items online using technological innovation are the convenience, low cost, discount and variety of commodities offered by online stores. This result supports the theoretical proposition by Azjen (1991) that behaviours of individuals are influenced by calculative permutations on the cost and benefits of their actions. Consequently, intentions become actions when it is perceived that the action has more benefit than cost. This finding also supports the observations of Kautish and Sharma (2018) that instrumental values to be derived by consumers in the purchase of a commodity online will influence their purchase decision.

The second hypothesis on the influence of terminal values and consumer online purchase behaviour in an emerging market reveals a significant and positive relationship between terminal value and consumer online purchase behaviour. This implies that happiness, love and satisfaction are consumers experience when they purchase fashion apparels online. In addition, customers perceive a sense of freedom and comfort when they successfully make online purchases. This also supports the submission of Allen et al. (2002) as well as Kautish and Sharma (2018) that terminal value reward from online purchase of a product influences consumer purchase. Online stores, hence, must ensure that their products provide ease of purchase and are low cost and also that the apparels reflect the desires of the customers, such that they provide comfort, satisfaction and happiness when worn.

The third hypothesis examines the influence of fashion consciousness on consumer online purchase behaviour in the fashion industry, and the result shows a significant and positive relationship between fashion consciousness and purchase behaviours. This implies that students, professionals, the employed and unemployed in emerging markets like Nigeria, support and are mindful of fashion trends; the result also showed that students are more interested in fashion trends than the unemployed and self-employed; this result might be associated with the fact that Gen Y and Z consumers are the most represented in this study. This result supports the observations of Babin and James (2010) , Fernandes (2013) , Kautish and Sharma (2018) that fashion consciousness influences the decision to purchase apparels and other related fashion items online. Kautish and Sharma's (2018) submitted that Gen Y consumers have a higher purchase frequency and impulse buying than other generational cohorts. However, this study extends knowledge from the work of Kautish and Sharma (2018) , which was focused on students to show that it is not only this category of individuals who are fashion-conscious but also professionals, the self-employed and even the unemployed in emerging markets, like Nigeria.

The fourth hypothesis tested the moderation of customer values (terminal and instrumental) and online purchase behaviour by fashion consciousness, and the result shows that fashion consciousness moderates the extent to which consumers' values influence their purchase behaviour. A society with a high rate of fashion-conscious individuals will purchase fashion apparels online more than a society with less fashion-conscious people. In addition, it shows that an individual's consciousness for fashion plays a primary role in the online purchase of fashion apparels and other fashionable items.

Additional findings in the study reveal that terminal value has a greater influence on online consumer purchase of fashion apparel. This is indicated by its higher coefficient score (0.633) compared to the scores for the instrumental value (0.451) and fashion consciousness (0.413) (see Table 3 ). This shows that happiness, love, satisfaction, a sense of freedom and comfort derived from online purchase of fashion apparels influence customers' behaviour more than instrumental values (ease of purchase, cost, convenience, discount and product varieties). Interestingly, these findings do not support the observations of Kautish and Sharma (2018) in India, which indicated that instrumental value has a greater influence on consumer purchase. The reverse is the case in this study, as the terminal value reflects the highest coefficient among the two constructs. Nigerians in the study were more interested in the terminal value obtained from the purchase of fashion apparels online, as opposed to customers in India, which might be due to their social and cultural differences.

Implication for practice

The findings from this study have both business and technology-use implications. First, organisations and businesses in the fashion industry must continue to implement innovative and technological ideas on how to provide customers with the values that appeal to them from the online purchase of apparels as this has proven to be a key factor influencing customers' purchase. Consumers in this study are influenced by the convenience and time efficiency of purchase, cost-effectiveness, discount and availability of varieties; hence, managers, business owners and app developers for the fashion market must ensure that their services take into consideration all of these factors for online purchase to be continually stimulated.

Additionally, managers and app developers must understand the kind of apparels that conform to consumers' satisfaction and design, such apparels to meet this need, as this is also paramount to stimulate purchases. Consumers in the Nigerian fashion market are conscious of apparels that give them comfort, a sense of love, happiness and are trendy; therefore, online fashion retailers must have in stock apparels that possess these characteristics. In addition, the targeted audience should not be students or the younger generation alone, as this study has shown that the larger Nigerian populace is fashion conscious. Business owners should have apparels that cut across generations X, Y and Z; they should ensure that there are various offerings to capture different population classifications in the market, thereby meeting all needs. Businesses can focus more on generation Y and Z as they are the most populous in emerging markets and are more used to digital innovations. In spite of this, generation X must still be captured in their product offerings and designs.

The focus should be on increasing terminal values (happiness, love and satisfaction, a feeling of freedom and comfort) of fashion apparels purchased. Instrumental values (ease of purchase, cost, convenience, discount and product varieties) values are important to the Nigerian market; however, there is a preference for clothes that satisfy more terminal values.

Limitations and direction for future research

The study covered consumer values, fashion consciousness and online purchase in the fashion industry in an emerging market – Nigeria. This study is limited to the online fashion (apparel) market and did not take into consideration other viable sectors. Hence, future studies can fill this gap. Other markets, for instance, electronics and automobiles, can be examined in future studies to extend the knowledge of online purchasing and the impact of technological innovations.

Through the lens of a cross-sectional methodology and quantitative techniques, convenience sampling was used to select respondents from a mixed population of students, working-class professionals, the self-employed and unemployed within a multi-cultural and industrial environment, Lagos.

Future studies can consider using random sampling techniques, triangulate their methods and expand the geographical coverage of the sample as non-attention to these factors can be considered a limitation of the study.

The model above represents the direct effects models ( Hypotheses 1 , 2 , 3 ) and the moderation model ( Hypothesis 4 )

Demographic characteristic of respondents

S/N	Characteristics of respondents	Percentage
1
	Below 20 years	28.0
	21–30 years	45.6
	31–40 years	21.0
	41–50 years	5.4
	Above 50 years

2
	Student	52.3
	Unemployed	13.3
	Self-employed	2.90
	Other professions	31.5

3
	<= = 25,000	27.0
	>= = 25,000–<= = 50,000	39.8
	>= = 50,000–<= = 100,000	19.1
	= = 101,000– = = 150,000	4.1
	>= = 150,000	10.0

4
	Secondary school leaving certificate	21.6
	Diploma and undergraduate degree	59.7
	Masters and or PhD degree	18.7

5
	Once a month	28.6
	Once in 2 months	8.8
	Once in 3 months	22.3
	Once in 4 months	40.3

Descriptive statistics and correlations

S/N	Variable	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1	Age	2.012	0.8731
2	Monthly income	1.988	1.7608	0.425**
3	Educational qualification	3.479	1.2608	0.358**	0.230**
4	Online buying frequency	2.411	1.5361	0.133*	0.133*	−0.039
5	Terminal value	3.461	1.1316	−0.043	−0.258**	0.079	−0.098
6	Instrumental value	3.588	0.9151	−0.068	−0.041	0.082	0.011	0.464**
7	Fashion consciousness	3.046	1.104	0.241**	0.024	0.032	0.033	0.474**	0.177**
8	Consumer purchase behaviour	2.736	1.22	−0.08	−0.116	0.001	−0.106	0.618**	0.456**	0.377**

= 421,* < 0.10; ** < 0.05

	Model 1 control variables only	Model 2 (direct 1)	Model 3 (direct 2)	Model 4 (direct 3)	Model 5 (all direct effects)	Model 6 (direct and indirect effects)

Gender	−0.051	−0.074	−0.040	0.169**	−0.081	−0.088
Age group	−0.096	0.095	−0.081	−0.058	0.062	0.071
Marital status	0.039	−0.045	−0.022	0.059	−0.045	−0.053
Employment status	−0.086	−0.047	−0.101	−0.088	−0.066	−0.038
Monthly income
Type of family

Social well-being		0.633***

Physical well-being			0.451***

Psychological well-being – Eudaimonic				0.413***

Psychological well-being – hedonic

Social well- being					0.048***	0.348**
Physical well- being					0.219***	0.111
Psychological well-being Eudaimonic					0.142**	0.025
Psychological well-being – hedonic
Model	0.159	0.627***	0.474***	0.430***	0.664***	0.670***
Model	0.025	0.393***	0.224***	0.185***	0.441***	0.449***
Change in		0.368	−0.169	−0.039	0.256	0.008
Model	1.521	30.129***	13.479***	10.581***	26.038***	23.445***
Durbin–Watson	1.938	1.900	1.871	1.643	1.880	1.913

Note(s): n = 421; standardised regression coefficients are reported

* p < 0.10; ** p < 0.05; *** p < 0.01

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Managing deadstock in the fashion and apparel industry: an exploration of causes, solutions and technological interventions †.

1. Introduction

2. review of existing literature, 2.1. deadstock in the fashion and apparel industry, 2.2. current strategies used to deal with deadstock, 2.3. technological interventions to mitigate the problem of deadstock, 3. discussion, implications and future scope, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Banikya, A.K.; Ranade, P.; Verma, I.K. Managing Deadstock in the Fashion and Apparel Industry: An Exploration of Causes, Solutions and Technological Interventions. Eng. Proc. 2024 , 66 , 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024066009

Banikya AK, Ranade P, Verma IK. Managing Deadstock in the Fashion and Apparel Industry: An Exploration of Causes, Solutions and Technological Interventions. Engineering Proceedings . 2024; 66(1):9. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024066009

Banikya, Arnab Kamal, Pranita Ranade, and Indresh Kumar Verma. 2024. "Managing Deadstock in the Fashion and Apparel Industry: An Exploration of Causes, Solutions and Technological Interventions" Engineering Proceedings 66, no. 1: 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024066009

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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research

Open access
Published: 22 November 2014

Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress

Kim Johnson 1 ,
Sharron J Lennon 2 &
Nancy Rudd 3

Fashion and Textiles volume 1 , Article number: 20 ( 2014 ) Cite this article

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The purpose of this research was to provide a critical review of key research areas within the social psychology of dress. The review addresses published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one's behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self. We identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and identify future research directions and possibilities. The subject matter presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for graduate students (1) who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the field forward, or (2) who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research. Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psychology of dress.

Introduction

A few social scientists in the 19 th Century studied dress as related to culture, individuals, and social groups, but it was not until the middle of the 20 th Century that home economists began to pursue a scholarly interest in social science aspects of dress (Roach-Higgins 1993 ). Dress is defined as “an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body” (Roach-Higgins & Eicher 1992 , p. 1). Body modifications include cosmetic use, suntanning, piercing, tattooing, dieting, exercising, and cosmetic surgery among others. Body supplements include, but are not limited to, accessories, clothing, hearing aids, and glasses. By the 1950s social science theories from economics, psychology, social psychology, and sociology were being used to study dress and human behavior (Rudd 1991 , p. 24).

A range of topics might be included under the phrase social psychology of dress but we use it to refer to research that attempts to answer questions concerned with how an individual’s dress-related beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by others and one’s self. The social psychology of dress is concerned with how an individual’s dress affects the behavior of self as well as the behavior of others toward the self (Johnson & Lennon 2014 ).

Among several topics that could be included in a critical review of research addressing the social psychology of dress, we focused our work on a review of published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one’s own behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self. Our goal was to identify theoretical approaches used in conducting research in these areas, provide an abbreviated background of research in these areas highlighting key findings, and to identify future research directions and possibilities. The content presented features developing topics within the social psychology of dress and is useful for undergraduate students who want an overview of the content area. It is also useful for graduate students (1) who want to learn about the major scholars in these key areas of inquiry who have moved the field forward, or (2) who are looking for ideas for their own thesis or dissertation research. Finally, information in this paper is useful for professors who research or teach the social psychology of dress.

Body supplements as stimulus variables

In studying the social psychology of dress, researchers have often focused on dress as a stimulus variable; for example, the effects of dress on impression formation, attributions, and social perception (see Lennon & Davis 1989 ) or the effects of dress on behaviors (see Johnson et al. 2008 ). The context within which dress is perceived (Damhorst 1984-85 ) as well as characteristics of perceivers of clothed individuals (Burns & Lennon 1993 ) also has a profound effect on what is perceived about others. In the remainder of this section we focus on three research streams that center on dress (i.e., body supplements) as stimuli.

Provocative dress as stimuli

In the 1980s researchers were interested in women’s provocative (revealing, sexy) dress and the extent to which men and women attributed the same meaning to it. For example, both Edmonds and Cahoon ( 1986 ) and Cahoon and Edmonds ( 1987 ) found ratings of women who wore provocative dress were more negative than ratings of women who wore non-provocative dress. No specific theory was identified by these authors as guiding their research. Overall, when wearing provocative dress a model was rated more sexually appealing, more attractive, less faithful in marriage, more likely to engage in sexual teasing, more likely to use sex for personal gain, more likely to be sexually experienced, and more likely to be raped than when wearing conservative dress. Cahoon and Edmonds found that men and women made similar judgments, although men’s were more extreme than women’s. Abbey et al. ( 1987 ) studied whether women’s sexual intent and interest as conveyed by revealing dress was misinterpreted by men. The authors developed two dress conditions: revealing (slit skirt, low cut blouse, high heeled shoes) and non-revealing (skirt without a slit, blouse buttoned to neck, boots). Participants rated the stimulus person on a series of adjective traits. As compared to when wearing the non-revealing clothing, when wearing the revealing clothing the stimulus person was rated significantly more flirtatious, sexy, seductive, promiscuous, sophisticated, assertive, and less sincere and considerate. This research was not guided by theory.

Taking this research another step forward, in the 1990s dress researchers began to investigate how women’s provocative (revealing, sexy) dress was implicated in attributions of responsibility for their own sexual assaults (Lewis & Johnson 1989 ; Workman & Freeburg 1999 ; Workman & Orr 1996 ) and sexual harassment (Johnson & Workman 1992 , 1994 ; Workman & Johnson 1991 ). These researchers tended to use attribution theories (McLeod, 2010 ) to guide their research. Their results showed that provocative, skimpy, see-through, or short items of dress, as well as use of heavy makeup (body modification), were cues used to assign responsibility to women for their sexual assaults and experiences of sexual harassment. For example, Johnson and Workman ( 1992 ) studied likelihood of sexual harassment as a function of women’s provocative dress. A model was photographed wearing a dark suit jacket, above-the-knee skirt, a low-cut blouse, dark hose, and high heels (provocative condition) or wearing a dark suit jacket, below-the-knee skirt, high-cut blouse, neutral hose, and moderate heels (non-provocative condition). As compared to when wearing non-provocative dress, when wearing provocative dress the model was rated as significantly more likely to provoke sexual harassment and to be sexually harassed.

Recently, researchers have resurrected the topic of provocative (revealing, sexy) dress. However, their interest is in determining the extent to which women and girls are depicted in provocative dress in the media (in magazines, in online retail stores) and the potential consequences of those depictions, such as objectification. These researchers have often used objectification theory to guide their research. According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts 1997 ) women living in sexually saturated cultures are looked at, evaluated, and potentially objectified and treated as objects valued for their use by others. Objectification theory focuses on sexual objectification as a function of objectifying gaze, which is experienced in actual social encounters, media depictions of social encounters, and media depictions that focus on bodies and body parts. The theory explains that objectifying gaze evokes an objectified state of consciousness which influences self-perceptions. This objectified state of consciousness has consequences such as habitual body and appearance monitoring and requires cognitive effort that can result in difficulty with task performance (Szymanski et al. 2011 ). In such an environment, women may perceive their bodies from a third-person perspective, treating themselves as objects to be looked at and evaluated.

Self-objectification occurs when people perceive and describe their bodies as a function of appearance instead of accomplishments (Harrison & Fredrickson 2003 ). Experimental research shows that self-objectification in women can be induced by revealing clothing manipulations such as asking women to try on and evaluate the fit of a swimsuit as compared to a bulky sweater (Fredrickson et al. 1998 ).

To examine changes in sexualizing (provocative) characteristics with which girls are portrayed in the media, researchers have content analyzed girls’ clothing in two magazines (Graff et al. 2013 ). Clothing was coded as having sexualizing characteristics (e.g., tightness, bare midriffs, high-heeled shoes) and childlike characteristics (e.g., frills, childlike print, pigtail hair styles). The researchers found an increase in sexualized aspects of dress in depictions of girls from 1971 through 2011. To determine the extent of sexualization in girls’ clothing, researchers have content analyzed girls’ clothing available on 15 retailer websites (Goodin et al. 2011 ). Every girl’s clothing item on each of the retailer websites was coded for sexualizing aspects; 4% was coded as definitely sexualizing. Ambiguously sexualizing clothing (25%) had both sexualizing and childlike characteristics. Abercrombie Kids’ clothing had a higher percentage of sexualizing characteristics than all the other stores (44% versus 4%). These two studies document that girls are increasingly depicted in sexualizing clothing in U.S. media and that they are offered sexualized clothing by major retailers via their websites.

Since girls are increasingly sexualized, to determine if sexualized dress affects how girls are perceived by others Graff et al. ( 2012 ) designed an experiment wherein they manipulated the sexualizing aspects of the clothing of a 5 th grade girl. There were three clothing conditions: childlike (a grey t-shirt, jeans, and black Mary Jane shoes), ambiguously sexualized (leopard print dress of moderate length), highly sexualized (short dress, leopard print cardigan, purse). In the definitely sexualized condition, undergraduate students rated the girl as less moral, self-respecting, capable, determined, competent, and intelligent than when she was depicted in either the childlike or the ambiguously sexualized conditions. Thus, wearing sexualized clothing can affect how girls are perceived by others, so it is possible that sexualized clothing could lead to self-objectification in girls just as in the case of women (Tiggemann & Andrew 2012 ).

Objectification theory has been useful in identifying probable processes underlying the association between women’s provocative dress and negative inferences. In a study using adult stimuli, Gurung and Chrouser ( 2007 ) presented photos of female Olympic athletes in uniform and in provocative (defined as minimal) dress. College women rated the photos and when provocatively dressed, as compared to the uniform condition, the women were rated as more attractive, more feminine, more sexually experienced, more desirable, but also less capable, less strong, less determined, less intelligent, and as having less self-respect. These results are similar to what had previously been found by researchers in the 1980s (Abbey et al. 1987 ; Cahoon & Edmonds 1987 ; Edmonds & Cahoon 1986 ). This outcome is considered objectifying because the overall impression is negative and sexist. Thus, this line of research does more than demonstrate that provocative dress evokes inferences, it suggests the process by which that occurs: provocative dress leads to objectification of the woman so dressed and it is the objectification that leads to the inferences.

In a more direct assessment of the relationship between provocative dress and objectification of others, Holland and Haslam ( 2013 ) manipulated the dress (provocative or plain clothing) of two models (thin or overweight) who were rated equally attractive in facial attractiveness. Since objectification involves inspecting the body, the authors measured participants’ attention to the models’ bodies. Objectification also involves denying human qualities to the objectified person. Two such qualities are perceived agency (e.g., ability to think and form intentions) and moral agency (e.g., capacity to engage in moral or immoral actions). Several findings are relevant to the research on provocative dress. As compared to models wearing plain clothing, models wearing provocative clothing were attributed less perceived agency (e.g., ability to reason, ability to choose) and less moral agency [e.g., “how intentional do you believe the woman’s behavior is?” (p. 463)]. Results showed that more objectified gaze was directed toward the bodies of the models when they were dressed in provocative clothing as compared to when dressed in plain clothing. This outcome is considered objectifying because the models’ bodies were inspected more when wearing provocative dress, and because in that condition they were perceived as having less of the qualities normally attributed to humans.

In an experimental study guided by objectification theory, Tiggemann and Andrew ( 2012 ) studied the effects of clothing on self-perceptions of state self-objectification, state body shame, state body dissatisfaction, and negative mood. However, unlike studies (e.g., Fredrickson et al. 1998 ) in which participants were asked to try on and evaluate either a bathing suit or a sweater, Tiggemann and Andrew instructed their participants to “imagine what you would be seeing, feeling, and thinking” (p. 648) in scenarios. There were four scenarios: thinking about wearing a bathing suit in public, thinking about wearing a bathing suit in a dressing room, thinking about wearing a sweater in public, and thinking about wearing a sweater in a dressing room. The researchers found main effects for clothing such that as compared to thinking about wearing a sweater, thinking about wearing a bathing suit resulted in higher state self-objectification, higher state body shame, higher state body dissatisfaction, and greater negative mood. The fact that the manipulation only involved thinking about wearing clothing, rather than actually wearing such clothing, demonstrates the power of revealing (provocative, sexy) dress in that we only have to think about wearing it to have it affect our self-perceptions.

Taking extant research into account we encourage researchers to continue to investigate the topic of provocative (sexy, revealing) dress for both men and women to replicate the results for women and to determine if revealing dress for men might evoke the kinds of inferences evoked by women wearing revealing dress. Furthermore, research that delineates the role of objectification in the process by which this association between dress and inferences occurs would be useful. Although it would not be ethical to use the experimental strategy used by previous researchers (Fredrickson et al. 1998 ) with children, it is possible that researchers could devise correlational studies to investigate the extent to which wearing and/or viewing sexualized clothing might lead to self- and other-objectification in girls.

Research on red dress

Researchers who study the social psychology of dress have seldom focused on dress color. However, in the 1980s and 1990s a few researchers investigated color in the context of retail color analysis systems that focused on personal coloring (Abramov 1985 ; Francis & Evans 1987 ; Hilliker & Rogers 1988 ; Radeloff 1991 ). For example, Francis and Evans found that stimulus persons were actually perceived positively when not wearing their recommended personal colors. Hilliker and Rogers surveyed managers of apparel stores about the use of color analysis systems and found some impact on the marketplace, but disagreement among the managers on the value of the systems. Abramov critiqued color analysis for being unclear, ambiguous, and for the inability to substantiate claims. Most of these studies were not guided by a psychological theory of color.

Since the 1990s, researchers have developed a theory of color psychology (Elliot & Maier 2007 ) called color-in-context theory. Like other variables that affect social perception, the theory explains that color also conveys meaning which varies as a function of the context in which the color is perceived. Accordingly, the meanings of colors are learned over time through repeated pairings with a particular experience or message (e.g., red stop light and danger) or with biological tendencies to respond to color in certain contexts. For example, female non-human primates display red on parts of their bodies when nearing ovulation; hence red is associated with lust, fertility, and sexuality (Guéguen and Jacob 2013 ). As a function of these associations between colors and experiences, messages, or biological tendencies, people either display approach responses or avoidance responses but are largely unaware of how color affects them. In this section we review studies that examine the effects of red in relational contexts such as interpersonal attraction. However, there is evidence that red is detrimental in achievement (i.e., academic or hiring) contexts (e.g., Maier et al. 2013 ) and that red signals dominance and affects outcomes in competitive sporting contests (e.g., Feltman and Elliot 2011 ; Hagemann et al. 2008 ).

Recently researchers have used color-in-context theory to study the effects of red dress (shirts, dresses) on impressions related to sexual intent, attractiveness, dominance, and competence. Some of these studies were guided by color-in-context theory. Guéguen ( 2012 ) studied men’s perceptions of women’s sexual intent and attractiveness as a function of shirt color. Male participants viewed a photo of a woman wearing a t-shirt that varied in color. When wearing a red t-shirt as compared to the other colors, the woman was judged to be more attractive and to have greater sexual intent. Pazda et al. ( 2014a , [ b ]) conducted an experiment designed to determine why men perceive women who wear red to be more attractive than those who wear other colors. They argued that red is associated with sexual receptivity due to cultural pairings of red and female sexuality (e.g., red light district, sexy red lingerie). Men participated in an online experiment in which they were exposed to a woman wearing either a red, black, or white dress. When wearing the red dress the woman was rated as more sexually receptive than when wearing either the white or the black dresses. The woman was also rated on attractiveness and by performing a mediation analysis the researchers determined that when wearing the red dress, the ratings of her attractiveness as a function of red were no longer significant; in other words, the reason she was rated as more attractive when wearing the red dress was due to the fact that she was also perceived as more sexually receptive.

Pazda et al. ( 2014a , [ b ]), interested in women’s perceptions of other women as a function of their clothing color, conducted a series of experiments. They reasoned that like men, women would also make the connection between a woman’s red dress and her sexual receptivity and perceive her to be a sexual competitor. In their first experiment they found that women rated the stimulus woman as more sexually receptive when wearing a red dress as compared to when she was wearing a white dress. In a second experiment the woman wearing a red dress was not only rated more sexually receptive, she was also derogated more since ratings of her sexual fidelity were lower when wearing a red dress as compared to a white dress. Finally, in a third experiment the stimulus woman was again rated more sexually receptive; this time when she wore a red shirt as compared to when she wore a green shirt. The authors assessed the likelihood that their respondents would introduce the stimulus person to their boyfriends and the likelihood that they would let their boyfriends spend time with the stimulus person. Participants in the red shirt condition were more likely to keep their boyfriends from interacting with the stimulus person than participants in the green shirt condition. Thus, both men and women indicated women wearing red are sexually receptive.

Also interested in color, Roberts et al. ( 2010 ) were interested in determining whether clothing color affects the wearer of the clothing (e.g., do women act provocatively when wearing red clothing?) or does clothing color affect the perceiver of the person wearing the colored clothing. To answer this question, they devised a complicated series of experiments. In the first study, male and female models (ten of each) were photographed wearing each of six different colors of t-shirts. Undergraduates of the opposite sex rated the photographed models on attractiveness. Both male and female models were rated most attractive when wearing red and black t-shirts. In study two the same photos were used, but the t-shirts were masked by a gray rectangle. Compared to when they wore white t-shirts, male models were judged to be more attractive by both men and women when they wore the red t-shirts, even though the red color was not visible. In the third study the t-shirt colors in the photos were digitally altered, so that images could be compared in which red or white t-shirts were worn with those in which red had been altered to white and white had been altered to red. Male models wearing red were rated more attractive than male models wearing white that had been altered to appear red. Also male models wearing red shirts digitally altered to appear white were rated more attractive than male models actually photographed in white. These effects did not occur for female models. The authors reasoned that if clothing color only affected perceivers, then the results should be the same when a model is photographed in red as well as when the model is photographed in white which is subsequently altered to appear red. Since this did not happen, the authors concluded that clothing color affects both the wearer and the perceiver.

In addition, the effects of red dress on impressions also extend to behaviors. Kayser et al. ( 2010 ) conducted a series of experiments. For experiment one, a female stimulus person was photographed in either a red t-shirt or a green one. Male participants were shown a photo of the woman and given a list of questions from which to choose five to ask her. Because women wearing red are perceived to be more sexually receptive and to have greater sexual intent than when wearing other colors, the researchers expected the men who saw the woman in the red dress to select intimate questions to ask and this is what they found. In a second experiment, the female stimulus person wore either a red or a blue t-shirt. After seeing her picture the male participants were told that they would be interacting with her, where she would be sitting, and that they could place their chairs wherever they wished to sit. The men expecting to interact with the red-shirted woman placed their chairs significantly closer to her chair than when they expected to interact with a blue-shirted woman.

In a field experiment (Guéguen 2012 ), five female confederates wore t-shirts of red or other colors and stood by the side of a road to hitchhike. The t-shirt color did not affect women drivers, but significantly more men stopped to pick up the female confederates when they wore the red t-shirts as compared to all the other colors. In a similar study researchers (Guéguen & Jacob 2013 ) altered the color of a woman’s clothing on an online meeting site so that the woman was shown wearing red or several other colors. The women received significantly more contacts when her clothing had been altered to be red than any of the other t-shirt colors.

Researchers should continue conducting research about the color of dress items using color-in-context theory. One context important to consider in this research stream is the cultural context within which the research is conducted. To begin, other colors in addition to red should be studied for their meanings within and across cultural contexts. Since red is associated with sexual receptivity, red clothing should be investigated in the context of the research on provocative dress. For example, would women wearing red revealing dress be judged more provocative than women wearing the same clothing in different colors? Also researchers interested in girls’ and women’s depictions in the media, could investigate the effects of red dress on perceptions of sexual intent and objectification.

Effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer

Several researchers studying the social psychology of dress have reviewed the research literature (Davis 1984 ; Lennon and Davis 1989 ) and some have analyzed that research (see Damhorst 1990 ; Hutton 1984 ; Johnson et al. 2008 for reviews). In these reviews, Damhorst and Hutton focused on the effect of dress on person perception or impression formation. Johnson et al., however, focused their analysis on behaviors evoked by dress. An emerging line of research focuses on the effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer (Adam and Galinsky 2012 ; Frank and Galinsky 1988 ; Fredrickson et al. 1998 ; Gino et al. 2010 ; Hebl et al. 2004 ; Kouchaki et al. 2014 ; Martins et al. 2007 ).

Fredrickson et al. ( 1998 ), Hebl et al. ( 2004 ), and Martins et al. ( 2007 ) all used objectification theory to guide experiments about women’s and men’s body image experience. They were interested in the extent to which wearing revealing dress could trigger self-objectification. The theory predicts that self-objectification manifests in performance detriments on a task subsequent to a self-objectifying experience. Frederickson et al. had participants complete a shopping task. They entered a dressing room, tried on either a one piece swimsuit or a bulky sweater, and evaluated the fit in a mirror as they would if buying the garment. Then they completed a math performance test. The women who wore a swimsuit performed more poorly on the math test than women wearing a sweater; no such effects were found for men. A few years later Hebl et al. ( 2004 ) used the same procedure to study ethnic differences in self-objectification. Participants were Caucasian, African American, Hispanic, and Asian American undergraduate men and women. Participants completed the same shopping task and math test. Participants who tried on the swimsuits performed worse on the math test than participants who tried on the sweater and these results held for both men and women of all ethnicities.

Martins et al. ( 2007 ) used the same shopping task as Frederickson et al. ( 1998 ) and Hebl et al. ( 2004 ), but employed a different behavioral measure. Their participants were gay and heterosexual men and the garment they tried on was either Speedo men’s briefs or a turtleneck sweater. After the shopping task the men were given the opportunity to sample and evaluate a snack and the amount eaten was measured. Wearing the Speedo affected eating for the gay men, but not the heterosexual men, such that gay men in the Speedo condition ate significantly less of the snack than gay men in the sweater condition. Taken together these studies demonstrate that a nominal clothing manipulation can have effects on the behavior of the wearer.

In one of the first studies to demonstrate the effects of clothing on the wearer, Frank and Gilovich ( 1988 ) noted that the color black is associated with evil and death in many cultures. They studied the extent to which players wearing black uniforms were judged more evil and aggressive than players wearing uniforms of other colors. They analyzed penalties awarded for aggressive behavior in football and ice hockey players. Players who wore black uniforms received more penalties for their aggressive behavior than those who wore other uniform colors. Since the penalty results could be due to biased refereeing, the authors videotaped a staged football game in which the defensive team wore either black or white uniforms. The same events were depicted in each version of the videotape. Participants watched short videos and rated the plays as more aggressive when the team members wore black as compared to white uniforms. In another part of the study, participants were assigned to wear either black or white uniform shirts. While wearing the shirts they were asked the type of games they would like to play; the black-shirted participants selected more aggressive games than the white-shirted participants. The authors interpreted the results of all the studies to mean that players wearing black are aggressive. Yet, when the level of aggressiveness was held constant in the staged football game, referees still perceived black-uniformed players to be more aggressive than white-uniformed players. The authors concluded that the color of the black uniform affects the wearer and the perceiver. This study’s results are similar to those of the researchers studying red dress who found that the color red is associated with a cultural meaning that affects both the wearer and the perceiver of the red dress (Roberts et al. 2010 ).

In a similar way, Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) determined that when clothing has symbolic meaning for the wearer, it also affects the wearer’s behavior. The researchers found that a white lab coat was associated with traits related to attentiveness. Then they conducted an experiment in which one group wore a white lab coat described as a painter’s coat and another group wore the same lab coat which was described as a medical doctor’s lab coat. A third group saw, but did not wear, a lab coat described as a medical doctor’s lab coat. Participants then performed an experimental task that required selective attention. The group that wore the coat described as a medical doctor’s lab coat outperformed both of the other two groups.

Gino et al. ( 2010 ) studied the effects of wearing designer sunglasses that were described either as counterfeit or authentic Chloe sunglasses on one’s own behaviors and perceptions of others. Although counterfeits convey status to others, they also mean that the wearers are pretending to be something they are not (i.e., wealthy enough to purchase authentic sunglasses). Participants who thought they were wearing fake sunglasses cheated significantly more on two experimental tasks than those who thought they were wearing authentic sunglasses. In a second experiment, the researchers showed that participants who believed they were wearing counterfeit sunglasses perceived others’ behaviors as more dishonest, less truthful, and more likely to be unethical than those wearing authentic sunglasses. In a third experiment the researchers showed that the effect for wearing counterfeit sunglasses on one’s own behavior was due to the meaning of inauthenticity attributed to the counterfeit sunglasses. Consistent with Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) and Frank and Gilovich (1988), in Gino et al. the effect of dress on one’s own behavior was due to the meaning of the dress cue in a context relevant to the meaning of that dress cue. While none of these three studies articulated a specific theory to guide their research, Adams and Galinsky outlined an enclothed cognition framework, which explained that dress affects wearers due to the symbolic meaning of the dress and the physical experience of wearing that dress item.

To summarize the research on the effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer, each of these studies reported research focused on a dress cue associated with cultural meaning. Some of the researchers had to first determine that meaning. The manipulations were designed so that the meaning of the dress cues was salient for the context of the manipulation. For example, in the objectification studies the revealingness of dress was varied in the context of a dressing room mirror where the revealing nature of the cue would be relevant. So to extend the enclothed cognition framework, we suggest that for dress to affect the wearer, the context of the experimental task needs to be such that the meaning of the dress item is salient.

Future researchers may continue to pursue the effects of dress on the wearer. The extended enclothed cognition framework could be applied to school uniforms. A possible research question could be that if school uniforms are associated with powerlessness among schoolchildren, would wearing school uniforms affect the level of effort children expend to solve homework problems or write papers?

It is interesting that previous researchers who examined the effect of school uniforms on various tasks did not ask children what associations uniforms had for them (e.g., Behling 1994 , 1995 ; Behling and Williams 1991 ). This question is clearly an avenue for renewed research in this area. Another situation to which the extended enclothed cognition framework might be investigated is in the context of professional sports. Since wearing a sweatshirt or cap with a professional team’s logo is associated with being a fan of that team, would people wearing those items evaluate that team’s performance higher than people wearing another team’s logos? Would they provide more excuses for their team than fans not wearing the team’s logos? We encourage researchers to continue to investigate the effects of dress on one’s own behaviors utilizing a range of dress cues (e.g., cosmetics, tattoos, and piercings).

Dress and the self

An ongoing area of research within the social psychology of dress is relationships between dress and the self. Although some researchers use the terms identity and self interchangeably, it is our position that they are not the same concepts but are related. We begin our discussion of the self with research on the body.

The physical body and the self

Whereas the first section of our review focused on body supplements (i.e., the clothed body), this section focuses on body modifications or how the body is altered. Within this discussion, the two research directions that we include are (1) body modifications that carry some risk, as opposed to routine modifications that typically do not, and (2) the influence of body talk and social comparison as variables influencing body image.

Body modifications that carry some risk

Societal standards of attractiveness in the Western world often focus on a thin appearance for women and a mesomorphic but muscular appearance for men (Karazia et al. 2013 ). Internalization of societal standards presented through various media outlets is widely recognized as a primary predictor of body dissatisfaction and risky appearance management behaviors including eating pathology among women (Cafri et al. 2005a , [ b ]), muscle enhancement and disordered eating behaviors in men (Tylka 2011 ), tattooing among young adults (Mun et al. 2012 ), and tanning among adolescents (Prior et al. 2014 ; Yoo & Kim, 2014 ). While there are several other risky appearance management behaviors in the early stages of investigation (e.g., extreme body makeovers, cosmetic procedures on male and female private parts, multiple cosmetic procedures), we isolate just a few behaviors to illustrate the impact of changing standards of attractiveness on widespread appearance management practices in the presentation of self.

Experimental research has demonstrated that exposure to social and cultural norms for appearance (via idealized images) leads to greater dissatisfaction with the body in general for both men and women (Blond 2008 ; Grabe et al. 2008 ); yet a meta-analysis of eight research studies conducted in real life settings suggested that these appearance norms were more rigid, narrowly defined, and prevalent for women than for men (Buote et al. 2011 ). These researchers also noted that women reported frequent exposure to social norms of appearance (i.e., considered bombardment by many women), the norms themselves were unrealistic, yet the nature of the messages was that these norms are perfectly attainable with enough time, money, and effort. Men, on the other hand, indicated that they were exposed to flexible social norms of appearance, and therefore report feeling less pressure to attain a particular standard in presenting their appearance to others (Buote et al. 2011 ).

Eating disorders

A recent stream of research related to individuals with eating disorders is concerned with the practice of body checking (i.e., weighing, measuring or otherwise assessing body parts through pinching, sucking in the abdomen, tapping it for flatness). Such checking behaviors may morph into body avoidance (i.e., avoiding looking in mirrors or windows at one’s reflection, avoiding gym locker rooms or situations involving showing the body to others) (White & Warren 2011 ), the manifestation of eating disorders (Haase et al. 2011 ), obsession with one’s weight or body shape, and a critical evaluation of either aspect (Smeets et al. 2011 ). The propensity to engage in body checking appears to be tied to ethnicity as White and Warren found, in their comparison of Caucasian women and women of color (Asian American, African American, and Latin American). They found significant differences in body checking and avoidance behaviors in Caucasian women and Asian American women over African American and Latin American women. Across all the women, White and Warren found positive and significant correlations between body checking and (1) avoidance behaviors and higher body mass index, (2) internalization of a thin ideal appearance, (3) eating disturbances, and (4) other clinical impairments such as debilitating negative thoughts.

Another characteristic of individuals with eating disorders is that they habitually weigh themselves. Self-weighing behaviors and their connection to body modification has been the focus of several researchers. Research teams have documented that self-weighing led to weight loss maintenance (Butryn et al. 2007 ) and prevention of weight gain (Levitsky et al. 2006 ). Other researchers found that self-weighing contributed to risky weight control behaviors such as fasting (Neumark-Sztainer et al. 2006 ) and even to weight gain (Needham et al. 2010 ). Lately, gender differences have also been investigated relative to self-weighing. Klos et al. ( 2012 ) found self-weighing was related to a strong investment in appearance, preoccupation with body shape, and higher weight among women. However, among men self-weighing was related to body satisfaction, investment in health and fitness, and positive evaluation of health.

One interesting departure from weight as a generalized aspect of body concern among women is the examination of wedding-related weight change. Considering the enormous cost of weddings, estimated to average $20,000 in the United States (Wong 2005 ), and the number of wedding magazines, websites, and self-help books on weddings (Villepigue et al. 2005 ), it is not surprising that many brides-to-be want to lose weight for their special occasion. Researchers have shown that an average amount of intended weight loss prior to a wedding is 20 pounds in both the U.S. and Australia with between 12% and 33% of brides-to-be reporting that they had been advised by someone else to lose weight (Prichard & Tiggemann 2009 ). About 50% of brides hoped to achieve weight loss, yet most brides did not actually experience a change in weight (Prichard & Tiggemann, 2014 ); however, when questioned about six months after their weddings, brides indicated that they had gained about four pounds. Those who were told to lose weight by significant others such as friends, family members, or fiancé gained significantly more than those who were not told to do so, suggesting that wedding-related weight change can have repercussions for post wedding body satisfaction and eating behaviors. Regaining weight is typical, given that many people who lose weight regain it with a year or so of losing it.

Drive for muscularity

Researchers have found that body modifications practiced by men are related more to developing muscularity than to striving for a thin body (Cafri et al. 2005a , [ b ]) with particular emphasis placed on developing the upper body areas of chest and biceps (Thompson & Cafri 2007 ). The means to achieve this body modification may include risky behaviors such as excessive exercise and weight training, extreme dieting and dehydration to emphasize musculature, and use of appearance or performance enhancing substances (Hildebrandt et al. 2010 ).

One possible explanation for men’s drive for muscularity may be objectification. While objectification theory was originally proposed to address women’s objectification, it has been extended to men (Hebl et al. 2004 ; Martins et al. 2007 ). These researchers determined that like women, men are objectified in Western and westernized culture and can be induced to self-objectify via revealing clothing manipulations.

Researchers have also examined how men are affected by media imagery that features buff, well-muscled, thin, attractive male bodies as the aesthetic norm. Kolbe and Albanese ( 1996 ) undertook a content analysis of men’s lifestyle magazines and found that most of the advertised male bodies were not “ordinary,” but were strong and hard bodies, or as the authors concluded, objectified and depersonalized. Pope et al. ( 2000 ) found that advertisements for many types of products from cars to underwear utilized male models with body-builder physiques (i.e., exaggerated “6 pack” abdominal muscles, huge chests and shoulders, yet lean); they suggested that men had become focused on muscularity as a cultural symbol of masculinity because they perceived that women were usurping some of their social standing in the workforce. Hellmich ( 2000 ) concurred and suggested that men were overwhelmed with images of half-naked, muscular men and that they too were targets of objectification. Other researchers (e.g., Elliott & Elliott 2005 ; Patterson & England 2000 ) confirmed these findings – that most images in men’s magazines featured mesomorphic, strong, muscular, and hyper-masculine bodies.

How do men respond to such advertising images? Elliott and Elliott ( 2005 ) conducted focus interviews with 40 male college students, ages 18-31, and showed them six different advertisements in lifestyles magazines. They found six distinct types of response, two negative, two neutral, and two positive. Negative responses were (1) homophobic (those who saw the ads as stereotypically homosexual, bordering on pornography), perhaps threatening their own perceived masculinity or (2) gender stereotyping (those who saw the ads as depicting body consciousness or vanity, traits that they considered to be feminine). Neutral responses were (3) legitimizing exploitation as a marketing tool (those who recognized that naked chests or exaggerated body parts were shown and sometimes with no heads, making them less than human, but recognizing that sex sells products), and (4) disassociating oneself from the muscular body ideals shown in the ads (recognizing that the images represented unattainable body types or shapes). Positive responses were (5) admiration of real or attainable “average” male bodies and (6) appreciating some naked advertising images as art, rather than as sexual objects. The researchers concluded that men do see their gender objectified in advertising, resulting in different responses or perceived threats to self.

There is evidence that experiencing these objectified images of the male body is also partially responsible for muscle dysmorphia, a condition in which men become obsessed with achieving muscularity (Leit et al. 2002 ). Understanding contributors to the development of muscle dysmorphia is important as the condition can lead to risky appearance management behaviors such as extreme body-building, eating disorders, and use of anabolic steroids to gain bulk (Bradley et al. 2014 ; Maida & Armstrong 2005 ). In an experiment, Maida and Armstrong exposed 82 undergraduate men to 30 slides of advertisements and then asked them to complete a body image perception test. Men’s body satisfaction was affected by exposure to the images, such that they wanted to be notably more muscular than they were.

Contemporary researchers have found that drive for muscularity is heightened among men when there is a perceived threat to their masculinity such as performance on some task (Steinfeldt et al. 2011 ) or perceiving that they hold some less masculine traits (Blashill, 2011). Conversely, researchers have also suggested that body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity can be reduced by developing a mindfulness approach to the body characterized by attention to present-moment experiences such as how one might feel during a certain activity like yoga or riding a bicycle (Lavender et al. 2012 ). While the investigation of mindfulness to mitigate negative body image and negative appearance behaviors is relatively new, it is a promising area of investigation.

Tattooing is not necessarily a risky behavior in and of itself, as most tattoo parlors take health precautions with the use of sterile instruments and clean environments. However, research has focused on other risk-taking behaviors that tattooed individuals may engage in, including drinking, smoking, shoplifting, and drug use (Deschesnes et al. 2006 ) as well as and early and risky sexual activity (Koch, Roberts, Armstrong, & Owen, 2007). Tattoos have also been studied as a bodily expression of uniqueness (Mun et al. 2012 ; Tiggemann & Hopkins 2011 ) but not necessarily reflecting a stronger investment in appearance (Tiggemann & Hopkins 2011 ).

Tanning behaviors are strongly associated with skin cancer, just as smoking is associated with lung cancer. In fact, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization has classified ultraviolet radiation from the sun and tanning devices that emit ultraviolet light as group 1 carcinogens, placing ultraviolet radiation in the same category as tobacco use (World Health Organization, 2012 ). Yet, tanning behaviors are prevalent among many young adults and adolescents causing them to be at increased risk of skin cancer, particularly with indoor tanning devices (Boniol et al. 2012 ; Lostritto et al. 2012 ). Studies of motives for tanning among these populations suggest that greater tanning behavior, for both genders, is correlated with high investment in appearance, media influences, and the influence of friends and significant others (Prior et al. 2014 ). Frequent tanning behaviors in adolescent boys have been related to extreme weight control, substance use, and victimization (Blashill 2013 ). Among young adults, Yoo and Kim ( 2014 ) identified three attitudes toward tanning that were related to tanning behaviors. The attitude that tanning was a pleasurable activity influenced indoor and outdoor tanning behaviors. The attitude that a tan enhances physical attractiveness influenced use of tanning beds and sunless tanning products. The attitude that tanning is a healthy behavior influenced outdoor tanning. They advised that tanning behaviors could be studied further particularly in relation to other risky behaviors.

Body talk and the self

A relatively recent line of investigation concerns the impact of talk about the body on perceptions of self. One would think that communication among friends would typically strengthen feelings of self-esteem and psychological well-being (Knickmeyer et al. 2002 ). Yet, certain types of communication, such as complaining about one’s body or appearance, may negatively impact feelings about the self (Tucker et al. 2007 ), particularly in the case of “fat talk” or disparaging comments about body size, weight, and fear of becoming fat (Ousley et al. 2008 ; Warren et al. 2012 ). Such fat talk has become normative behavior among women and, according to one study, occurs in over 90% of women (Salk & Engeln-Maddox 2011 ) and, according to another study, occurs in women of all ages and body sizes (Martz et al. 2009 ) because women feel pressure to be self-critical about their bodies. More women than men reported exposure to fat talk in their circle of friends and acquaintances and greater pressure to engage in it (Salk & Engeln-Maddox). Thus, fat talk extends body dissatisfaction into interpersonal relationships (Arroyo & Harwood 2012 ).

Sladek et al. ( 2014 ) reported a series of studies that elaborated on the investigation of body talk among men, concluding that men’s body talk has two distinct aspects, one related to weight and the other to muscularity. After developing a scale that showed strong test-retest reliability among college men, they found that body talk about muscularity was associated with dissatisfaction with the upper body, strong drive for muscularity, symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, and investment in appearance. Body talk about weight was associated with upper body dissatisfaction, symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, and disordered eating attitudes and behaviors. They suggest future research in body talk conversations among men and boys of all ages, from different cultural backgrounds, and in different contexts.

Negative body talk among men appears to be less straightforward than that among women (Engeln et al. 2013 ). These researchers reported that men’s body talk included both positive elements and negative elements, while that of women tended to focus on the negative, perhaps reflecting an accepting body culture among men in which they can praise one another as well as commiserate with other men on issues regarding muscularity and weight. Yet, both muscle talk and fat talk were found to decrease state appearance self-esteem and to increase state body dissatisfaction among men.

While the fat talk literature clearly establishes the normative occurrence of this type of communication, as well as establishes the negative impact on the self, the literature has not delved into theoretical explanations for its existence. Arroyo ( 2014 ) has posited a relationship between fat talk and three body image theories (self-discrepancy, social comparison, and objectification), and suggested that degree of body dissatisfaction could serve as a mediating mechanism. Self-discrepancy theory suggests that the discrepancy between one’s actual self and one’s ideal self on any variable, such as weight or attractiveness, motivates people to try to achieve that ideal (Jacobi & Cash 1994 ). Social comparison theory (Festinger 1954 ) explains that we compare ourselves to others on some variable of comparison. When we compare ourselves to others who we believe to be better than ourselves (upward comparison) on this variable (say, for example, thinner or more attractive), we may feel worse about ourselves and engage in both non-risky and risky behaviors such as extreme weight control to try to meet those expectations (Ridolfi et al. 2011 ; Rudd & Lennon 1994 ). Objectification theory, as mentioned earlier in this paper, states that bodies are treated as objects to be evaluated and perceived by others (Szymanski et al. 2011 ); self-objectification occurs when individuals look upon themselves as objects to be evaluated by others.

Arroyo ( 2014 ) surveyed 201 college women to see what effect weight discrepancy, upward comparison, and objectified body consciousness had on fat talk; a mediating variable of body dissatisfaction was investigated. She found that how satisfied or dissatisfied the women did indeed impact how they felt about each variable. Each of the three predictor variables was positively associated with body dissatisfaction and higher body dissatisfaction predicted fat talk. She concluded that fat talk is more insidious than other social behaviors; it is a type of communication that perpetuates negative perceptions among women as well as the attitude that women should be dissatisfied with their bodies. Future research suggestions included examining the impact of downward social comparisons (in which the individual assumes they fare better than peers on the variables of comparison, such as weight), and examining all three phenomena of self-discrepancy, social comparison, and objectification together to determine their cumulative impact on self-disparaging talk.

Negative body talk or fat talk is related to perceptions about the self and to appearance-management behaviors in presenting the self to others. In a sample of 203 young adult women, negative body talk was related to body dissatisfaction and poor self-esteem, and was associated with stronger investment in appearance, distorted thoughts about the body, disordered eating behavior, and depression (Rudiger & Winstead 2013 ). Positive body talk was related to fewer cognitive distortions of the body, high body satisfaction, high self-esteem, and friendship quality. Another form of body talk, co-rumination or the mutual sharing between friends of negative thoughts and feelings, is thought to intensify the impact of body talk. In this same study, co-rumination was related to frequent cognitive distortions of the body as well as disordered eating behaviors, but to high perceived friendship quality. Thus, negative body talk achieved no positive outcomes, yet co-rumination achieved negative outcomes for the self, but positive outcomes for quality of friendship. Thus, future research could tease apart the specific components of the social phenomenon of co-rumination in relation to self-perceptions and appearance management behaviors.

Dress and self as distinct from others

Shifting attention from relationships between the body and self, we move to a discussion of relationships between dress and that aspect of the self that is concerned with answering questions about who we are as distinct and unique individuals (e.g., what type of person am I?). Earlier we shared research about how wearing certain article of dress might impact one’s own physical behaviors. We shift now to sharing research addressing the role dress might play in thinking about oneself as a unique and distinct individual (i.e., self-perceptions). Researchers addressing this topic have utilized Bem’s ( 1972 ) self-perception theory. Bem proposed that similar to the processes we use in forming inferences about others, we can form inferences about ourselves. Bem argues that people’s understanding of their own traits was, in some circumstances, an assessment of their own behaviors. This process was proposed to be particularly relevant to individuals who were responsive to self-produced cues (i.e., cues that arise from an individual’s own behavior or characteristics).

In the 1980s, Kellerman and Laird ( 1982 ) utilized self-perception theory to see whether wearing a specific item of dress (e.g., eye glasses) would influence peoples’ ratings of their own skills and abilities. They conducted an experiment with undergraduate students having them rate themselves on an array of traits when wearing and when not wearing glasses and to complete a hidden figures test. Although there were no significant differences in their performance on the test, the participants’ ratings of their competence and intelligence was higher when wearing glasses than when not. In related research, Solomon and Schopler ( 1982 ) found that both men and women indicated that the appropriateness of their clothing affected their mood.

Studying dress specifically within a workplace context, in the 1990s Kwon ( 1994 ) did not have her participants actually wear different clothing styles but asked them to project how they might think about themselves if they were to wear appropriate versus inappropriate clothing to work. Participants indicated they would feel more competent and responsible if they wore appropriate rather than inappropriate clothing. Similarly, Rafaeli et al. ( 1997 ) a found that employees indicated a link between self-perception and clothing associating psychological discomfort with wearing inappropriate dress for work and increased social self-confidence with appropriate attire. Nearly ten years later, Adomaitis and Johnson ( 2005 ) in a study of flight attendants found that the attendants linked wearing casual uniforms for work (e.g., t-shirt, shorts) with negative self-perceptions (e.g., nonauthoritative, embarrassment, unconfident, unprofessional). Likewise, Peluchette and Karl ( 2007 ) investigating the impact of formal versus casual attire in the workplace found that their participants viewed themselves as most authoritative, trustworthy, productive and competent when wearing formal business attire but as friendliest when wearing casual or business casual attire. Continuing this line of research with individuals employed in the public sector, Karl et al. ( 2013 ) reported participants indicated they felt more competent and authoritative when in formal business or business casual attire and least creative and friendly when wearing casual dress.

As workplace dress has become casual, it would be useful for researchers to uncover any distinctions in casualness that make individuals feel more or less competent, respected, or authoritative. Another aspect of clothing that could be investigated is fit as it might impact self-perceptions or use of makeup.

Guy and Banim ( 2000 ) were interested in how clothing was used as means of self-presentation in everyday life. They implemented three strategies to meet their research objective of investigating women’s relationships to their clothing: a personal account, a clothing diary, and a wardrobe interview. The personal account was a written or tape recorded response to the question “what clothing means to me.” The clothing diary was a daily log kept for two weeks. The wardrobe interview was centered on participants’ current collection of clothing. Participants were undergraduates and professional women representing several age cohorts. The researchers identified three distinct perspectives of self relative to the women’s clothing. The first was labeled “the woman I want to be”. This category of responses revealed that the women used clothing to formulate positive self-projections. Favorite items of clothing in particular were identified as useful in bridging the gap between “self as you would like it to be” and the image actually achieved with the clothing. The second category of responses was labeled “the woman I fear I could be”. This category of responses reflected experiences where clothing had failed to achieve a desired look or resulted in a negative self-presentation. Concern here was choosing to wear clothing with unintentional effects such as highlighting parts of the body that were unflattering or concern about losing the ability to know how to dress to convey a positive image. The last category, “the woman I am most of the time” contained comments indicating the women had a “relationship with clothes was ongoing and dynamic and that a major source of enjoyment for them was to use clothes to realize different aspects of themselves” (p. 321).

Interested in how the self shaped clothing consumption and use, Ogle et al. ( 2013 ) utilized Guy and Banim’s ( 2000 ) views of self to explore how consumption of maternity dress might shape the self during a liminal life stage (i.e., pregnancy). Interviews with women expecting their first child revealed concerns that available maternity dress limited their ability to express their true selves. Some expressed concern that the maternity clothing that was available to them in the marketplace symbolized someone that they did not want to associate with (i.e., the woman I fear I could be). Several women noted they borrowed or purchased used clothing from a variety of sources for this time in their life. This decision resulted in dissatisfaction because the items were not reflective of their selves and if worn resulted in their projecting a self that they also did not want to be. In addition, the women shared that they used dress to confirm their selves as pregnant and as NOT overweight. While some of the participants did experience a disrupted sense of self during pregnancy, others shared that they were able to locate items of dress that symbolized a self-consistent with “the woman I am most of the time”.

Continuing in this line of research, researchers may want to explore these three aspects of self with others who struggle with self-presentation via dress as a result of a lack of fashionable and trendy clothing in the marketplace. Plus-sized women frequently report that they are ignored by the fashion industry and existing offerings fail to meet their need to be fashionable. A recent article in the Huffington Post (“Plus-sized clothing”, 2013 ) noted that retailers do not typically carry plus sizes perhaps due to the misconception that plus-sized women are not trendy shoppers or the idea that these sizes will not sell well. Thus, it may well be that the relationship between dress and self for plus-sized women is frustrating as they are prevented from being able to make clothing choices indicative of their selves “as they would like them to be”.

Priming and self-perception

While several researchers have confirmed that clothing worn impacts thoughts about the self, Hannover and Kühnen ( 2002 ) were interested in uncovering processes that would explain why clothing could have this effect. They began with examining what role priming might have in explaining how clothing impacts self-perceptions. Using findings from social cognition, they argued that clothing styles might prime specific mental categories about one’s self such that those categories that are most easily accessed in a given situation would be more likely to be applied to oneself than categories of information that are difficult to access. Thus, if clothing can be used to prime specific self-knowledge it should impact self-descriptions such that, a person wearing “casual” clothing (e.g., jeans, sweatshirt) should be more apt to describe him or herself using casual terms (e.g., laid-back, uses slang). The researchers had each participant stand in front of a mirror and indicate whether or not specific traits were descriptive of him or herself when wearing either casual or formal clothing (e.g., business attire). The researchers found that when a participant wore casual clothing he or she rated the casual traits as more valid self-descriptions than the formal traits. The reverse was also true. They concluded that the clothing worn primed specific categories of self-knowledge. However, the researchers did not ask participants to what extent they intentionally considered their own clothing when determining whether or not a trait should be applied to them. Yet, as previously noted, Adam and Galinsky ( 2012 ) demonstrated that clothing impacted a specific behavior (attention) only in circumstances where the clothing was worn and the clothing’s meaning was clear. Thus, researchers could test if clothing serves as an unrecognized priming source and if its impact on impression formation is less intentional than typically assumed.

Dress and self in interaction with others

Another area of research within dress and the self involves experience with others and the establishment of meaning. Questions that these researchers are interested in answering include what is the meaning of an item of dress or a way of appearing? Early researchers working in this area have utilized symbolic interactionism as a framework for their research (Blumer 1969 ; Mead 1934 ; Stone 1962 ). The foundational question of symbolic interaction is: “What common set of symbols and understandings has emerged to give meaning to people’s interactions?” (Patton 2002 , p. 112).

There are three basic premises central to symbolic interactionism (Blumer 1969 ). The first premise is that our behavior toward things (e.g., physical objects, other people) is shaped by the meaning that those things have for us. Applied to dress and appearance, this premise means that our behavior relative to another person is influenced by that person’s dress (Kaiser 1997 ) and the meaning that we assign to that dress. The second premise of symbolic interaction is that the meaning of things is derived from social interaction with others (Blumer). This premise indicates that meanings are not inherent in objects, must be shared between individuals, and that meanings are learned. The third premise is that meanings are modified by a continuous interpretative process in which the actor interacts with himself (Blumer). As applied to clothing, this premise suggests that the wearer of an outfit or item of clothing is active in determining the meaning of an item along with the viewer of that item.

Symbolic interactionism posits that the self is a social construction established, maintained, and altered through interpersonal communication with others. While initial work focused on investigating verbal communication as key to the construction of the self, Stone extended communication to include appearance and maintained that “appearance is at least as important in establishment and maintenance of the self” as verbal communication (1962, p. 87).

Stone ( 1962 ) discussed a process of establishing the self in interaction with others. This process included selecting items of dress to communicate a desired aspect of self (i.e., identity) as well as to convey that desired aspect to others. One stage in this process is an individual’s review of his/her own appearance. This evaluation and response to one’s own appearance is called program. One might experience a program by looking in the mirror to assess whether the intended identity expressed through dress is the one that is actually achieved. After this evaluation of one’s appearance, the next stage involves others reacting to an individual’s appearance. This is called a review. Stone contends that when “programs and reviews coincide, the self of the one who appears is validated or established” (p. 92). However, when programs and reviews do not coincide, the announced identity is challenged and “conduct may be expected to move in the direction of some redefinition of the challenged self” (p. 92).

Researchers using this approach in their investigations of dress have used Stone’s ( 1962 ) ideas and applied the concept of review to the experiences of sorority women. Hunt and Miller ( 1997 ) interviewed sorority members about their experiences with using dress to communicate their membership and how members, via their reviews, shaped their sorority appearances. Members reported using several techniques in the review of the appearance of other members as well as in response to their own appearance (i.e., programs). Thus, the researcher’s results supported Stone’s ideas concerning establishment of an identity (as an aspect of self) as a process of program and review.

In an investigation of the meaning of dress, in this instance the meaning of a specific body modification—a tattoo, Mun et al. ( 2012 ) interviewed women of various ages who had tattoos to assess meanings, changes in self-perceptions as a result of the tattoo, and any changes in the women’s behavior as an outcome of being tattooed. To guide their inquiry, the researchers used Goffman’s ( 1959 ) discussion of the concept of self-presentation from his seminal work The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . According to Goffman, on a regular basis people make inferences about the motivations that underlie other people’s behaviors. To make these inferences they use everyday details. Because most people make these inferences, Goffman believed that individuals could purposely control the content of those inferences by controlling their behavior. Included in this behavior was an individual’s dress. These researchers found support for Goffman’s reasoning. Participants shared that their tattoo(s) had meaning and were expressive of their selves, their personal values and interests, important life events (e.g., marriage), and religious/sacred beliefs. The meaning of a tattoo was also dynamic for several participants rather than static. Participants’ self-perceptions were impacted as a result of being tattooed with several participants sharing increases to their confidence and to their perceived empowerment. Individuals who shared a change in behavior primarily noted that they controlled the visibility of their tattoos to others as a method to control how others might respond to them having a tattoo especially within the workplace.

Since an array of body modifications (e.g., piercings, gauging, scarification) are being adopted cross-culturally, investigations of people’s experiences with any of these modifications is fertile area for future researchers interested in the meaning(s) of dress and how dress impacts the self through interaction with others. Researchers may want to investigate men’s experiences with piercing/gauging as well as women’s experiences with body building and other developing forms of body modification. Extreme forms of body piercings (e.g., piercings that simulate corset lacings) and underlying motivations for these body modifications would add to our understanding of relationships between dress and self. The meanings of facial hair to men or body hair removal (partial, total) for both men and women are additional aspects of dress that could be investigated.

Dress and self as influence on consumption

In the aforementioned research by Ogle et al. ( 2013 ), the researchers found that a primary reason their participants were disappointed by the maternity clothing offered through the marketplace was due to a lack of fit between their selves and the clothing styles made available. Thus, it is clear that ideas about the self impact clothing selection and purchase. Sirgy ( 1982 ) proposed self-image product-image congruity theory to describe the process of how people applied ideas concerning the self to their purchasing. The basic assumption of the theory is that through marketing and branding, products gain associated images. The premise of the theory is that products people are motivated to purchase are products with images that are congruent with or symbolic of how they see themselves (i.e., actual self-image) or with how they would like to be (i.e., ideal self-image). They also will avoid those products that symbolize images that are inconsistent with either of these self-images.

Rhee and Johnson ( 2012 ) found support for the self-image product-image congruity relationship with male and female adolescents. These researchers investigated the adolescents’ purchase and use of clothing brands. Participants indicated their favorite apparel brand was most similar to their actual self (i.e., this brand reflects who I am), followed by their social self (i.e., this brand reflects who I want others to think I am), and their desired self (i.e., this brand reflects who I want to be).

Earlier, Banister and Hogg ( 2004 ) conducted research investigating the idea that consumers will actively reject or avoid products with negative symbolic meanings. The researchers conducted group interviews with adult consumers. Their participants acknowledged that clothing items could symbolize more than one meaning depending on who was interpreting the meaning. They also acknowledged that the consumers they interviewed appeared to be more concerned with avoiding consumption of products with negative symbolic images than with consuming products with the goal of achieving a positive image. One participant noted that while attempts to achieve a positive image via clothing consumption may be sub-conscious, the desire to avoid a negative image when shopping was conscious.

Closing remarks

It is clear from our review that interest in the topic of the social psychology of dress is on-going and provides a fruitful area of research that addresses both basic and applied research questions. Although we provided an overview of several key research areas within the topic of the social psychology of dress we were unable to include all of the interesting topics being investigated. There are other important areas of research including relationships between dress and specific social and cultural identities, answering questions about how dress functions within social groups, how we learn to attach meanings to dress, and changing attitudes concerning dress among others. Regardless, we hope that this review inspires both colleagues and students to continue to investigate and document the important influence dress exerts in everyday life.

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Johnson, K., Lennon, S.J. & Rudd, N. Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress. Fashion and Textiles 1 , 20 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40691-014-0020-7

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Fashion Research Paper Topics: History, Consumer Behavior and Industry Trends

Table of contents

1 How to Choose a Research Paper Topic On Fashion
2.1 Fast Fashion Research Questions
2.2 Sustainable Fashion Topics To Write About
2.3 Ethical Fashion Essay Topics
2.4 Topics about Fashion Designers
2.5 Fashion Brands
2.6 Business of Fashion
2.7 History of Fashion Topics to Research

Fashion is a dynamic and ever-evolving field, blending creativity, culture, and commerce uniquely and captivating. It is an expression of personal style and a mirror reflecting societal changes, technological advancements, and varying aesthetic preferences across different eras and regions. Delving into fashion research opens a world of exploration, from the dazzling allure of high fashion and iconic designers to the critical issues of sustainability and ethical production practices.

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive list of fashion research topics, encompassing this complex industry’s diverse and vibrant aspects. It also covers a wide range of subjects, from the impact of cultural shifts on fashion trends to the evolving landscape of fashion marketing and retail. These topics offer a rich terrain for in-depth study and analysis.

How to Choose a Research Paper Topic On Fashion

Choosing the right research topics about fashion is a critical step that sets the tone for your entire study. It’s a delicate balance of aligning personal interest with academic value.

Start by pinpointing your area of passion within the broad spectrum of fashion. It could be anything from the intricacies of design and the rich tapestry of fashion history, to the pressing issues of ethics and the evolving dynamics of the fashion business of fashion articles.
Next, immerse yourself in current trends and pressing issues within the fashion world to carve out a unique and relevant angle for your research.
Availability of resources and existing literature is paramount. Ensure sufficient material and data are available to underpin your study with credible information.
Selecting a topic for a fast fashion argumentative essay that resonates with current discussions and contributes a fresh perspective or addresses market research in fashion is advantageous.
Striking the right balance between specificity and breadth is key; your topic should be focused enough to provide clear direction for your study, yet broad enough to encompass comprehensive exploration and analysis.

This approach guarantees a more manageable research process and enhances the potential for meaningful and engaging contributions to the field of fashion studies.

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List of Research Topics On Fashion

Dive into the fascinating world of fashion with these compelling research topics. Covering everything from the glitz of designer brands to the pressing issues of sustainability, each topic offers a unique perspective on the multifaceted fashion industry.

Fast Fashion Research Questions

Environmental Impact of Fast Fashion. Investigating the ecological footprint of rapid production cycles in the fashion industry.
Consumer Perception and Fast Fashion. Understanding how consumer attitudes towards sustainability affect fast fashion.
Economic Viability of Fast Fashion Models. Analyzing the long-term economic sustainability of the fast fashion business model.
Social Implications of Fast Fashion. Examining the social consequences, including labor practices, of fast fashion.
Innovative Solutions to Fast Fashion Problems. Exploring new technologies and business models to mitigate fast fashion issues.
Globalization and Fast Fashion. Assessing the impact of globalization on the spread and practices of fast fashion.
Fast Fashion and Waste Management. Investigating waste generation and management in the fast fashion cycle.
Consumer Behavior in Fast Fashion. Analyzing how consumer buying patterns contribute to fast fashion.
Marketing Strategies in Fast Fashion. Understanding the role of marketing in promoting fast fashion trends.
Ethical Challenges in Fast Fashion. Examining the ethical dilemmas posed by fast fashion.
Fast Fashion and Cultural Appropriation. Investigating instances and impacts of cultural appropriation in fast fashion.
The Role of Media in Fast Fashion. Exploring how the media influences the fast fashion industry and consumer choices.
Fast Fashion and Its Impact on Traditional Retail. Analyzing how fast fashion is affecting traditional retail models.
Sustainability Initiatives in Fast Fashion. Examining efforts by fast fashion brands to become more sustainable.
Future Trends in Fast Fashion. Predicting future developments and changes in the fast fashion industry.

Sustainable Fashion Topics To Write About

Sustainable Materials in Fashion. Exploring eco-friendly materials used in sustainable fashion.
The Lifecycle of Sustainable Fashion Products. Understanding the production, use, and disposal of sustainable fashion items.
Consumer Awareness of Sustainable Fashion. Assessing how consumer knowledge impacts sustainable fashion choices.
Challenges to Sustainable Fashion Manufacturing. Investigating barriers to adopting sustainable practices in fashion production.
Innovations in Sustainable Fashion Technology. Examining technological advancements in creating sustainable fashion.
Sustainable Fashion and Global Supply Chains. Analyzing the role of global supply chains sustainably.
Marketing of Sustainable Fashion Brands. Strategies for marketing sustainable fashion to a wider audience.
Economic Aspects of Sustainable Fashion. Understanding the economic implications and viability of sustainable fashion.
Policy and Regulation in Sustainable Fashion. Examining the role of policy in promoting sustainable fashion practices.
Social Responsibility in Sustainable Fashion. Exploring the social impact of sustainable fashion on communities and workers.
Sustainable Fashion and Consumer Behavior. Investigating how sustainable fashion influences consumer buying habits.
The Role of Designers in Sustainable Fashion. Examining how designers can drive sustainability in fashion.
Upcycling and Recycling in Fashion. Exploring the role of upcycling and recycling in sustainable fashion.
Sustainable Fashion and Cultural Shifts. Assessing how cultural changes are affecting sustainable fashion trends.
Case Studies of Successful Sustainable Fashion Brands. Analyzing successful examples of sustainable fashion brands.

Ethical Fashion Essay Topics

Defining Ethical Fashion Topics. Understanding what constitutes ethical practices in the fashion industry.
Transparency in Fashion Supply Chains. Examining the importance of transparency for ethical fashion.
Consumer Role in Promoting Ethical Fashion. Exploring how consumers can influence ethical practices in fashion.
Ethical Fashion and Labor Rights. Investigating the intersection of fashion production and labor rights.
The Impact of Ethical Fashion on the Environment. Assessing the environmental benefits of ethical fashion practices.
Challenges in Implementing Ethical Fashion. Understanding the obstacles to adopting ethical practices in fashion.
Ethical Fashion and Cultural Sensitivity. Examining the importance of cultural sensitivity in an ethical fashion.
The Business Case for Ethical Fashion. Analyzing the economic benefits of adopting ethical practices in fashion.
Ethical Fashion and Consumer Trust. Investigating how ethical practices influence consumer trust in brands.
Innovations in Ethical Fashion. Exploring new developments and practices in an ethical fashion.
Ethical Fashion and Globalization. Assessing the impact of globalization on ethical fashion practices.
Marketing Strategies for Ethical Fashion. Understanding how to market ethical fashion effectively.
The Role of Governments in Ethical Fashion. Examining the role of policy and regulation in promoting ethical fashion.
Ethical Fashion and Social Media Influence. Exploring the impact of social media on ethical fashion trends.
Case Studies of Ethical Fashion Initiatives. Analyzing successful examples of ethical fashion initiatives.

Topics about Fashion Designers

Influence of Iconic Fashion Designers. Exploring how legendary designers have shaped fashion trends.
Biographies of Renowned Fashion Designers. Investigating the life stories and career paths of famous designers.
Emerging Fashion Designers and Industry Impact. Examining the influence of emerging designers on the fashion industry.
Fashion Designers and Brand Identity. Analyzing how designers shape and define brand identities.
Collaborations between Fashion Designers and Brands. Exploring successful collaborations and their outcomes.
Fashion Designers and Cultural Influences. Investigating how cultural backgrounds influence designers’ work.
Sustainability Focus of Fashion Designers. Examining designers’ approaches to sustainable fashion.
Fashion Designers and Technology Integration. Analyzing how designers are incorporating technology into fashion.
Fashion Designers and Political Statements. Exploring how designers use fashion to make political statements.
Innovations by Fashion Designers. Investigating groundbreaking innovations introduced by fashion designers.
Fashion Designers and Celebrity Influence. Assessing the impact of celebrity endorsements on designers’ work.
Design Philosophy and Techniques of Fashion Designers. Examining the unique design philosophies and techniques of designers.
Fashion Designers and Global Trends. Analyzing how designers respond to and shape global fashion trends.
Fashion Designers and Ethical Practices. Investigating how designers are incorporating ethical practices into their work.
Fashion Designers’ Role in Fashion Education. Exploring the involvement of designers in fashion education and mentorship.

Fashion Brands

History and Evolution of Major Fashion Brands. Tracing the development and growth of leading fashion brands.
Branding Strategies in Fashion. Analyzing effective branding strategies used by fashion companies.
Consumer Perception of Fashion Brands. Understanding how consumers view and interact with different fashion brands.
Luxury Fashion Brands and Market Positioning. Investigating the strategies of luxury brands in the fashion market.
Sustainability Initiatives of Fashion Brands. Examining how brands are incorporating sustainability into their operations.
Fashion Brands and Global Expansion. Analyzing how brands are expanding and adapting to global markets.
Collaborations between Fashion Brands and Designers. Exploring the impact of collaborative projects.
Fashion Brands and Technology Integration. Investigating how brands are utilizing technology in fashion design and retail.
Marketing and Advertising Strategies of Fashion Brands. Analyzing the marketing approaches of successful fashion brands.
Fashion Brands and Consumer Engagement. Understanding how brands engage with their customers.
Fashion Brands and Social Responsibility. Examining the social and ethical responsibilities of fashion brands.
Innovations in Fashion Branding. Exploring innovative branding techniques in the fashion industry.
Fashion Brands and Cultural Impact. Assessing the cultural influence of prominent fashion brands.
Challenges Facing Fashion Brands Today. Investigating current challenges and how brands are addressing them.
Case Studies of Successful Fashion Brand Revivals. Analyzing how struggling brands successfully reinvented themselves.

Business of Fashion

Globalization and Its Impact on Fashion Business. Examining how globalization has transformed the fashion industry.
Fashion Retailing Strategies. Analyzing effective retailing strategies in the fashion industry.
Fashion E-Commerce Trends and Challenges. Investigating the rise of online fashion retailing and associated challenges.
Business Models in the Fashion Industry . Exploring different business models and their effectiveness in fashion.
Marketing and Promotion in Fashion. Analyzing marketing techniques and promotional strategies in fashion.
Fashion Industry Supply Chain Management. Examining supply chain dynamics in the fashion industry.
Fashion Brand Management and Development. Investigating strategies for managing and developing fashion brands.
Consumer Behavior Analysis in Fashion. Understanding consumer purchasing patterns and preferences in fashion.
Fashion Business and Sustainability. Analyzing the integration of sustainable practices in fashion business operations.
Innovations in Fashion Business Models. Exploring innovative approaches to fashion business and retail.
Fashion Industry Economic Analysis. Examining the economic aspects and impacts of the fashion industry.
Fashion Business and Global Market Trends. Assessing global market trends and their influence on fashion businesses.
Fashion Startups and Entrepreneurship. Investigating the rise and challenges of fashion startups.
Fashion Business Ethics and Social Responsibility. Examining ethical considerations and social responsibilities in the fashion business.
Case Studies of Successful Fashion Business Strategies. Analyzing successful strategies implemented by fashion businesses.

History of Fashion Topics to Research

The Evolution of Fashion from Ancient Civilizations. Exploring fashion trends and their significance in ancient societies like Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Medieval Fashion and Social Hierarchies. Analyzing how fashion in the medieval era reflected societal structures and class distinctions.
Renaissance Fashion and Artistic Influence. Investigating the influence of Renaissance art and culture on fashion trends of the era.
17th Century Baroque Fashion. Examining the opulence and extravagance of Baroque fashion and its reflection on the socio-political climate.
18th Century Rococo Style and Femininity. Discussing the Rococo style’s emphasis on ornamentation and its impact on the perception of femininity.
Fashion During the Industrial Revolution. Understanding how technological advancements in the 19th century transformed the fashion industry.
The Birth of Haute Couture in the 19th Century. Tracing the origins of haute couture and its founding designers like Charles Frederick Worth.
Fashion in the Victorian Era. Exploring the fashion trends and social norms that characterized the Victorian period.
The Roaring Twenties and Flapper Fashion. Delving into the revolutionary changes in women’s fashion during the 1920s.
Fashion During World War II. Investigating how wartime restrictions influenced fashion, introducing utility clothing and fabric rationing.
The Post-War Fashion Boom and the New Look. Analyzing the impact of Dior’s New Look in shaping post-WWII fashion.
Swinging Sixties and Youth Culture. Examining how 1960s fashion was influenced by and influenced youth culture and social movements.
Punk Fashion and Subculture in the 1970s. Exploring the emergence of punk fashion and its challenge to mainstream norms.
The Influence of Pop and Celebrity Culture on 1980s Fashion. Discuss how pop culture icons and music influenced 1980s fashion trends.
Fashion in the Digital Age. Understanding how the advent of the internet and digital media in the late 20th and early 21st centuries has transformed fashion consumption and trends.

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How to Conduct Fashion Market Research Like a Pro

Fashion market research provides business owners and entrepreneurs with valuable insights so they can make confident, informed decisions to guide the development or evolution of their fashion business.

Valued at an impressive 1.5 trillion U.S. dollars in 2020 , the global fashion/apparel industry is a behemoth industry covering a wide variety of garments and accessories.

While this sector has traditionally experienced consistent growth, the past year has been turbulent and challenging. Whether you are considering a new fashion venture or are looking for innovative ways to recover from an unprecedented year, market research is an effective way to guide your efforts.

This article covers how to conduct a combination of primary and secondary research o to power your fashion market research campaign.

Fashion Market Research Overview

Fashion market research is the process of gathering and analyzing information to gain insights into the fashion industry, which includes its top players, your competitors and mainly, your target market. Whether you own an existing apparel business or are considering an entry into the world of fashion, market research can ensure effective use of your marketing expenditure and increase the likelihood of business success.

Fashion market research is used to achieve the following:

Understand how customers relate to your brand or a competitor’s brand.
Identify areas for growth, new markets, and customer segments.
Understand how existing customers would like to see your brand evolve.
Gain insight into consumer spending when it comes to fashion needs and wants.
Collect information about consumer opinions and interactions with various fashion segments (e.g. fast fashion vs. luxury brands).
Understand how fashion marketing campaigns influence consumers’ opinions and behavior.

Undertaking a market research campaign project can provide you with the confidence you need to succeed in a highly competitive industry. The end-goal of fashion market research is to gain sufficient information to make informed decisions about your business so that it can thrive.

The Makeup of Fashion Market Research

Fashion market research is made up of two sources of information, referred to as primary and secondary research. By using both primary and secondary sources of information, you can determine several key factors about your target market and its various segments. These include:

Annual spend on fashion in your niche
A comparison of shopping experience frequencies, in-store vs. online
Wardrobe share of certain brands and/or apparel categories
Where and how your target market discovers your brand
Shopping triggers
Spending forecasts
Marketing channels
Product diversity
How in-demand your products or brand are

To reap the most insights, you should plan to incorporate both primary and secondary sources to drive your fashion market research towards success.

Primary Research for the Fashion Industry

Primary market research refers to the unique data that is gathered from first-hand sources. While it is more labor-intensive to gather primary information, you are rewarded with data that is particularly relevant to your particular business and customer base. It also puts you in control in terms of the data you collect and then leverage.

The most valuable sources of primary information for fashion market research are:

Online survey tools about existing or prospective customers, i.e., those in your target market that have not yet bought from you.
Phone, in-person, and mall intercept interviews
In contrast to one-on-one interviews, a focus group allows for moderated discussion among participants. This provides the opportunity for the group to share ideas and discuss a topic or trend, which is particularly useful when conducting fashion market
This gives marketers an opportunity to observe and understand how customers behave in a natural setting. When it comes to fashion market research, field research provides valuable information about how customers browse and shop, both in-store (through natural observation) and online (via session replay tools).
Often used to test out new design concepts, user testing gauges customer interest and reception. It is also used to test out in-store shopping experiences and changes to fashion websites.
Consumer research panels

Secondary Research for the Fashion Industry

Secondary research is performed by sourcing data from existing, published sources, i.e., data that you don’t need to amass yourself, as it has already been conducted. You should then parse through and organize the secondary data to prepare it for analysis. A strong analysis involves comparing the secondary resources against each other, along with their primary source counterparts.

Good sources of secondary information for the fashion industry include:

Market and industry research reports and white papers
Fashion industry websites
SEO, keyword, and trends research
Governments statistics
Your competitors’ websites and other digital properties such as apps, mobile sites, ads, etc.

Secondary Research Sources for Fashion Market Research

To give your fashion market research a jumpstart, we have gathered some of the most relevant sources of secondary information for the fashion industry.

Marketresearch.com Market Research Reports & Industry Analysis : A veritable font of information about the fashion and apparel industry, this site lets you search and filter to find general industry reports and more specific reports that pertain to your niche or sub-sector.
McKinsey’s State of Fashion Annual Report : A trusted global consulting group, McKinsey publishes a free annual report on the fashion industry that contains insights on the global economy, consumer spending and behavior and the fashion industry as a whole. The recently published report on fashion in 2021 pays special attention to the impact that COVID-19 has had and will continue to have on the industry in the coming year.
Statista.com Global Apparel Market – Statistics and Facts : Statista offers a wealth of information and statistics on the fashion market. You can access a variety of charts and reports for free, or purchase more comprehensive reports, such as Apparel Market Worldwide dossier .
NPD Fashion Trend Tracker : The global consulting group NPD has created a subscription-based trend tracker that provides the latest information on changing fashion trends. Use this to track change and identify areas of growth in your vertical.
NPD website : In addition to paid sources of information, the NPD Group is also an excellent source of free information about the fashion and apparel industry, published as articles and blog posts on their website.
The Business of Fashion : This online magazine collates insights gathered by journalists in over 125 countries. Subscription-based memberships are available for those who want to gain insights from a leading source of fashion industry news and information.
KPMG Sustainable Fashion report : Published by KPMG, this free report focuses on consumer perception of sustainable fashion. The group interviewed over 1,000 individuals in the world’s largest cities to understand how consumers relate to sustainable fashion and responsible buying behavior.
CommonObjective.co : For anyone with an eye on sustainability as it pertains to fashion, Common Objective is a valuable source of both free and paid information about trends, sourcing, marketing, consumer behavior, and more.

Confront New Challenges with Market Research

Fashion businesses have more challenges to consider than ever before. If your business is struggling to recover from the global pandemic, market research can help you identify new areas of growth. With a tightened budget, market research is vital to ensure your marketing and advertising spend is used wisely.

Or perhaps you are looking to evolve your business in response to the concerns of “woke” consumers , who demand a higher level of environment and social responsibility from fashion brands. Market research can help you meet these demands and shape your targeted messaging.

Even without new challenges, every fashion business fights the constant battle to remain relevant and stylish in an ever-changing landscape. Consumers on the hunt for something unique and new will continue to push fashion brands to evolve their style to satisfy their customers’ demands.

Fortunately, this demand comes with more direct access to your customers via social media. You can benefit from an engaged audience by regularly deploying online surveys to gather insights about their needs and desires, no matter how often they change.

Regardless of your motivations, fashion market research can provide you with valuable insights to help you make confident decisions in the months and years to come.

Frequently asked questions

What is fashion market research.

Fashion market research involves collecting and analyzing data in order to gain a better understanding of how an apparel business is positioned in the competitive landscape.

Who can benefit from fashion market research?

Fashion market research is beneficial for a wide variety of businesses that operate within the fashion industry. This includes established brands, fashion startups, brick-and-mortar stores, apparel chains, and artisan fashion producers.

What are some of the reasons for conducting fashion market research?

Fashion market research can help a business identify new target markets, understand how existing customers feel about their brand, gain insights into fashion spending, and explore how marketing campaigns can affect buying behavior.

How is fashion market research conducted?

After identifying the goals of the fashion market research project, the team will conduct primary and secondary research to gather information from the appropriate sources. Then, this information will be compiled into a report that contains findings and recommendations.

What types of primary research are most appropriate for fashion market research?

The most useful types of primary research for the fashion industry include surveys, interviews, focus groups, field research, mall intercepts, and user testing.

Do you want to distribute your survey? Pollfish offers you access to millions of targeted consumers to get survey responses from $0.95 per complete. Launch your survey today.

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Management of products in the apparel manufacturing industry using DEMATEL-based analytical network process technique

Published: 19 June 2024

Cite this article

Wanni Xu 1 ,
Lu Wang 1 ,
Qingbin Zhuang 2 ,
Minghua Guan 1 ,
Zhibo Tian 4 &
Jianlong Huang 5

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To reduce environmental pollution and resource waste in manufacturing, it is important to discuss the increase in consumers' willingness to buy sustainable clothing and their satisfaction with it, as well as ideas on product design optimization and marketing strategies of environmental protection clothing enterprises as well as business and logistics operations. The approach used in this study to obtain the overall rank of criteria is a combination of the Decision Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory (DEMATEL) and Decision-making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory based on ANP (DANP). Using Muji brand clothing as the empirical research object, this paper seeks to investigate the important factors and consumer preferences in purchasing sustainable clothing. We collected 140 criterion-importance questionnaires and 161 IPA questionnaires. Through literature review and the Delphi method, this study provides an important criterion framework for sustainable clothing, and it used the DEMATEL-based Analytical Network Process (ANP) method to determine the causal relationships among the purchasing factors of sustainable clothing and the importance ranking of these factors. According to the findings, the criterion of "sustainable material" is the most important factor in consumers' decisions to purchase sustainable clothing, and the "environmental protection brand image" and "value expression" are key factors that should be optimized. The evaluation model can be widely used in clothing design, marketing, questionnaire making, evaluation indicators, enterprise development, business operations, and other fields. Such a study has strong implications for industry 4.0 research in the future.

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Xiamen Academy of Arts and Design, Fuzhou University, Xiamen, 361021, China

Wanni Xu, Lu Wang & Minghua Guan

College of Industrial Management, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou, 362000, China

Qingbin Zhuang

College of Fine Arts and Design, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, 325006, China

College of Textile and Apparel, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou, 362000, China

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Quanzhou Normal University, Quanzhou, 362000, China

Jianlong Huang

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Conceptualization, Wanni Xu, Minghua Guan, Na Yu and QingBin Zhuang; Investigation, QingBin Zhuang, ZhiBo Tian and Jianlong Huang; Methodology, Wanni Xu, Lu Wang and Na Yu; Project administration, Minghua Guan and QingBin Zhuang; Visualization, Wanni Xu, Na Yu and QingBin Zhuang; Writing-original draft, ZhiBo Tian, Lu Wang, Jianlong Huang and Na Yu; Writing-review & editing, Wanni Xu, Na Yu and Minghua Guan.

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Xu, W., Wang, L., Zhuang, Q. et al. Management of products in the apparel manufacturing industry using DEMATEL-based analytical network process technique. Oper Manag Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12063-024-00500-5

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Accepted : 31 May 2024

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Fashion Industry: A Resource Guide

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Get connected to the Library’s large and diverse collections related to science, technology, and business through our Inside Adams Blog. This blog also features upcoming events and collection displays, classes and orientations, new research guides, and more.

This guide represents a selection of the many resources in the Library of Congress that may be useful for the study of the business aspects of fashion (or FTAR for fiber, textile, apparel, and retail). It includes all aspects of fashion - clothes, shoes, bags, accessories. It also includes suggested subject headings which interested researchers may select to link directly to our online catalog in order to search for additional materials on this topic.

Also, since keeping up with the fast pace of change is an ongoing process in the "here today, gone tomorrow" fashion industry, we have have included a number of related external resources. Using traditional trade literature and web portals, as well as reports from research groups is essential as a way to find the more general articles and reports but it may be even more important to find reports and articles that look at a particular segment, niche market, situation, or trend so we have included a few links to various web sites that may also be of interest.

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Part of the Science & Business Reading Room at the Library of Congress, the Business Section is the starting point for conducting research at the Library of Congress in the subject areas of business and economics. Here, reference specialists in specific subject areas of business assist patrons in formulating search strategies and gaining access to the information and materials contained in the Library's rich collections of business and economics materials.

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Tips on How to Choose Interesting Research Paper Topics about Fashion

Here are our topic recommendations of how to choose the topic that will be appealing for you:

Define a specific niche. Narrow down your search by defining whether you’ll be writing about stylistic trends for kids, teenagers, adults or seniors. Besides, you might be focusing on modern fashion or on some particular period.
Design an engaging title. The subject itself allows you to be as creative as possible. Try to engage a reader right from the title of your paper.
Make a prior research. Google the topic you’re interested in, look for some sources you can use to support your ideas in the college library. Search for some celebrities’ examples and pictures you can add to enhance your writing.
Think about the main message of your research. Every new writing should bear some value. Think about the main statement of your work. Is there any new approach you would like to share with your readers? Each essay should have its own unique idea.

To help you choose some nice options for your research, we’ve composed a list of 110 paper topic ideas dedicated to style for you to get inspired. College students who are into fashion and want to analyze some of the newest trends will have no trouble finding a compelling topic to write about from the list below. Feel free to modify those you find the most suitable to make them more precise and personalized.

We’ve made sure that all topics from the list you’ll find below are relevant for those who have connected majors. The ideas we share are either somehow connected to present trends or serve as an analysis of stylistical ideas from the past. Those old ones are essential for understanding modern culture as well, as they can change our modern-day perceptions and views. Besides, all trends have a tendency to reappear from time to time due to the fact fashion is cyclical.

What should be included in fashion research?

A student who starts writing on the task is expected to have an academic approach in developing the topic and rely on historical facts and information worthy of inclusion in the research paper. Prior writing, we recommend analyzing recent trends in clothes and connecting them to history, business, science, or art. This step will help to choose some relevant research paper topics on fashion.

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Historical and Cultural Perspectives Topics

Want to write a research paper on the subject but lack the proper title? Here’s a list of creative fashion research topics for you to get inspired.

The evolution of fashion from the 1920s to the present.
The impact of royal figures on fashion trends throughout history.
Cross-cultural influences in fashion: East meets West.
The role of fashion in the feminist movement.
Fashion during the Renaissance: A symbol of status and power.
The influence of punk culture on mainstream fashion.
Traditional costumes around the world and their modern interpretations.
The history of haute couture and its relevance today.
Fashion icons of the 20th century and their legacy.
The evolution of men's fashion: From formal to casual.
The impact of war on fashion design and materials.
African textiles and their influence on global fashion.
The kimono: From traditional wear to fashion statement.
The flapper dress: Symbolizing women's liberation in the 1920s.
The history and significance of the fashion show.
Fashion in the Victorian era: Constraints and extravagance.
The rise and fall of the corset: A historical perspective.
The influence of cinema on fashion trends.
The globalization of fashion: A historical overview.
Fashion and identity among indigenous cultures.

Fashion Industry and Business

The economics of the fashion industry: Challenges and opportunities.
The role of fashion weeks in shaping industry trends.
Sustainable fashion: Strategies for a greener industry.
The impact of fast fashion on the environment and labor markets.
Luxury brands and their marketing strategies.
The rise of e-commerce in the fashion industry.
Fashion merchandising: Principles and practices.
The psychology behind consumer behavior in fashion.
The role of fashion influencers in digital marketing.
Ethical considerations in the fashion supply chain.
Brand collaborations: A strategy for innovation and reach.
The future of retail: Physical stores vs. online shopping.
The impact of technology on fashion design and production.
Fashion entrepreneurship: Starting a brand from scratch.
The role of intellectual property rights in fashion.
Consumer trends shaping the future of fashion.
The challenges of size inclusivity in fashion.
The impact of social media on fashion brands.
Fashion and luxury goods counterfeiting: Impacts and solutions.
The role of fashion editors and magazines in the industry.

Fashion Design and Technology

The intersection of fashion design and wearable technology.
3D printing in fashion: Opportunities and challenges.
The role of computer-aided design (CAD) in fashion.
Smart textiles and their applications in modern apparel.
The future of virtual reality (VR) in fashion design and retail.
Sustainable materials and innovations in textile production.
The evolution of fabric dyeing techniques and their environmental impact.
The influence of architecture on fashion design.
The science of pattern making and garment construction.
The role of color theory in fashion design.
Adaptive fashion for people with disabilities.
The impact of biomimicry on textile innovation.
The resurgence of artisanal and handcrafted fashion.
The role of costume design in film and theater.
Gender-neutral and unisex design in contemporary fashion.
The psychology of fashion design: Color, form, and function.
The influence of technology on fashion illustration.
Upcycling and repurposing in fashion design.
The future of bespoke and made-to-measure fashion.
The role of textiles in fashion: From natural to synthetic fibers.

Fashion Trends and Styles

The cycle of fashion trends: How old becomes new again.
Streetwear: Origins, evolution, and influence.
The impact of celebrity culture on fashion trends.
Athleisure: Blurring the lines between sportswear and casual wear.
The role of subcultures in shaping fashion trends.
Minimalism in fashion: Aesthetic and philosophy.
The revival of vintage and retro styles in contemporary fashion.
The influence of music genres on fashion.
Eco-fashion: Trends promoting sustainability and ethics.
The role of accessories in completing a look.
The impact of global travel on fashion trends.
Seasonal trends vs. timeless style.
The influence of art movements on fashion design.
The role of gender fluidity in contemporary fashion trends.
The impact of social movements on fashion statements.
The evolution of swimwear: From modesty to fashion statement.
The significance of the little black dress in fashion history.
The influence of youth culture on fashion innovation.
The role of bridal wear in fashion design.
The impact of social media trends on fast fashion.

Fashion and Society

Fashion as a form of self-expression and identity.
The role of fashion in social status and class distinction.
The impact of fashion on body image and self-esteem.
Cultural appropriation vs. appreciation in fashion.
The influence of fashion on gender norms and expectations.
Fashion activism: Using style to make a statement.
The psychology behind fashion choices and personal style.
The role of uniforms in society: Schools, military, and corporations.
Fashion and age: Challenging stereotypes and expectations.
The significance of dress codes in different cultural contexts.
The impact of fashion on LGBTQ+ identity and visibility.
The role of fashion in religious and cultural practices.
Fashion and disability: Inclusivity and adaptive design.
The influence of political events on fashion trends.
The role of fashion in historical and cultural preservation.
Fashion as a tool for social change and empowerment.
The impact of globalization on local fashion and traditions.
The role of fashion in celebrity culture and fandom.
Fashion and the representation of race and ethnicity.
The ethics of beauty standards imposed by the fashion industry.

Fashion Photography and Media

The evolution of fashion photography: From magazines to digital platforms.
The role of fashion photographers in shaping brand image.
The impact of social media on fashion photography trends.
The intersection of fashion and art in editorial photography.
The influence of digital retouching on perceptions of beauty.
Behind the scenes: The making of iconic fashion campaigns.
The role of fashion films in storytelling and branding.
The impact of fashion bloggers and influencers on industry trends.
The evolution of fashion magazines and their role in culture.
The significance of cover shoots in fashion media.
Ethical considerations in fashion photography.
The role of street style photography in capturing trends.
The impact of celebrity endorsements in fashion media.
The challenges of representing diversity in fashion photography.
The influence of technology on fashion film production.
The role of visual merchandising in fashion retail.
The impact of fashion advertising on consumer behavior.
The role of fashion editors in curating content.
The significance of fashion exhibitions and retrospectives.
The future of fashion media in the digital age.

Sustainable Fashion and Ethics

The principles of sustainable fashion: Reducing environmental impact.
The role of upcycling in promoting sustainable fashion.
The impact of fast fashion on the environment and labor practices.
Innovations in eco-friendly materials and textiles.
The challenges and opportunities of ethical fashion branding.
Consumer responsibility in promoting sustainable fashion.
The role of certifications and standards in ethical fashion.
The impact of water usage and pollution in textile production.
Strategies for reducing waste in the fashion industry.
The role of technology in creating sustainable fashion solutions.
The economics of sustainable fashion: Cost vs. benefit.
The impact of second-hand and vintage markets on sustainability.
Ethical issues in animal-derived materials: Leather, fur, and wool.
The role of fashion education in promoting sustainability.
Collaborations between environmental organizations and fashion brands.
The challenges of transparency and traceability in the supply chain.
The role of government and policy in supporting sustainable fashion.
Consumer trends and demand for ethical fashion products.
The future of sustainable fashion: Innovations and predictions.

Fashion and Globalization

The impact of globalization on traditional dress and fashion.
The role of global fashion brands in shaping consumer culture.
The influence of global fashion weeks on international trends.
The challenges of maintaining cultural identity in global fashion.
The impact of trade agreements on the fashion industry.
The role of global sourcing and manufacturing in fashion.
The influence of global celebrities and icons on fashion trends.
The impact of global economic shifts on fashion markets.
The role of digital platforms in globalizing fashion retail.
The challenges and benefits of cross-cultural fashion collaborations.
The impact of migration and diaspora on fashion innovation.
The role of global fashion media in shaping trends.
The challenges of ethical production in a globalized industry.
The influence of global tourism on fashion consumption.
The role of international fashion exhibitions and fairs.
The impact of cultural exchange programs on fashion education.
The challenges of language and communication in global fashion.
The role of international fashion awards in promoting designers.
The impact of global environmental concerns on fashion sustainability.
The future of fashion in a globalized world: Trends and predictions.

This extensive list of fashion research paper topics, divided into eight categories, offers a wide range of subjects for exploration, from historical and cultural perspectives to sustainability and globalization. Each category provides a unique lens through which to examine the multifaceted world of fashion, encouraging in-depth research and critical analysis.

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COMMENTS

Slowing the fast fashion industry: An all-round perspective
Notably, the fashion industry annually requires 79 billion cubic meters of water (about 20% of the world's total water consumption), ... Limitations and future research directions. This paper primarily investigated sustainable fashion within the EU context. Thus, future research could expand the analysis to other countries to highlight ...
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal: Sage Journals
Clothing and Textiles Research Journal (CTRJ), peer-reviewed and published quarterly, strives to strengthen the research base in clothing and textiles, facilitate scholarly interchange, demonstrate the interdisciplinary nature of the field, and inspire further research. It is the official publication of the International Textile & Apparel Association, Inc. View full journal description
Analysis of the sustainability aspects of fashion: A literature review
The fashion industry is the second-most polluting industry in the world. 1-3 This is the main reason why it has to be transformed into a more sustainable one. Fashion sustainability is a complex issue 4 that covers three equivalently important aspects: environmental, social, and economic. 3-9 The environmental aspect considers the creation of ecological value and resource saving.
Sustainability, profitability, and resiliency of the fast fashion
Due to their affordable nature, fast fashion items last much shorter and wear out quicker than conventional clothing and accessories, impacting their recyclability. 16,17 Consequently, the fast fashion industry has produced a considerable amount of postconsumer textile waste, challenging the conventional waste management system. 18,19 According to McQueen et al., 20 only about 15% of textile ...
A review of digital fashion research: before and beyond communication
From the systematic literature review, a classification of the digital fashion field in three categories was reached (. Figure 1. ): (i) Communication and Marketing - C&M, which resulted in the highest number of items (255 items), followed by (ii) Design and Production - D&P (155 items), and (iii) Culture and Society - C&S (81 items).
Making Fashion Sustainable: Waste and Collective Responsibility
Abstract. Fashion is a growing industry, but the demand for cheap, fast fashion has a high environmental footprint. Some brands lead the way by innovating to reduce waste, improve recycling, and encourage upcycling. But if we are to make fashion more sustainable, consumers and industry must work together. Fashion is a growing industry, but the ...
(PDF) Sustainability and the Fashion Industry
Ten per cent of the world's carbon emissions come from the fashion industry, which also drains a lot of water from the ground and pollutes waterways (Network, 2021). The issue of sustainability is ...
Sustainability trends and gaps in the textile, apparel and fashion
Textile, apparel, and fashion (TAF) industries contribute significantly to global environmental pollution at every point of the supply chain. Clothing manufacturing and transportation produce a large volume of waste and high greenhouse gas emissions, often taking advantage of cheap labor in developing countries. As a result, stakeholders are becoming more aware of the effect of the textile ...
Artificial intelligence and sustainability in the fashion industry: a
The fashion industry often falls short of sustainability goals, but contemporary technological advancements offer a wide range of tools to address this issue. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a particularly promising ally in promoting sustainability in fashion. This literature review explores how AI can contribute to the fashion industry's sustainability, highlighting its ...
(PDF) Apparel 4.0: A Review of the Apparel Industry's Adoption of
The global clothing industry is feeling the effects of the COVID-19 European Journal of Business and Management www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1905 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2839 (Online)
Evaluation and trend of fashion design research: visualization analysis
The significant increase in research papers regarding "fashion design" in 2016 and 2017 is that around 2016, and the fashion industry has been impacted by technological developments. Moreover, the way in which design and clothing made has incorporated considerable technological tools (e.g., 3D printing and wearable technology).
How the apparel industry could refashion itself
The rise of fast fashion has fueled a surge in garment production, leading to an increase in textile waste. The paper encourages companies to find new ways to generate revenue without producing ...
Consumer values, online purchase behaviour and the fashion industry: an
Introduction. The fashion industry dates back to over a hundred thousand years, right from the availability and use of textiles by mankind (Botti, 2019).The industry, over time, has added economic and material value to humanity, evolving with society, making it a very relevant aspect of human life and also a common area of research, particularly in this technology-driven world (Bruce and Daly ...
PDF An Analysis on the Environmental Impact of the Fashion Industry
Impact of the Fashion Industry by Alejandra M. Navarro Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering on May 2021 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering . Abstract . The fashion industry is a large global sector. Cultivation, manufacturing, and distribution is spread
Managing Deadstock in the Fashion and Apparel Industry: An ...
The fashion and apparel (FA) industry faces a critical challenge in the form of deadstock. There are various causes for deadstock, and some may be traced to supply chain and inventory management inefficiency. This research paper aims to understand the issue of deadstock, its root causes, its implications for business and strategies to mitigate it. This paper also aims to investigate the ...
Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress
The purpose of this research was to provide a critical review of key research areas within the social psychology of dress. The review addresses published research in two broad areas: (1) dress as a stimulus and its influence on (a) attributions by others, attributions about self, and on one's behavior and (2) relationships between dress, the body, and the self.
Implementation of Artificial Intelligence in Fashion: Are Consumers
As artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as an important frontier of technological innovation (Hager, Bryant, Horvitz, Mataric, & Honavar, 2017), it has also begun to be used as a new application in the fashion industry (Amazon Fashion, 2017; Wong & Liu, 2018).Because AI can deliver significant improvements in speed, cost, and flexibility across the fashion supply chain, it is critical to ...
Fashion trends and their impact on the society
spring-2015-fashion-trends-google) tell us about the status of the trends floated by the fashion. clothing articles. There is a steady rise in the consumption of styles like waist trainer, jogger ...
Fashion Research Paper Topics: From Runway to Research
2 List of Research Topics On Fashion. 2.1 Fast Fashion Research Questions. 2.2 Sustainable Fashion Topics To Write About. 2.3 Ethical Fashion Essay Topics. 2.4 Topics about Fashion Designers. 2.5 Fashion Brands. 2.6 Business of Fashion. 2.7 History of Fashion Topics to Research. Fashion is a dynamic and ever-evolving field, blending creativity ...
PDF The Impact of Sustainable Fashion in India: Challenges & Solutions
IJNRD2306221 International Journal of Novel Research and Development (www.ijnrd.org) c174 The Impact of Sustainable Fashion in India: Challenges & Solutions Assistant Professor Khushpreet Kaur Guru Kashi University, Talwandi Sabo Abstract This paper elaborates about the impact of sustainable fashion in India and challenges faced by retailers while
How to Conduct Fashion Market Research Like a Pro
Marketresearch.com Market Research Reports & Industry Analysis: A veritable font of information about the fashion and apparel industry, this site lets you search and filter to find general industry reports and more specific reports that pertain to your niche or sub-sector.; McKinsey's State of Fashion Annual Report: A trusted global consulting group, McKinsey publishes a free annual report ...
Management of products in the apparel manufacturing industry ...
Using Muji brand clothing as the empirical research object, this paper seeks to investigate the important factors and consumer preferences in purchasing sustainable clothing. ... Such a study has strong implications for industry 4.0 research in the future. To reduce environmental pollution and resource waste in manufacturing, it is important to ...
Demand Forecasting in the Fashion Industry: A Review
Demand forecasting is a crucial task for the fashion industry, as it affects various aspects of the supply chain and the market. This article reviews the current literature on demand forecasting methods, challenges, and applications in the fashion industry, and provides insights for future research directions.
Introduction
Fashion Industry: A Resource Guide. Resources for those studying the business aspects of the fashion and apparel industry. Burdine's Department Store, Miami Beach, 1953. Gottscho-Schleisner Collection, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. This guide represents a selection of the many resources in the Library of Congress that may ...
150+ Fashion Research Paper Topics: A Compelling List
Here's a list of creative fashion research topics for you to get inspired. The evolution of fashion from the 1920s to the present. The impact of royal figures on fashion trends throughout history. Cross-cultural influences in fashion: East meets West. The role of fashion in the feminist movement.
CDK Hack Upends US Auto Industry, Sending Dealers Back to Paper Forms
(Reuters) -U.S. auto dealers grappled with a cyber attack-led ongoing software outage on Monday, with some reverting to manual paperwork as car industry technology provider CDK worked to restore ...
Consumer perception on sustainable clothing among urban Indians
The fashion industry can be re-organized to bring about structural changes that will ensure a renewed pattern of production and consumption more aligned to the needs of the environment at large. 2 Given its global relevance, the fashion and lifestyle industries are uniquely positioned to collaborate and engage with the Sustainable Development ...
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Making Fashion Sustainable: Waste and Collective Responsibility

Demand for Sustainable Fashion

Making Fashion Circular

Transparency

Collective Responsibility

Acknowledgments

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Dress, body and self: research in the social psychology of dress

Introduction

Body supplements as stimulus variables

Provocative dress as stimuli

Research on red dress

Effects of dress on the behavior of the wearer

Dress and the self

The physical body and the self

Body modifications that carry some risk

Eating disorders

Drive for muscularity

Body talk and the self

Dress and self as distinct from others

Priming and self-perception

Dress and self in interaction with others

Dress and self as influence on consumption

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Fashion Research Paper Topics: History, Consumer Behavior and Industry Trends

How to Choose a Research Paper Topic On Fashion

List of Research Topics On Fashion

Fast Fashion Research Questions

Sustainable Fashion Topics To Write About

Ethical Fashion Essay Topics

Topics about Fashion Designers

Fashion Brands

Business of Fashion

History of Fashion Topics to Research

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Secondary Research Sources for Fashion Market Research

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Frequently asked questions

Who can benefit from fashion market research?