strengths and weaknesses of a research article

• YJBM Updates
• Editorial Board
• Colloquium Series
• Podcast Series
• Open Access
• Call for Papers
• PubMed Publications
• News & Views
• Why Publish in YJBM?
• Types of Articles Published
• Manuscript Submission Guidelines
• YJBM Ethical Guidelines

Points to Consider When Reviewing Articles

• Writing and Submitting a Review
• Join Our Peer Reviewer Database

INFORMATION FOR

• Residents & Fellows
• Researchers

General questions that Reviewers should keep in mind when reviewing articles are the following:

• Is the article of interest to the readers of YJBM ?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the manuscript?
• How can the Editors work with the Authors to improve the submitted manuscripts, if the topic and scope of the manuscript is of interest to YJBM readers?

The following contains detailed descriptions as to what should be included in each particular type of article as well as points that Reviewers should keep in mind when specifically reviewing each type of article.

YJBM will ask Reviewers to Peer Review the following types of submissions:

Download PDF

Frequently asked questions.

These manuscripts should present well-rounded studies reporting innovative advances that further knowledge about a topic of importance to the fields of biology or medicine. The conclusions of the Original Research Article should clearly be supported by the results. These can be submitted as either a full-length article (no more than 6,000 words, 8 figures, and 4 tables) or a brief communication (no more than 2,500 words, 3 figures, and 2 tables). Original Research Articles contain five sections: abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion.

Reviewers should consider the following questions:

• What is the overall aim of the research being presented? Is this clearly stated?
• Have the Authors clearly stated what they have identified in their research?
• Are the aims of the manuscript and the results of the data clearly and concisely stated in the abstract?
• Does the introduction provide sufficient background information to enable readers to better understand the problem being identified by the Authors?
• Have the Authors provided sufficient evidence for the claims they are making? If not, what further experiments or data needs to be included?
• Are similar claims published elsewhere? Have the Authors acknowledged these other publications? Have the Authors made it clear how the data presented in the Author’s manuscript is different or builds upon previously published data?
• Is the data presented of high quality and has it been analyzed correctly? If the analysis is incorrect, what should the Authors do to correct this?
• Do all the figures and tables help the reader better understand the manuscript? If not, which figures or tables should be removed and should anything be presented in their place?
• Is the methodology used presented in a clear and concise manner so that someone else can repeat the same experiments? If not, what further information needs to be provided?
• Do the conclusions match the data being presented?
• Have the Authors discussed the implications of their research in the discussion? Have they presented a balanced survey of the literature and information so their data is put into context?
• Is the manuscript accessible to readers who are not familiar with the topic? If not, what further information should the Authors include to improve the accessibility of their manuscript?
• Are all abbreviations used explained? Does the author use standard scientific abbreviations?

Case reports describe an unusual disease presentation, a new treatment, an unexpected drug interaction, a new diagnostic method, or a difficult diagnosis. Case reports should include relevant positive and negative findings from history, examination and investigation, and can include clinical photographs. Additionally, the Author must make it clear what the case adds to the field of medicine and include an up-to-date review of all previous cases. These articles should be no more than 5,000 words, with no more than 6 figures and 3 tables. Case Reports contain five sections: abstract; introduction; case presentation that includes clinical presentation, observations, test results, and accompanying figures; discussion; and conclusions.

• Does the abstract clearly and concisely state the aim of the case report, the findings of the report, and its implications?
• Does the introduction provide enough details for readers who are not familiar with a particular disease/treatment/drug/diagnostic method to make the report accessible to them?
• Does the manuscript clearly state what the case presentation is and what was observed so that someone can use this description to identify similar symptoms or presentations in another patient?
• Are the figures and tables presented clearly explained and annotated? Do they provide useful information to the reader or can specific figures/tables be omitted and/or replaced by another figure/table?
• Are the data presented accurately analyzed and reported in the text? If not, how can the Author improve on this?
• Do the conclusions match the data presented?
• Does the discussion include information of similar case reports and how this current report will help with treatment of a disease/presentation/use of a particular drug?

Reviews provide a reasoned survey and examination of a particular subject of research in biology or medicine. These can be submitted as a mini-review (less than 2,500 words, 3 figures, and 1 table) or a long review (no more than 6,000 words, 6 figures, and 3 tables). They should include critical assessment of the works cited, explanations of conflicts in the literature, and analysis of the field. The conclusion must discuss in detail the limitations of current knowledge, future directions to be pursued in research, and the overall importance of the topic in medicine or biology. Reviews contain four sections: abstract, introduction, topics (with headings and subheadings), and conclusions and outlook.

• Is the review accessible to readers of YJBM who are not familiar with the topic presented?
• Does the abstract accurately summarize the contents of the review?
• Does the introduction clearly state what the focus of the review will be?
• Are the facts reported in the review accurate?
• Does the Author use the most recent literature available to put together this review?
• Is the review split up under relevant subheadings to make it easier for the readers to access the article?
• Does the Author provide balanced viewpoints on a specific topic if there is debate over the topic in the literature?
• Are the figures or tables included relevant to the review and enable the readers to better understand the manuscript? Are there further figures/tables that could be included?
• Do the conclusions and outlooks outline where further research can be done on the topic?

Perspectives provide a personal view on medical or biomedical topics in a clear narrative voice. Articles can relate personal experiences, historical perspective, or profile people or topics important to medicine and biology. Long perspectives should be no more than 6,000 words and contain no more than 2 tables. Brief opinion pieces should be no more than 2,500 words and contain no more than 2 tables. Perspectives contain four sections: abstract, introduction, topics (with headings and subheadings), and conclusions and outlook.

• Does the abstract accurately and concisely summarize the main points provided in the manuscript?
• Does the introduction provide enough information so that the reader can understand the article if he or she were not familiar with the topic?
• Are there specific areas in which the Author can provide more detail to help the reader better understand the manuscript? Or are there places where the author has provided too much detail that detracts from the main point?
• If necessary, does the Author divide the article into specific topics to help the reader better access the article? If not, how should the Author break up the article under specific topics?
• Do the conclusions follow from the information provided by the Author?
• Does the Author reflect and provide lessons learned from a specific personal experience/historical event/work of a specific person?

Analyses provide an in-depth prospective and informed analysis of a policy, major advance, or historical description of a topic related to biology or medicine. These articles should be no more than 6,000 words with no more than 3 figures and 1 table. Analyses contain four sections: abstract, introduction, topics (with headings and subheadings), and conclusions and outlook.

• Does the abstract accurately summarize the contents of the manuscript?
• Does the introduction provide enough information if the readers are not familiar with the topic being addressed?
• Are there specific areas in which the Author can provide more detail to help the reader better understand the manuscript? Or are there places where the Author has provided too much detail that detracts from the main point?

Profiles describe a notable person in the fields of science or medicine. These articles should contextualize the individual’s contributions to the field at large as well as provide some personal and historical background on the person being described. More specifically, this should be done by describing what was known at the time of the individual’s discovery/contribution and how that finding contributes to the field as it stands today. These pieces should be no more than 5,000 words, with up to 6 figures, and 3 tables. The article should include the following: abstract, introduction, topics (with headings and subheadings), and conclusions.

• Does the Author provide information about the person of interest’s background, i.e., where they are from, where they were educated, etc.?
• Does the Author indicate how the person focused on became interested or involved in the subject that he or she became famous for?
• Does the Author provide information on other people who may have helped the person in his or her achievements?
• Does the Author provide information on the history of the topic before the person became involved?
• Does the Author provide information on how the person’s findings affected the field being discussed?
• Does the introduction provide enough information to the readers, should they not be familiar with the topic being addressed?

Interviews may be presented as either a transcript of an interview with questions and answers or as a personal reflection. If the latter, the Author must indicate that the article is based on an interview given. These pieces should be no more than 5,000 words and contain no more than 3 figures and 2 tables. The articles should include: abstract, introduction, questions and answers clearly indicated by subheadings or topics (with heading and subheadings), and conclusions.

• Does the Author provide relevant information to describe who the person is whom they have chosen to interview?
• Does the Author explain why he or she has chosen the person being interviewed?
• Does the Author explain why he or she has decided to focus on a specific topic in the interview?
• Are the questions relevant? Are there more questions that the Author should have asked? Are there questions that the Author has asked that are not necessary?
• If necessary, does the Author divide the article into specific topics to help the reader better access the article? If not, how should the author break up the article under specific topics?
• Does the Author accurately summarize the contents of the interview as well as specific lesson learned, if relevant, in the conclusions?

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 31 January 2022

The fundamentals of critically appraising an article

• Sneha Chotaliya 1  

BDJ Student volume  29 ,  pages 12–13 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

1963 Accesses

Metrics details

Sneha Chotaliya

We are often surrounded by an abundance of research and articles, but the quality and validity can vary massively. Not everything will be of a good quality - or even valid. An important part of reading a paper is first assessing the paper. This is a key skill for all healthcare professionals as anything we read can impact or influence our practice. It is also important to stay up to date with the latest research and findings.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Subscribe to this journal

We are sorry, but there is no personal subscription option available for your country.

Buy this article

• Purchase on Springer Link
• Instant access to full article PDF

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Chambers R, 'Clinical Effectiveness Made Easy', Oxford: Radcliffe Medical Press , 1998

Loney P L, Chambers L W, Bennett K J, Roberts J G and Stratford P W. Critical appraisal of the health research literature: prevalence or incidence of a health problem. Chronic Dis Can 1998; 19 : 170-176.

Brice R. CASP CHECKLISTS - CASP - Critical Appraisal Skills Programme . 2021. Available at: https://casp-uk.net/casp-tools-checklists/ (Accessed 22 July 2021).

White S, Halter M, Hassenkamp A and Mein G. 2021. Critical Appraisal Techniques for Healthcare Literature . St George's, University of London.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Academic Foundation Dentist, London, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sneha Chotaliya .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Chotaliya, S. The fundamentals of critically appraising an article. BDJ Student 29 , 12–13 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41406-021-0275-6

Download citation

Published : 31 January 2022

Issue Date : 31 January 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41406-021-0275-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Source strengths & weaknesses

Contributor: Logan Miller

With the Internet’s ever-expanding repository of information, appraising potential sources has become an increasingly important skill. Evaluating strengths and weaknesses can be a useful tactic to assess potential sources.

What is the research question?

The research question defines the population to be investigated, interventions or exposures, and outcomes.

The population is too broad, too narrow, or specific characteristics are too vague such that possible findings will be inconclusive.

Was the study design appropriate for the research question?

The researchers chose to study the data over several years to ensure accuracy of the results for the selected population.

The researchers collected observational data when experimental data could have produced stronger support for their hypothesis.

Did the study address potential sources of bias?

The study asserts that the members of the sample were chosen randomly, ensuring they are representative of the population.

The study design contains a potential for the above selection bias, but the researchers didn’t address this potential in the study.

Was the study performed according to the original design?

The study followed the design and reported this how they followed the design. 

The researchers were unable to recruit the desired number of participants, reducing their ability to produce significant findings or answer the research question.

Do the data justify the conclusions?

The study accurately reports the statistical significance of the data without suggesting a cause and effect relationship between exposures and outcomes.

The researchers misinterpret a statistically significant correlation between the exposures and outcomes as a cause and effect relationship.

Are there any conflicts of interest?

While a party that might want to see specific findings funded the study, the researchers disclose that the party had no input into the study.

The researchers offer no disclosure on what input the funding party did or didn’t have into the study.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings
• My Bibliography
• Collections
• Citation manager

Save citation to file

Email citation, add to collections.

• Create a new collection
• Add to an existing collection

Add to My Bibliography

Your saved search, create a file for external citation management software, your rss feed.

• Search in PubMed
• Search in NLM Catalog
• Add to Search

A simplified approach to critically appraising research evidence

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, England.
• PMID: 33660465
• DOI: 10.7748/nr.2021.e1760

Background Evidence-based practice is embedded in all aspects of nursing and care. Understanding research evidence and being able to identify the strengths, weaknesses and limitations of published primary research is an essential skill of the evidence-based practitioner. However, it can be daunting and seem overly complex.

Aim: To provide a single framework that researchers can use when reading, understanding and critically assessing published research.

Discussion: To make sense of published research papers, it is helpful to understand some key concepts and how they relate to either quantitative or qualitative designs. Internal and external validity, reliability and trustworthiness are discussed. An illustration of how to apply these concepts in a practical way using a standardised framework to systematically assess a paper is provided.

Conclusion: The ability to understand and evaluate research builds strong evidence-based practitioners, who are essential to nursing practice.

Implications for practice: This framework should help readers to identify the strengths, potential weaknesses and limitations of a paper to judge its quality and potential usefulness.

Keywords: literature review; qualitative research; quantitative research; research; systematic review.

©2021 RCN Publishing Company Ltd. All rights reserved. Not to be copied, transmitted or recorded in any way, in whole or part, without prior permission of the publishers.

PubMed Disclaimer

Conflict of interest statement

None declared

Similar articles

• The Effectiveness of Integrated Care Pathways for Adults and Children in Health Care Settings: A Systematic Review. Allen D, Gillen E, Rixson L. Allen D, et al. JBI Libr Syst Rev. 2009;7(3):80-129. doi: 10.11124/01938924-200907030-00001. JBI Libr Syst Rev. 2009. PMID: 27820426
• The future of Cochrane Neonatal. Soll RF, Ovelman C, McGuire W. Soll RF, et al. Early Hum Dev. 2020 Nov;150:105191. doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2020.105191. Epub 2020 Sep 12. Early Hum Dev. 2020. PMID: 33036834
• Promoting and supporting self-management for adults living in the community with physical chronic illness: A systematic review of the effectiveness and meaningfulness of the patient-practitioner encounter. Rees S, Williams A. Rees S, et al. JBI Libr Syst Rev. 2009;7(13):492-582. doi: 10.11124/01938924-200907130-00001. JBI Libr Syst Rev. 2009. PMID: 27819974
• Health professionals' experience of teamwork education in acute hospital settings: a systematic review of qualitative literature. Eddy K, Jordan Z, Stephenson M. Eddy K, et al. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2016 Apr;14(4):96-137. doi: 10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-1843. JBI Database System Rev Implement Rep. 2016. PMID: 27532314 Review.
• The nursing contribution to qualitative research in palliative care 1990-1999: a critical evaluation. Bailey C, Froggatt K, Field D, Krishnasamy M. Bailey C, et al. J Adv Nurs. 2002 Oct;40(1):48-60. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02339.x. J Adv Nurs. 2002. PMID: 12230529 Review.
• Special Collection Editorial: The digital movement in nursing. Cronin C. Cronin C. J Res Nurs. 2022 Aug;27(5):411-420. doi: 10.1177/17449871221117437. Epub 2022 Sep 17. J Res Nurs. 2022. PMID: 36131703 Free PMC article. No abstract available.
• Search in MeSH

LinkOut - more resources

Other literature sources.

• scite Smart Citations
• Citation Manager

NCBI Literature Resources

MeSH PMC Bookshelf Disclaimer

The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

Related Articles

Research Methodology

Qualitative Data Coding

What Is a Focus Group?

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

What Is Internal Validity In Research?

Research Methodology , Statistics

What Is Face Validity In Research? Importance & How To Measure

Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Med Libr Assoc
• v.90(1); 2002 Jan

Editorial Peer Review: Its Strengths and Weaknesses.

Julia f. sollenberger.

1 Edward G. Miner Library University of Rochester Medical Center Rochester, New York

Weller, Ann C. Editorial Peer Review: Its Strengths and Weaknesses. Medford, NJ: Information Today, 2001. (ASIS&T Monograph Series). 342 p. Hardcover. $44.50. ISBN 1-57387-100-1.

Health sciences librarians study and teach the principles of evidence-based medicine (EBM), search evidence-based health care (EBHC) resources, and strive to practice evidence-based librarianship (EBL) [ 1 ]. In this work, Weller extends “EB” awareness to evidence-based scientific publishing. By providing a systematic review of empirical studies on the editorial peer review process from 1945 to 1997, the author assembles the available evidence on the value and validity of that process and its effect on the quality of the published literature. The author presents the strengths and weaknesses of peer review, analyzes the benefits and shortcomings, makes recommendations for further research, and provides information for improving future studies. With perhaps 6,000 to 7,000 scientific articles written every day [ 2 ] and with the review process for just one journal estimated to cost about $1 million a year [ 3 ], questioning the worth of this process is appropriate.

Though most understand what editorial peer review is, or have experienced it firsthand when submitting manuscripts for review, few have considered its diverse aspects in detail. This book provides insight and brings to light nagging questions such as the following: “What is the evidence that the ‘best’ science or scholarly material is published and the ‘worst’ is rejected?” (p. 51); “What is the value of the review process to authors?” (p. 120); “What is known about the overall quality of reviewers' reports?” (p. 158); “To what degree do reviewers agree with each other when evaluating the same manuscript?” (p. 182); “Is the submission versus acceptance rate for manuscripts different depending on the gender or ethnicity of the author?” (p. 227); and “What kind of statistical errors have been identified through studies of published articles?” (p. 255). Editorial Peer Review offers analyses of research studies that may answer these and other questions. For each question, the author methodically states the criteria for study inclusion, appraises the validity of the studies that address that issue, and, finally, proposes recommendations and draws conclusions based upon the evidence.

The preface of this book succinctly states its purpose and its methodology and describes the structure of the book. It is important to understand this before plunging into the substance of the work. Following the introductory chapter, which includes a brief history of the topic and the process used to compile the relevant studies, chapters appear on rejection rates, editors and editorial boards, authors and authorship, role of reviewers and quality of their reviews (including review agreement and bias), and statistical review of manuscripts. Each of these sections is extensive and substantive. One chapter addresses peer review in an electronic environment, and the final one presents key conclusions and recommendations.

Because the literature covered in the work does not extend beyond 1998, Weller's chapter entitled “Peer Review in an Electronic Environment” is necessarily limited. The rapidity of change in this arena requires conjecture rather than analysis, as few relevant studies are either completed or in progress. The author was obliged to address the electronic aspects of scholarly publishing, because she previously had given the transition from print to electronic as one of the primary reasons for undertaking this project. “As publication moves from print to electronics and the editorial peer review process may undergo change as a result, now is an excellent time to examine the cumulated information on editorial peer review and critically evaluate the entire process” (p. 3). This reviewer looks forward to the author's future investigation and analysis of peer review in a digital world, as the process of electronic publishing matures and a new area of research emerges.

For all other topics covered in this work, the number of studies cited and the depth of analysis are astounding, so much so that the more casual reader may be overwhelmed by the sheer number of references, author names, and study descriptions. Although tables are used effectively throughout the work to present salient characteristics and findings of a large number of research studies, the reader without knowledge of research design or not already familiar with the literature of peer review could find it challenging to digest. Such a reader would do well to attack each chapter in the following manner: (1) read the introductory and background sections, (2) note the research questions and study inclusion criteria, and, (3) finally, move to the recommendations and conclusions. The detail that is included, though necessary for a systematic review of this nature, will be most useful to those who are designing research studies to address the issues of peer review or to journal editors attempting to improve the process. The core elements of the work are of interest to a wide range of readers concerned with scholarly communication, from reviewers, to publishers, writers, and librarians.

There is a simple reason for the complexity of fields of study that encompasses peer review and the volume of the literature included in this systematic review—editorial peer review is not limited to a single discipline. Although the field of medicine has apparently produced a large number of the studies, Weller points out that “Since editorial peer review is not a discipline-specific field, literature on the subject could and does exist in almost every scholarly field with a journal publication outlet” (p. 8). The need to cover disciplines that range from medicine, nursing, education, agriculture, and management science has resulted in an in-depth and extensive treatment.

The author of this work is well known for her investigations of the scientific peer review and publishing process. She is also a highly regarded and active member of the Medical Library Associations' Research Section. Using a clear and precise writing style and declaring her own fascination with the topic, she compares the process of tracking down relevant studies to the design of a mystery novel. In the preface, she reveals that “a strategy somewhat akin to Sherlock Holmes' methodology was needed to identify and locate all studies in this field. With an eagerness similar to Holmes' enthusiastic, ‘The game is afoot,’ I relentlessly tracked down all leads” (p. xiv). In the end, the author's zeal, knowledge of the field, and skills in writing and analysis lead this reviewer to speculate that, given the time, the author herself just might be able to resolve every one of the hundreds of research questions remaining in the field of editorial peer review! Surely few are more qualified to make the attempt.

• Eldredge JD. Evidence-based librarianship: an overview . Bull Med Libr Assoc . 2000 Oct;  88 ( 4 ):289–302. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arndt KA. Information excess in medicine . Arch Derm . 1992 Sep;  128 ( 9 ):1249–56. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Relman AS. Peer review in scientific journals—what good is it? West J Med . 1990 Nov;  153 ( 5 ):520–2. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Author Biographies
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Application of microwave energy to biomass: a comprehensive review of microwave-assisted technologies, optimization parameters, and the strengths and weaknesses.

1. Introduction

2. microwave-assisted processes, 2.1. microwave-assisted extraction (mae), 2.2. microwave-assisted pyrolysis (map), 2.3. microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatments (maht), 2.4. microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis (maah), 2.5. microwave-assisted organosolv (mao), 3. previous designs for microwave-assisted processes, 4. added-value products from biomass via microwave-assisted processes, 5. strengths and weaknesses of microwave-assisted processes, 6. future directions, 7. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• Omer, A.M. Biomass energy resources utilisation and waste management. Agric. Sci. 2012 , 3 , 124–145. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moustakas, K.; Loizidou, M. Waste and biomass management and valorization. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021 , 28 , 24224–24229. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Chai, Y.; Chen, A.; Bai, M.; Peng, L.; Shao, J.; Yuan, J.; Shang, C.; Zhang, J.; Huang, H.; Peng, C. Valorization of heavy metal contaminated biomass: Recycling and expanding to functional materials. J. Clean. Prod. 2022 , 366 , 132771. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kumar, K.; Kumar, R.; Kaushal, S.; Thakur, N.; Umar, A.; Akbar, S.; Ibrahim, A.A.; Baskoutas, S. Biomass waste-derived carbon materials for sustainable remediation of polluted environment: A comprehensive review. Chemosphere 2023 , 345 , 140419. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tišma, M.; Bucić-Kojić, A.; Planinić, M. Bio-based Products from Lignocellulosic Waste Biomass. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 2021 , 35 , 139–156. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, G.; Dai, Y.; Yang, H.; Xiong, Q.; Wang, K.; Zhou, J.; Li, Y.; Wang, S. A Review of Recent Advances in Biomass Pyrolysis. Energy Fuels 2020 , 34 , 15557–15578. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pereira, E.G.; da Silva, J.N.; de Oliveira, J.L.; Machado, C.S. Sustainable energy: A review of gasification technologies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012 , 16 , 4753–4762. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lozano-Pérez, A.S.; Guerrero-Fajardo, C.A. Liquid Hot Water (LHW) and Hydrothermal Carbonization (HTC) of Coffee Berry Waste: Kinetics, Catalysis, and Optimization for the Synthesis of Platform Chemicals. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 2854. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Galvis-Sandoval, D.E.; Lozano-Pérez, A.S.; Guerrero-Fajardo, C.A. Hydrothermal Valorization via Liquid Hot Water and Hydrothermal Carbonization of Pea Pod Waste: Characterization of the Biochar and Quantification of Platform Molecules. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 2329. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Palvasha, B.A.; Ahmad, S.; Abbasi, B.B.K.; Nazir, M.S.; Abdullah, M.A. Bioconversion of Straw Biomass into Bioproducts ; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 369–383. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lyu, Q.; Song, L.; Tong, Y.W.; Wang, W.; Zhou, J.; Yan, Z. Editorial: Highly efficient bioconversion of biomass waste: From theory to industry. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2023 , 11 , 1147993. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Segneanu, A.-E.; Sziple, F.; Vlazan, P.; Sfarloaga, P.; Grozesku, I.; Daniel, V. Biomass Extraction Methods. In Biomass Now—Sustainable Growth and Use ; InTech: London, UK, 2013. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rasheed, T.; Anwar, M.T.; Ahmad, N.; Sher, F.; Khan, S.U.-D.; Ahmad, A.; Khan, R.; Wazeer, I. Valorisation and emerging perspective of biomass based waste-to-energy technologies and their socio-environmental impact: A review. J. Environ. Manag. 2021 , 287 , 112257. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kapoore, R.; Butler, T.; Pandhal, J.; Vaidyanathan, S. Microwave-Assisted Extraction for Microalgae: From Biofuels to Biorefinery. Biology 2018 , 7 , 18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nomanbhay, S.; Salman, B.; Hussain, R.; Ong, M.Y. Microwave pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass—A contribution to power Africa. Energy Sustain. Soc. 2017 , 7 , 23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Allende, S.; Brodie, G.; Jacob, M.V. Breakdown of biomass for energy applications using microwave pyrolysis: A technological review. Environ. Res. 2023 , 226 , 115619. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Berko, E.; Adomako, D. FOSC 613 Industrial Food Processing Technologies. In Microwave Processing; 2016.
• Das, A.; Banik, B. Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future Trends ; Elsevier Science: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2021. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaba, M.; Dhingra, N. Microwave Chemistry: General Features and Applications. Indian J. Pharm. Educ. Res. 2010 , 45 , 175–183. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang, C.; Yao, W.; Zhu, H.; Yang, Y.; Yan, L. Uniform and highly efficient microwave heating based on dual-port phase-difference-shifting method. Int. J. RF Microw. Comput.-Aided Eng. 2021 , 31 , e22784. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, J.; Li, Y.; Li, D. A new concept to improve microwave heating uniformity through data-driven process modelling. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Microwave and High Frequency Heating, Valencia, Spain, 9–12 September 2019; Universitat Politècnica de València: Valencia, Spain, 2019. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, H.; Zhang, L. Microwave dielectric heating in modern organic synthesis and drug discovery. In Microwave Heating ; InTech: London, UK, 2011. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, J.; Yan, W. Microwave-assisted Inorganic Syntheses. In Modern Inorganic Synthetic Chemistry ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011; pp. 173–195. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Harrison, A.; Whittaker, A.G. Microwave Heating. In Comprehensive Coordination Chemistry II ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003; pp. 741–745. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Církva, V. Microwaves in Photochemistry and Photocatalysis. In Microwaves in Organic Synthesis ; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 563–605. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gawande, M.B.; Shelke, S.N.; Zboril, R.; Varma, R.S. Microwave-Assisted Chemistry: Synthetic Applications for Rapid Assembly of Nanomaterials and Organics. Acc. Chem. Res. 2014 , 47 , 1338–1348. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Uddin, M.S.; Ferdosh, S.; Akanda, J.H.; Ghafoor, K.; Rukshana, A.H.; Ali, E.; Kamaruzzaman, B.Y.; Fauzi, M.B.; Hadijah, S.; Shaarani, S.; et al. Techniques for the extraction of phytosterols and their benefits in human health: A review. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2018 , 53 , 2206–2223. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Delazar, A.; Nahar, L.; Hamedeyazdan, S.; Sarker, S.D. Microwave-Assisted Extraction in Natural Products Isolation ; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 89–115. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nour, A.H.; Oluwaseun, A.R.; Nour, A.H.; Omer, M.S.; Ahmed, N. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Review). In Microwave Heating—Electromagnetic Fields Causing Thermal and Non-Thermal Effects ; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2021. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lucchesi, M.E.; Chemat, F.; Smadja, J. Solvent-free microwave extraction of essential oil from aromatic herbs: Comparison with conventional hydro-distillation. J. Chromatogr. A 2004 , 1043 , 323–327. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rosa, R.; Ferrari, E.; Veronesi, P. From Field to Shelf: How Microwave-Assisted Extraction Techniques Foster an Integrated Green Approach. In Emerging Microwave Technologies in Industrial, Agricultural, Medical and Food Processing ; InTech: London, UK, 2018. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ridlo, M.; Kumalaningsih, S.; Pranowo, D. Process of microwave assisted extraction (MAE) for Rhodomyrtus tomentosa fruit and its bioactive compounds. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020 , 475 , 012038. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Prommuak, C.; Pavasant, P.; Quitain, A.T.; Goto, M.; Shotipruk, A. Microalgal Lipid Extraction and Evaluation of Single-Step Biodiesel Production. Eng. J. 2012 , 16 , 157–166. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, G.; Hu, W.; Pei, H.; Jiang, L.; Song, M.; Mu, R. In situ heterogeneous transesterification of microalgae using combined ultrasound and microwave irradiation. Energy Convers. Manag. 2015 , 90 , 41–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Passos, F.; Carretero, J.; Ferrer, I. Comparing pretreatment methods for improving microalgae anaerobic digestion: Thermal, hydrothermal, microwave and ultrasound. Chem. Eng. J. 2015 , 279 , 667–672. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ruen-ngam, D.; Shotipruk, A.; Pavasant, P. Comparison of Extraction Methods for Recovery of Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis . Sep. Sci. Technol. 2010 , 46 , 64–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Košťálová, Z.; Aguedo, M.; Hromádková, Z. Microwave-assisted extraction of pectin from unutilized pumpkin biomass. Chem. Eng. Process. Process Intensif. 2016 , 102 , 9–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sebastian, J.; Rouissi, T.; Brar, S.K.; Hegde, K.; Verma, M. Microwave-assisted extraction of chitosan from Rhizopus oryzae NRRL 1526 biomass. Carbohydr. Polym. 2019 , 219 , 431–440. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Sousa e Silva, A.; de Magalhães, W.T.; Moreira, L.M.; Rocha, M.V.P.; Bastos, A.K.P. Microwave-assisted extraction of polysaccharides from Arthrospira ( Spirulina ) platensis using the concept of green chemistry. Algal Res. 2018 , 35 , 178–184. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• González-de-Peredo, A.V.; Vázquez-Espinosa, M.; Espada-Bellido, E.; Ferreiro-González, M.; Barbero, G.F.; Palma, M.; Carrera, C. Optimization of a Microwave Assisted Extraction Method for Maximum Flavonols and Antioxidant Activity of Onion Extracts. Antioxidants 2022 , 11 , 2393. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ibrahim, N.A.; Zaini, M.A.A. Dielectric properties in microwave-assisted solvent extraction—Present trends and future outlook. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2018 , 13 , e2230. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pan, X.; Niu, G.; Liu, H. Comparison of microwave-assisted extraction and conventional extraction techniques for the extraction of tanshinones from Salvia miltiorrhiza bunge. Biochem. Eng. J. 2002 , 12 , 71–77. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abed, K.A. Effect of Microwave Power on the Yield of Essential Oil from Lavender. J. Alasmarya Univ. Basic Appl. Sci. 2020 , 5 , 35–53. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, J.-L.; Zhang, M.; Zhou, H.-L. Microwave-Assisted Extraction, Purification, Partial Characterization, and Bioactivity of Polysaccharides from Panax ginseng . Molecules 2019 , 24 , 1605. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zhang, H.-F.; Yang, X.-H.; Wang, Y. Microwave assisted extraction of secondary metabolites from plants: Current status and future directions. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2011 , 22 , 672–688. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sen, K.; Chouhan, K.S.; Tandey, R.; Mehta, R.; Mandal, V. Impact of microwaves on the extraction yield of phenolics, flavonoids, and triterpenoids from centella leaves: An approach toward digitized robust botanical extraction. Pharmacogn. Mag. 2019 , 15 , 267. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xia, E.-Q.; Cui, B.; Xu, X.-R.; Song, Y.; Ai, X.-X.; Li, H.-B. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Oxymatrine from Sophora flavescens . Molecules 2011 , 16 , 7391–7400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wong, J.C.J.; Nillian, E. Microwave-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from Sarawak Liberica sp. coffee pulp: Statistical optimization and comparison with conventional methods. Food Sci. Nutr. 2023 , 11 , 5364–5378. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mandal, V.; Dewanjee, S.; Mandal, S.C. Role of Modifier in Microwave Assisted Extraction of Oleanolic Acid from Gymnema sylvestre : Application of Green Extraction Technology for Botanicals. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009 , 4 , 1934578X0900400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Destandau, E.; Michel, T.; Elfakir, C. CHAPTER 4. Microwave-Assisted Extraction ; Royal Society of Chemistry: London, UK, 2013; pp. 113–156. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yu, Y.; Chen, B.; Chen, Y.; Xie, M.; Duan, H.; Li, Y.; Duan, G. Nitrogen-protected microwave-assisted extraction of ascorbic acid from fruit and vegetables. J. Sep. Sci. 2009 , 32 , 4227–4233. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Xiao, X.-H.; Wang, J.-X.; Wang, G.; Wang, J.-Y.; Li, G.-K. Evaluation of vacuum microwave-assisted extraction technique for the extraction of antioxidants from plant samples. J. Chromatogr. A 2009 , 1216 , 8867–8873. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xiao, X.; Song, W.; Wang, J.; Li, G. Microwave-assisted extraction performed in low temperature and in vacuo for the extraction of labile compounds in food samples. Anal. Chim. Acta 2012 , 712 , 85–93. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Luque-García, J.L.; Luque de Castro, M.D. Focused microwave-assisted Soxhlet extraction: Devices and applications. Talanta 2004 , 64 , 571–577. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Virot, M.; Tomao, V.; Colnagui, G.; Visinoni, F.; Chemat, F. New microwave-integrated Soxhlet extraction. J. Chromatogr. A 2007 , 1174 , 138–144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Chen, Y.; Gu, X.; Huang, S.; Li, J.; Wang, X.; Tang, J. Optimization of ultrasonic/microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) of polysaccharides from Inonotus obliquus and evaluation of its anti-tumor activities. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2010 , 46 , 429–435. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cravotto, G.; Boffa, L.; Mantegna, S.; Perego, P.; Avogadro, M.; Cintas, P. Improved extraction of vegetable oils under high-intensity ultrasound and/or microwaves. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2008 , 15 , 898–902. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lianfu, Z.; Zelong, L. Optimization and comparison of ultrasound/microwave assisted extraction (UMAE) and ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) of lycopene from tomatoes. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2008 , 15 , 731–737. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Stashenko, E.E.; Jaramillo, B.E.; Martı, J.R. Analysis of volatile secondary metabolites from Colombian Xylopia aromatica (Lamarck) by different extraction and headspace methods and gas chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A 2004 , 1025 , 105–113. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Golmakani, M.-T.; Rezaei, K. Comparison of microwave-assisted hydrodistillation withthe traditional hydrodistillation method in the extractionof essential oils from Thymus vulgaris L. Food Chem. 2008 , 109 , 925–930. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Farhat, A.; Ginies, C.; Romdhane, M.; Chemat, F. Eco-friendly and cleaner process for isolation of essential oil using microwave energy. J. Chromatogr. A 2009 , 1216 , 5077–5085. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sahraoui, N.; Vian, M.A.; Bornard, I.; Boutekedjiret, C.; Chemat, F. Improved microwave steam distillation apparatus for isolation of essential oils. J. Chromatogr. A 2008 , 1210 , 229–233. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lucchesi, M.E.; Chemat, F.; Smadja, J. An original solvent free microwave extraction of essential oils from spices. Flavour. Fragr. J. 2004 , 19 , 134–138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• López-Hortas, L.; Falqué, E.; Domínguez, H.; Torres, M.D. Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) Extraction from Different Raw Materials with Cosmetic Applications. Molecules 2019 , 25 , 92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Camponogara, J.A.; Farias, C.A.A.; Moraes, D.P.; Bettio, L.; Citadin, I.; Mallman, C.A.; Schmiele, M.; Ballus, C.A.; Barin, J.S.; Barcia, M.T. Optimization of Microwave Hydrodiffusion and Gravity (MHG) for Pre-treatment of Dehydration and Obtaining a Jaboticaba Extract. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2023 , 17 , 1479–1491. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chambaud, M.; Colas, C.; Destandau, E. Water-Based Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Pigments from Madder Optimized by a Box–Behnken Design. Separations 2023 , 10 , 433. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Flórez, N.; Conde, E.; Domínguez, H. Microwave assisted water extraction of plant compounds. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2015 , 90 , 590–607. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Al Mamoori, F.; Al Janabi, R. Recent Advances in Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) of Medicinal Plants: A Review. Int. Res. J. Pharm. 2018 , 9 , 22–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ethaib, S.; Omar, R.; Kamal, S.M.M.; Awang Biak, D.R.; Zubaidi, S.L. Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Biomass Waste: A Mini Review. Processes 2020 , 8 , 1190. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cardoso-Ugarte, G.A.; Juárez-Becerra, G.P.; SosaMorales, M.E.; López-Malo, A. Microwave-assisted Extraction of Essential Oils from Herbs. J. Microw. Power Electromagn. Energy 2013 , 47 , 63–72. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kurian, V.; Gill, M.; Dhakal, B.; Kumar, A. Recent trends in the pyrolysis and gasification of lignocellulosic biomass. In Biofuels and Bioenergy ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2022; pp. 511–552. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Prakash, A.; Singh, R.; Balagurumurthy, B.; Bhaskar, T.; Arora, A.K.; Puri, S.K. Thermochemical Valorization of Lignin. In Recent Advances in Thermo-Chemical Conversion of Biomass ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 455–478. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Idris, S.S.; Rahman, N.A.; Ismail, K.; Mohammed Yunus, M.F.; Mohd Hakimi, N.I.N. Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Oil Palm Biomass: Multi-Optimisation of Solid Char Yield and Its Calorific Value Using Response Surface Methodology. Front. Chem. Eng. 2022 , 4 , 864589. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Arshad, H.; Sulaiman, S.A.; Hussain, Z.; Naz, Y.; Basrawi, F. Microwave assisted pyrolysis of plastic waste for production of fuels: A review. MATEC Web Conf. 2017 , 131 , 02005. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zulkornain, M.F.; Shamsuddin, A.H.; Normanbhay, S.; Saad, J.M.; Zhang, Y.S.; Samsuri, S.; Ghani, W.A.W.A.K. Microwave-assisted Hydrothermal Carbonization for Solid Biofuel Application: A Brief Review. Carbon Capture Sci. Technol. 2021 , 1 , 100014. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, Y.F.; Kuan, W.H.; Lo, S.L.; Lin, C.F. Hydrogen-rich fuel gas from rice straw via microwave-induced pyrolysis. Bioresour. Technol. 2010 , 101 , 1968–1973. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tian, Y.; Zuo, W.; Ren, Z.; Chen, D. Estimation of a novel method to produce bio-oil from sewage sludge by microwave pyrolysis with the consideration of efficiency and safety. Bioresour. Technol. 2011 , 102 , 2053–2061. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Aishwarya, K.N.; Sindhu, N. Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis of Plastic Waste. Procedia Technol. 2016 , 25 , 990–997. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Irfan, M.; Saleem, R.; Shoukat, B.; Hussain, H.; Shukrullah, S.; Naz, M.Y.; Rahman, S.; Ghanim, A.A.J.; Nawalany, G.; Jakubowski, T. Production of combustible fuels and carbon nanotubes from plastic wastes using an in-situ catalytic microwave pyrolysis process. Sci. Rep. 2023 , 13 , 9057. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmed, A. Microwave Assisted Pyrolysis of Moringa Seed and Karanja for Bio-Oil Production. Int. J. Renew. Energy Resour. 2023 , 13 , 14–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fodah, A.E.M.; Ghosal, M.K.; Behera, D. Studies on Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Rice Straw Using Solar Photovoltaic Power. Bioenergy Res. 2021 , 14 , 190–208. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Quillope, J.C.C.; Carpio, R.B.; Gatdula, K.M.; Detras, M.C.M.; Doliente, S.S. Optimization of process parameters of self-purging microwave pyrolysis of corn cob for biochar production. Heliyon 2021 , 7 , e08417. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Luo, H.; Zhang, Y.; Zhu, H.; Zhao, X.; Zhu, L.; Liu, W.; Sun, M.; Miao, G.; Li, S.; Kong, L.Z. Microwave-assisted low-temperature biomass pyrolysis: From mechanistic insights to pilot scale. Green Chem. 2021 , 23 , 821–827. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, Y.; Chen, P.; Liu, S.; Fan, L.; Zhou, N.; Min, M.; Cheng, Y.; Peng, P.; Anderson, E.; Wang, Y.; et al. Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Biomass for Bio-Oil Production. In Pyrolysis ; InTech: London, UK, 2017. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li, S.; Li, C.; Shao, Z. Microwave pyrolysis of sludge: A review. Sustain. Environ. Res. 2022 , 32 , 23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alam, S.S.; Khan, A.H. Microwave-assisted pyrolysis for waste plastic recycling: A review on critical parameters, benefits, challenges, and scalability perspectives. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024 , 21 , 5311–5330. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, C.; Shang, H.; Li, J.; Fan, X.; Sun, J.; Duan, A. A Review on the Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis of Waste Plastics. Processes 2023 , 11 , 1487. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, G.; Park, S.-J. Conventional and Microwave Hydrothermal Synthesis and Application of Functional Materials: A Review. Materials 2019 , 12 , 1177. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gao, Y.; Remón, J.; Matharu, A.S. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatments for biomass valorisation: A critical review. Green Chem. 2021 , 23 , 3502–3525. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Meng, L.-Y.; Wang, B.; Ma, M.-G.; Lin, K.-L. The progress of microwave-assisted hydrothermal method in the synthesis of functional nanomaterials. Mater. Today Chem. 2016 , 1–2 , 63–83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Deng, C.; Kang, X.; Lin, R.; Murphy, J.D. Microwave assisted low-temperature hydrothermal treatment of solid anaerobic digestate for optimising hydrochar and energy recovery. Chem. Eng. J. 2020 , 395 , 124999. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, X.; Wu, K.; Yuan, Q. Comparative study of microwave and conventional hydrothermal treatment of chicken carcasses: Bio-oil yields and properties. Energy 2020 , 200 , 117539. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sininart, C.; Chakrit, T. Optimization of soluble sugar production from pineapple peel by microwave-assisted water pretreatment. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 2019 , 41 , 237–245. [ Google Scholar ]
• Li, Y.; Li, B.; Du, F.; Wang, Y.; Pan, L.; Chen, D. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal liquefaction of lignin for the preparation of phenolic formaldehyde adhesive. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134 , 44510. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xie, J.; Hse, C.-Y.; Li, C.; Shupe, T.F.; Hu, T.; Qi, J.; De Hoop, C.F. Characterization of Microwave Liquefied Bamboo Residue and Its Potential Use in the Generation of Nanofibrillated Cellulosic Fiber. ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2016 , 4 , 3477–3485. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Torrado, I.; Neves, B.G.; da Conceição Fernandes, M.; Carvalheiro, F.; Pereira, H.; Duarte, L.C. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal processing of pine nut shells for oligosaccharide production. Biomass Convers. Biorefin. 2024 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nassar, A.E.; El-Aswar, E.I.; Rizk, S.A.; Gaber, S.E.-S.; Jahin, H.S. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal preparation of magnetic hydrochar for the removal of organophosphorus insecticides from aqueous solutions. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2023 , 306 , 122569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Knappe, V.; Paczkowski, S.; Tejada, J.; Diaz Robles, L.A.; Gonzales, A.; Pelz, S. Low temperature microwave assisted hydrothermal carbonization (MAHC) reduces combustion emission precursors in short rotation coppice willow wood. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2018 , 134 , 162–166. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ifrah, S.; Kaddouri, A.; Gelin, P.; Leonard, D. Conventional hydrothermal process versus microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of La 1−x Ag x MnO 3+δ (x = 0, 0.2) perovskites used in methane combustion. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2007 , 10 , 1216–1226. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ding, Z.; Zhang, L.; Mo, H.; Chen, Y.; Hu, X. Microwave-assisted catalytic hydrothermal carbonization of Laminaria japonica for hydrochars catalyzed and activated by potassium compounds. Bioresour. Technol. 2021 , 341 , 125835. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Khushk, S.; Zhang, L.; Li, A.; Irfan, M.; Zhang, X. Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Carbonization of Furfural Residue for Adsorption of Cr(VI): Adsorption and Kinetic Study. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2020 , 29 , 1671–1681. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zhang, J.; An, Y.; Borrion, A.; He, W.; Wang, N.; Chen, Y.; Li, G. Process characteristics for microwave assisted hydrothermal carbonization of cellulose. Bioresour. Technol. 2018 , 259 , 91–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lorente, A.; Remon, J.; Salgado, M.; Huertas-Alonso, A.J.; Sanchez-Verdu, P.; Moreno, A.; Clark, J.H. Sustainable Production of Solid Biofuels and Biomaterials by Microwave-Assisted, Hydrothermal Carbonization (MA-HTC) of Brewers’ Spent Grain (BSG). ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2020 , 8 , 18982–18991. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, Z.; Xiang, H.; Zou, J.; Mai, Z.; Cao, Z.; Li, M.; Fan, B.; Shao, G.; Wang, H.; Xu, H.; et al. Effect of process factors of microwave hydrothermal method on the preparation of micron-sized spherical α-Al 2 O 3 particles. Inorg. Chem. Commun. 2021 , 133 , 108938. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Álvarez-Chávez, B.J.; Godbout, S.; Raghavan, V. Optimization of microwave-assisted hydrothermal pretreatment and its effect on pyrolytic oil quality obtained by an auger reactor. Biofuel Res. J. 2021 , 8 , 1316–1329. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wu, Y.; Fu, Z.; Yin, D.; Xu, Q.; Liu, F.; Lu, C.; Mao, L. Microwave-assisted hydrolysis of crystalline cellulose catalyzed by biomass char sulfonic acids. Green Chem. 2010 , 12 , 696. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Navarro del Hierro, J.; Cantero-Bahillo, E.; Fernández-Felipe, M.T.; Martin, D. Microwave-Assisted Acid Hydrolysis vs. Conventional Hydrolysis to Produce Sapogenin-Rich Products from Fenugreek Extracts. Foods 2022 , 11 , 1934. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jill, J. Microwave-Assisted Acid Hydrolysis. In Microwave-Assisted Proteomics ; The Royal Society of Chemistry: London, UK, 2009; pp. 56–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Seo, M.-Y.; Kim, J.-H.; Park, S.-H.; Kim, T.-H.; Lee, J.-H.; Kim, J.-K. Microwave-assisted Weak Acid Hydrolysis of Proteins. Mass Spectrom. Lett. 2012 , 3 , 47–49. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Colleary, C.; Little, N.C.; Cleland, T.P. Microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis for whole-bone proteomics and paleoproteomics. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2020 , 34 , e8568. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tanaka, Y.; Okamoto, K.; Matsushima, A.; Ota, T.; Matsumoto, Y.; Akasaki, T. Microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis of konjac products for determining the konjac powder content. Anal. Sci. 2013 , 29 , 1049–1053. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sunarti, T.C.; Yanti, S.D.; Ruriani, E. Two-steps microwave-assisted treatment on acid hydrolysis of sago pith for bioethanol production. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2017 , 65 , 012052. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mayer, N.; Dirauf, M.P.; Kaltschmitt, M. Microwave-assisted acidic hydrolysis of phytate from rye bran—Experimental procedure and model prediction. LWT 2023 , 189 , 115499. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Noguerra, J. Parametric and Kinetic Studies of Microwave-Assisted Dilute Sulfuric Acid Hydrolysis of Peanut ( Arachis hypogaea L.) Shells. Bachelor’s Thesis, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines, 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tong, K.T.X.; Tan, I.S.; Foo, H.C.Y.; Tiong, A.C.Y.; Lam, M.K.; Lee, K.T. Third-generation L-Lactic acid production by the microwave-assisted hydrolysis of red macroalgae Eucheuma denticulatum extract. Bioresour. Technol. 2021 , 342 , 125880. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alio, M.A.; Tugui, O.-C.; Vial, C.; Pons, A. Microwave-assisted Organosolv pretreatment of a sawmill mixed feedstock for bioethanol production in a wood biorefinery. Bioresour. Technol. 2019 , 276 , 170–176. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Isikgor, F.H.; Becer, C.R. Lignocellulosic biomass: A sustainable platform for the production of bio-based chemicals and polymers. Polym. Chem. 2015 , 6 , 4497–4559. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rodríguez, A.; Espinosa, E.; Domínguez-Robles, J.; Sánchez, R.; Bascón, I.; Rosal, A. Different Solvents for Organosolv Pulping. In Pulp and Paper Processing ; InTech: London, UK, 2018. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jablonowski, N.D.; Pauly, M.; Dama, M. Microwave Assisted Pretreatment of Szarvasi ( Agropyron elongatum ) Biomass to Enhance Enzymatic Saccharification and Direct Glucose Production. Front. Plant Sci. 2022 , 12 , 767254. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Corsi, L.; Mateo, S.; Spaccini, F.; Buratti, C.; Moya, A.J. Optimization of Microwave Assisted Organosolv Pretreatment for Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cherry Tree Pruning and Pistachio Shells. SSRN Electron. J. 2022 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Merino-Pérez, O.; Martínez-Palou, R.; Labidi, J.; Luque, R. Microwave-Assisted Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Produce Biofuels and Value-Added Products. In Production of Biofuels and Chemicals with Microwave. Biofuels and Biorefineries ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2015; pp. 197–224. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, X.; Cui, C.; Zheng, A.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, C.; Xia, S.; Huang, Z.; Wei, G.; Li, H. Ultrasonic and microwave assisted organosolv pretreatment of pine wood for producing pyrolytic sugars and phenols. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020 , 157 , 112921. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yao, J.; Karlsson, M.; Lawoko, M.; Odelius, K.; Hakkarainen, M. Microwave-assisted organosolv extraction for more native-like lignin and its application as a property-enhancing filler in a light processable biobased resin. RSC Sustain. 2023 , 1 , 1211–1222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Avelino, F.; da Silva, K.T.; de Souza Filho, M.d.S.M.; Mazzetto, S.E.; Lomonaco, D.; Avelino, F.; da Silva, K.T.M.; de Souza Filho, M.d.S.M.; Mazzetto, S.E. Microwave-assisted organosolv extraction of coconut shell lignin by Brønsted and Lewis acids catalysts. J. Clean. Prod. 2018 , 189 , 785–796. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Corsi, L.; Mateo, S.; Spaccini, F.; Buratti, C.; Moya, A.J. Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Organosolv Pretreatment for Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cherry Tree Pruning and Pistachio Shells: A Step to Bioethanol Production. Bioenergy Res. 2023 , 17 , 294–308. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Monteil-Rivera, F.; Huang, G.H.; Paquet, L.; Deschamps, S.; Beaulieu, C.; Hawari, J. Microwave-assisted extraction of lignin from triticale straw: Optimization and microwave effects. Bioresour. Technol. 2012 , 104 , 775–782. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yimtrakarn, T.; Kaveevivitchai, W.; Lee, W.-C.; Lerkkasemsan, N. Study of Lignin Extracted from Rubberwood Using Microwave Assisted Technology for Fuel Additive. Polymers 2022 , 14 , 814. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Avelino, F.; Marques, F.; Soares, A.K.L.; Silva, K.T.; Leitão, R.C.; Mazzetto, S.E.; Lomonaco, D. Microwave-Assisted Organosolv Delignification: A Potential Eco-Designed Process for Scalable Valorization of Agroindustrial Wastes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2019 , 58 , 10698–10706. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saifullah, M.; McCullum, R.; Van Vuong, Q. Optimization of Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Polyphenols from Lemon Myrtle: Comparison of Modern and Conventional Extraction Techniques Based on Bioactivity and Total Polyphenols in Dry Extracts. Processes 2021 , 9 , 2212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shi, K.; Yan, J.; Menéndez, J.A.; Luo, X.; Yang, G.; Chen, Y.; Lester, E.; Wu, T. Production of H 2 -Rich Syngas From Lignocellulosic Biomass Using Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis Coupled with Activated Carbon Enabled Reforming. Front. Chem. 2020 , 8 , 3. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, J.-X.; Chen, S.-W.; Lai, F.-Y.; Liu, S.-Y.; Xiong, J.-B.; Zhou, C.-F.; Yi-Yu, Y.; Huang, H.-J. Microwave-assisted hydrothermal carbonization of pig feces for the production of hydrochar. J. Supercrit. Fluids 2020 , 162 , 104858. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, L.; Wang, N.; Sun, D.; Li, L. Microwave-assisted acid hydrolysis of proteins combined with peptide fractionation and mass spectrometry analysis for characterizing protein terminal sequences. J. Proteom. 2014 , 100 , 68–78. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Yadav, N.; Yadav, G.; Ahmaruzzaman, M. Microwave-assisted biodiesel production using –SO 3 H functionalized heterogeneous catalyst derived from a lignin-rich biomass. Sci. Rep. 2023 , 13 , 9074. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Fernandez, Y.; Arenillas, A.; Angel, J. Microwave Heating Applied to Pyrolysis. In Advances in Induction and Microwave Heating of Mineral and Organic Materials ; InTech: London, UK, 2011. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fia, A.Z.; Amorim, J. Microwave pretreatment of biomass for conversion of lignocellulosic materials into renewable biofuels. J. Energy Inst. 2023 , 106 , 101146. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Park, J.; Lee, G.; Jeong, C.; Kim, H.; Kim, C. Determination of Relationship between Higher Heating Value and Atomic Ratio of Hydrogen to Carbon in Spent Coffee Grounds by Hydrothermal Carbonization. Energies 2021 , 14 , 6551. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Coelho, J.; Robalo, M.; Boyadzhieva, S.; Stateva, R. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Spent Coffee Grounds. Process Optimization Applying Design of Experiments. Molecules 2021 , 26 , 7320. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Domínguez, A.; Menéndez, J.; Fernández, Y.; Pis, J.; Nabais, J.V.; Carrott, P.; Carrott, M.R. Conventional and microwave induced pyrolysis of coffee hulls for the production of a hydrogen rich fuel gas. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2007 , 79 , 128–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Divyashri, G.; Murthy, T.P.K.; Ragavan, K.V.; Sumukh, G.M.; Sudha, L.S.; Nishka, S.; Himanshi, G.; Misriya, N.; Sharada, B.; Venkataramanaiah, R.A. Valorization of coffee bean processing waste for the sustainable extraction of biologically active pectin. Heliyon 2023 , 9 , e20212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• López-Linares, J.C.; García-Cubero, M.T.; Coca, M.; Lucas, S. A biorefinery approach for the valorization of spent coffee grounds to produce antioxidant compounds and biobutanol. Biomass Bioenergy 2021 , 147 , 106026. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, J.; Niu, H.; Corscadden, K.; He, Q.; Zhou, N. MW-assisted hydrothermal liquefaction of spent coffee grounds. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 2022 , 100 , 1729–1738. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lopes, G.R.; Passos, C.P.; Rodrigues, C.; Teixeira, J.A.; Coimbra, M.A. Impact of microwave-assisted extraction on roasted coffee carbohydrates, caffeine, chlorogenic acids and coloured compounds. Food Res. Int. 2020 , 129 , 108864. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Franca, A.S.; Oliveira, L.S.; Nunes, A.A.; Alves, C.C.O. Microwave assisted thermal treatment of defective coffee beans press cake for the production of adsorbents. Bioresour. Technol. 2010 , 101 , 1068–1074. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ondruschka, B.; Bonrath, W.; Stuerga, D. Development and Design of Laboratory and Pilot Scale Reactors for Microwave-assisted Chemistry. In Microwaves in Organic Synthesis ; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006; pp. 62–107. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ventura, S.P.M.; Nobre, B.P.; Ertekin, F.; Hayes, M.; Garciá-Vaquero, M.; Vieira, F.; Koc, M.; Gouveia, L.; Aires-Barros, M.R.; Palavra, A.M.F. Extraction of value-added compounds from microalgae. In Microalgae-Based Biofuels and Bioproducts ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 461–483. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ambrozic, G.; Crnjak, Z.; Zigon, M. Microwave-Assisted Non-Aqueous Synthesisof ZnO Nanoparticles. Mater. Technol. 2011 , 45 , 173–177. [ Google Scholar ]
• Danlami, J.M.; Arsad, A.; Ahmad Zaini, M.A.; Sulaiman, H. A comparative study of various oil extraction techniques from plants. Rev. Chem. Eng. 2014 , 30 , 605–626. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gotama, B.; Rahman, A.K.; Ahmad, A.; Hariyadi, A. Extraction of rice bran oil using microwave-assisted extraction and green solvents. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2022 , 1105 , 012052. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Álvarez-Viñas, M.; Rivas, S.; Torres, M.D.; Domínguez, H. Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Carrageenan from Sarcopeltis skottsbergii . Mar. Drugs 2023 , 21 , 83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Dertli, H.; Saloglu, D. A valorization approach of food industry wastewater using microwave-assisted extraction. In Advanced Technologies in Wastewater Treatment ; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2023; pp. 155–178. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• López-Salazar, H.; Camacho-Díaz, B.H.; Ocampo, M.L.A.; Jiménez-Aparicio, A.R. Microwave-assisted extraction of functional compounds from plants: A Review. BioResources 2023 , 18 , 6614–6638. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Robinson, J.; Binner, E.; Vallejo, D.B.; Perez, N.D.; Al Mughairi, K.; Ryan, J.; Shepherd, B.; Adam, M.; Budarin, V.; Fan, J.; et al. Unravelling the mechanisms of microwave pyrolysis of biomass. Chem. Eng. J. 2022 , 430 , 132975. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bing, W.; Hongbin, Z.; Zeng, D.; Yuefeng, F.; Yu, Q.; Rui, X. Microwave fast pyrolysis of waste tires: Effect of microwave power on product composition and quality. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2021 , 155 , 104979. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, N.; Zhou, J.; Dai, L.; Guo, F.; Wang, Y.; Li, H.; Deng, W.; Lei, H.; Chen, P.; Liu, Y.; et al. Syngas production from biomass pyrolysis in a continuous microwave assisted pyrolysis system. Bioresour. Technol. 2020 , 314 , 123756. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmad, F.; Idrees, F.; Fazal-e-Aleem. Recent Advancements in Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of NiO Nanostructures and their Supercapacitor Properties: A Comprehensive Review. Curr. Nanomater. 2018 , 3 , 5–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aguilar-Reynosa, A.; Romaní, A.; Rodríguez-Jasso, R.M.; Aguilar, C.N.; Garrote, G.; Ruiz, H.A. Microwave heating processing as alternative of pretreatment in second-generation biorefinery: An overview. Energy Convers. Manag. 2017 , 136 , 50–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Thangavelu, S.K.; Rajkumar, T.; Pandi, D.K.; Ahmed, A.S.; Ani, F.N. Microwave assisted acid hydrolysis for bioethanol fuel production from sago pith waste. Waste Manag. 2019 , 86 , 80–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Vaidya, A.A.; Murton, K.D.; Smith, D.A.; Dedual, G. A review on organosolv pretreatment of softwood with a focus on enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. Biomass Convers. Biorefinery 2022 , 12 , 5427–5442. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Goyal, H.; Chen, T.-Y.; Chen, W.; Vlachos, D.G. A review of microwave-assisted process intensified multiphase reactors. Chem. Eng. J. 2022 , 430 , 133183. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Radoiu, M.; Mello, A. Technical advances, barriers, and solutions in microwave—Assisted technology for industrial processing. Chem. Eng. Res. Des. 2022 , 181 , 331–342. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, J.; Chen, W.; Jia, K.; Li, S.; Jia, P.; Wang, W.; Song, Z.; Zhao, X.; Mao, Y.; Chen, S. Progress on the Microwave-Assisted Recycling of Spent Lithium Battery Graphite. Processes 2023 , 11 , 1451. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Share and Cite

Lozano Pérez, A.S.; Lozada Castro, J.J.; Guerrero Fajardo, C.A. Application of Microwave Energy to Biomass: A Comprehensive Review of Microwave-Assisted Technologies, Optimization Parameters, and the Strengths and Weaknesses. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024 , 8 , 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030121

Lozano Pérez AS, Lozada Castro JJ, Guerrero Fajardo CA. Application of Microwave Energy to Biomass: A Comprehensive Review of Microwave-Assisted Technologies, Optimization Parameters, and the Strengths and Weaknesses. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing . 2024; 8(3):121. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030121

Lozano Pérez, Alejandra Sophia, Juan José Lozada Castro, and Carlos Alberto Guerrero Fajardo. 2024. "Application of Microwave Energy to Biomass: A Comprehensive Review of Microwave-Assisted Technologies, Optimization Parameters, and the Strengths and Weaknesses" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 8, no. 3: 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8030121

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals