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300+ Social Media Research Topics

Social media has become an integral part of our lives, and it has transformed the way we communicate, share information, and interact with each other. As social media platforms continue to evolve and gain popularity, they have also become a rich source of data for researchers. Social media research is a rapidly growing field that encompasses a wide range of topics , from understanding the psychological and social effects of social media to analyzing patterns of user behavior and identifying trends in online conversations. In this era of data-driven decision-making, social media research is more important than ever, as it provides insights into how we use and are influenced by social media. In this post, we will explore some of the most fascinating and relevant social media research topics that are shaping our understanding of this powerful medium.

Social Media Research Topics

Social Media Research Topics are as follows:

The effects of social media on mental health
The role of social media in political polarization
The impact of social media on relationships
The use of social media by businesses for marketing
The effects of social media on body image and self-esteem
The influence of social media on consumer behavior
The use of social media for education
The effects of social media on language use and grammar
The impact of social media on news consumption
The role of social media in activism and social change
The use of social media for job seeking and career development
The effects of social media on sleep patterns
The influence of social media on adolescent behavior
The impact of social media on the spread of misinformation
The use of social media for personal branding
The effects of social media on political participation
The influence of social media on fashion trends
The impact of social media on sports fandom
The use of social media for mental health support
The effects of social media on creativity
The role of social media in cultural exchange
The impact of social media on language learning
The use of social media for crisis communication
The effects of social media on privacy and security
The influence of social media on diet and exercise behavior
The impact of social media on travel behavior
The use of social media for citizen journalism
The effects of social media on political accountability
The role of social media in peer pressure
The impact of social media on romantic relationships
The use of social media for community building
The effects of social media on gender identity
The influence of social media on music consumption
The impact of social media on academic performance
The use of social media for social support
The effects of social media on social skills
The role of social media in disaster response
The impact of social media on nostalgia and memory
The use of social media for charity and philanthropy
The effects of social media on political polarization in developing countries
The influence of social media on literary consumption
The impact of social media on family relationships
The use of social media for citizen science
The effects of social media on cultural identity
The role of social media in promoting healthy behaviors
The impact of social media on language diversity
The use of social media for environmental activism
The effects of social media on attention span
The influence of social media on art consumption
The impact of social media on cultural values and norms.
The impact of social media on mental health
The impact of social media on mental health.
The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem.
The use of social media for political activism and social justice movements.
The role of social media in promoting cultural diversity and inclusivity.
The impact of social media on romantic relationships and dating.
The use of social media for customer service and support.
The impact of social media on mental health and well-being among young adults.
The impact of social media on political polarization and partisanship.
The use of social media for health communication and behavior change.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards vaccination.
The impact of social media on political participation and civic engagement.
The impact of social media on political polarization and echo chambers.
The use of social media for political campaigning and the manipulation of public opinion.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards vaccination and public health.
The impact of social media on news consumption and trust in journalism.
The use of social media for promoting sustainable fashion practices and ethical consumption.
The role of social media in influencing beauty standards and body image.
The impact of social media on the music industry and the role of social media influencers.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among healthcare professionals.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards gun violence and gun control policies.
The impact of social media on social activism and advocacy.
The use of social media for promoting cross-cultural communication and intercultural understanding.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards climate change and environmental policies.
The impact of social media on public health during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and access to financial services for low-income individuals.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards immigration policies and refugee crises.
The impact of social media on political activism and social movements.
The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology education in developing countries.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards gender and sexual orientation.
The impact of social media on consumer behavior in the food and beverage industry.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among first responders.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards racial justice and police brutality.
The impact of social media on privacy concerns and data security.
The use of social media for promoting interfaith dialogue and religious tolerance.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards income inequality and economic justice.
The impact of social media on the film and television industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military personnel.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards privacy and data security.
The impact of social media on the hospitality industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting intergenerational communication and understanding.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards animal welfare and animal rights.
The impact of social media on the gaming industry and gamer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills among seniors.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards renewable energy and sustainability.
The impact of social media on the advertising industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among children and adolescents.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards online privacy and security.
The impact of social media on the beauty industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting cultural preservation and heritage tourism.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
The impact of social media on the automotive industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized communities.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards sustainable development goals.
The impact of social media on the fashion industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting intercultural communication in the workplace.
The role of social media in shaping public attitudes towards mental health policies.
The impact of social media on the travel industry and sustainable tourism practices.
The use of social media for health information seeking and patient empowerment.
The role of social media in promoting environmental activism and sustainable practices.
The impact of social media on consumer behavior and brand loyalty.
The use of social media for promoting education and lifelong learning.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards mental health issues.
The impact of social media on the fashion industry and fast fashion practices.
The use of social media for promoting social entrepreneurship and social innovation.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun control.
The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of adolescents.
The use of social media for promoting intercultural exchange and understanding.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change.
The impact of social media on political advertising and campaign strategies.
The use of social media for promoting healthy relationships and communication skills.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police brutality and racial justice.
The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and personal finance management.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
The impact of social media on the music industry and fan engagement.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among marginalized populations.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration and border policies.
The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of journalists.
The use of social media for promoting community building and social cohesion.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards healthcare policies.
The impact of social media on the food industry and consumer behavior.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gender equality.
The impact of social media on the sports industry and athlete-fan interactions.
The use of social media for promoting financial inclusion and access to banking services.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards animal welfare.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards privacy and data security.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards income inequality and poverty.
The use of social media for promoting digital literacy and technology skills.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards renewable energy.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among elderly populations.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards online privacy and security.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards criminal justice reform.
The impact of social media on online activism and social movements.
The use of social media for business-to-business communication and networking.
The role of social media in promoting civic education and engagement.
The impact of social media on the fashion industry and sustainable fashion practices.
The use of social media for promoting cultural diversity and inclusion.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards police reform.
The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of frontline healthcare workers.
The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and investment education.
The role of social media in promoting environmental sustainability and conservation.
The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem among adolescent girls.
The use of social media for promoting intercultural dialogue and understanding.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration policies and refugees.
The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of healthcare professionals.
The use of social media for promoting community resilience and disaster preparedness.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards the Black Lives Matter movement.
The impact of social media on the music industry and artist-fan interactions.
The use of social media for promoting healthy eating habits and nutrition education.
The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among college students.
The impact of social media on the entertainment industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting workplace diversity and inclusion.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards climate change policies.
The impact of social media on the travel industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among military veterans.
The role of social media in promoting intergenerational dialogue and understanding.
The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of educators.
The use of social media for promoting animal welfare and advocacy.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards reproductive rights.
The impact of social media on the sports industry and fan behavior.
The use of social media for promoting financial inclusion and literacy among underprivileged populations.
The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among LGBTQ+ populations.
The impact of social media on the food and beverage industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for promoting interfaith dialogue and understanding.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun ownership.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among caregivers.
The role of social media in promoting sustainable tourism practices.
The impact of social media on the gaming industry and gamer culture.
The use of social media for promoting cultural heritage tourism and preservation.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards public transportation policies.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among homeless populations.
The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among immigrants and refugees.
The use of social media for promoting financial literacy and entrepreneurship among youth.
The use of social media for political mobilization and participation in authoritarian regimes.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards immigration policies.
The impact of social media on the professional development of teachers and educators.
The use of social media for emergency communication during public health crises.
The role of social media in promoting LGBTQ+ rights and advocacy.
The impact of social media on body positivity and self-acceptance among women.
The use of social media for public diplomacy and international relations.
The impact of social media on the mental health and well-being of marginalized communities.
The use of social media for crisis management and disaster response in the corporate sector.
The role of social media in promoting environmental activism and conservation.
The impact of social media on the professional development and networking of entrepreneurs.
The use of social media for medical education and healthcare communication.
The role of social media in promoting cultural exchange and understanding.
The impact of social media on social capital and civic engagement among young adults.
The use of social media for disaster preparedness and community resilience.
The role of social media in promoting religious pluralism and tolerance.
The use of social media for promoting healthy lifestyles and wellness.
The use of social media for fundraising and philanthropy in the non-profit sector.
The role of social media in promoting interfaith dialogue and understanding.
The impact of social media on the travel and tourism industry and consumer behavior.
The use of social media for customer engagement and brand loyalty in the retail sector.
The impact of social media on the political attitudes and behaviors of young adults.
The use of social media for promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment.
The use of social media for promoting animal welfare and adoption.
The role of social media in promoting mental health and well-being among the elderly.
The impact of social media on the art industry and artist-fan interactions.
The use of social media for promoting healthy food choices and nutrition.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards income inequality.
The use of social media for promoting political satire and humor.
The role of social media in promoting disability rights and advocacy.
The use of social media for promoting voter registration and participation.
The role of social media in promoting entrepreneurship and small business development.
The use of social media for promoting mental health and well-being among incarcerated populations.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and attitudes towards gun violence prevention.
The use of social media for promoting cultural heritage and preservation.
The impact of social media on mental health and well-being.
The relationship between social media use and academic performance.
The use of social media for emergency communication during natural disasters.
The impact of social media on traditional news media and journalism.
The role of social media in shaping public opinion and discourse.
The use of social media for online learning and education.
The impact of social media on the fashion and beauty industry.
The use of social media for brand awareness and marketing.
The impact of social media on privacy and security.
The use of social media for job searching and recruitment.
The impact of social media on political polarization and extremism.
The use of social media for online harassment and cyberbullying.
The role of social media in promoting environmental awareness and sustainability.
The impact of social media on youth culture and identity formation.
The use of social media for travel and tourism marketing.
The impact of social media on consumer behavior and decision-making.
The role of social media in shaping beauty standards and body positivity.
The use of social media for crisis communication and disaster response.
The impact of social media on the music industry.
The use of social media for fundraising and philanthropy.
The role of social media in promoting healthy lifestyles and wellness.
The impact of social media on sports fandom and fan behavior.
The use of social media for political lobbying and advocacy.
The impact of social media on the entertainment industry.
The use of social media for healthcare communication and patient engagement.
The role of social media in promoting gender equality and feminism.
The impact of social media on the restaurant and food industry.
The use of social media for volunteerism and community service.
The role of social media in promoting religious tolerance and interfaith dialogue.
The impact of social media on the art industry.
The use of social media for political satire and humor.
The role of social media in promoting disability awareness and advocacy.
The impact of social media on the real estate industry.
The use of social media for legal advocacy and justice reform.
The role of social media in promoting intercultural communication and understanding.
The impact of social media on the automotive industry.
The use of social media for pet adoption and animal welfare advocacy.
The role of social media in promoting mental health and wellness for marginalized communities.
The impact of social media on the retail industry.
The use of social media for promoting civic engagement and voter participation.
The impact of social media on the film and television industry.
The use of social media for fashion and style inspiration.
The role of social media in promoting activism for human rights and social issues.
The effectiveness of social media for political campaigns.
The role of social media in promoting fake news and misinformation.
The impact of social media on self-esteem and body image.
The impact of social media on romantic relationships.
The use of social media for online activism and social justice movements.
The impact of social media on traditional news media.
The impact of social media on interpersonal communication skills.
The impact of social media on the fashion industry.
The use of social media for social support and mental health awareness.
The use of social media for political lobbying and activism.
The impact of social media on travel and tourism behavior.
The use of social media for customer feedback and market research.
The impact of social media on the restaurant industry.
The role of social media in political activism
The effect of social media on interpersonal communication
The relationship between social media use and body image concerns
The impact of social media on self-esteem
The role of social media in shaping cultural norms and values
The use of social media by celebrities and its impact on their image
The role of social media in building and maintaining personal relationships
The use of social media for job searching and recruitment
The impact of social media on children and adolescents
The use of social media by political candidates during election campaigns
The role of social media in education
The impact of social media on political polarization
The use of social media for news consumption
The effect of social media on sleep habits
The use of social media by non-profit organizations for fundraising
The role of social media in shaping public opinion
The influence of social media on language and communication patterns
The use of social media in crisis communication and emergency management
The role of social media in promoting environmental awareness
The influence of social media on music preferences
The impact of social media on body positivity movements
The role of social media in shaping beauty standards
The influence of social media on sports fandom
The use of social media for health promotion and education
The impact of social media on political participation
The role of social media in shaping parenting practices
The influence of social media on food preferences and eating habits
The use of social media for peer support and mental health advocacy
The role of social media in shaping religious beliefs and practices
The influence of social media on humor and comedy
The use of social media for online activism and social justice advocacy
The impact of social media on public health awareness campaigns
The role of social media in promoting cultural diversity and inclusion
The influence of social media on travel behavior and decision-making
The use of social media for international diplomacy and relations
The impact of social media on job satisfaction and employee engagement
The role of social media in shaping romantic preferences and dating behavior
The influence of social media on language learning and language use
The use of social media for political satire and humor
The impact of social media on social capital and community building
The role of social media in shaping gender identity and expression
The influence of social media on fashion and beauty advertising.

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234 Social Media Research Topics & Ideas

Icon Calendar 18 May 2024
Icon Page 2646 words
Icon Clock 12 min read

Social media research encompasses a broad range of different topics that delve into the ever-evolving digital landscape. People investigate the impact of social platforms on society, exploring subjects, such as online identity formation, self-presentation, the psychology of virtual interactions, and others. Additionally, studies examine the influence of social media on politics, activism, and public opinion, uncovering patterns of information dissemination and polarization. Privacy concerns, cyberbullying, and online safety are also explored in-depth, seeking strategies to mitigate the associated risks. In this article, people can find many social media research topics, ideas, and examples.

Hot Social Media Research Topics

Impacts of Social Media and Internet Algorithms on User Experience
The Rise of TikTok: A Socio-Cultural Analysis
Dealing With Cyberbullying: Strategies and Solutions
Understanding the Phenomenon of Social Media ‘Cancel Culture’
NFTs and Social Media: The Future of Digital Art?
Ethical Concerns in the Era of Influencer Marketing
Social Media’s Role in Accelerating E-Commerce Growth
Impacts of Internet and Social Media on Journalism and News Reporting
Understanding the Psychology of Viral Challenges on Social Platforms
Cryptocurrency and Social Media: The Intersection
Mitigating Misinformation and ‘Fake News’ on Social Media
Augmented Reality (AR) in Social Media: A Game Changer?
Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns
Social Media’s Influence on Fashion and Beauty Trends
Privacy, Safety, and Security Concerns in the Age of Social Networking
Roles of Free Access and Social Media in Promoting Sustainable Practices
Implications of Social Media Addiction on Mental Health
Examining Social Media’s Role in Crisis Communication
The Power of User-Generated Content in Branding
Influence of Social Media on Food Culture and Dining Trends

Easy Social Media Research Topics

Impacts of Online Videos and Social Media on Mental Health
Influencer Marketing: Efficacy and Ethical Concerns
Evolution of Privacy Policies Across Social Platforms
Understanding Virality: What Makes Content Shareable?
Cyberbullying: Prevalence and Prevention Strategies
Social Media and Political Polarization: An In-Depth Study
Role of Social Media in Modern Business Strategies
Effect of Social Media on Interpersonal Relationships
Social Platforms as Tools for Social Change
Navigating Online Hate Speech: A Legal Perspective
Emerging Trends in Social Media Advertising
Online Identity Construction and Self-Presentation
The Psychology of Social Media Addiction
Social Media’s Role in Crisis Management and Communication
Sentiment Analysis in Social Media and Its Implications
Social Media Algorithms: Bias and Implications
The Phenomenon of Cancel Culture on Social Platforms
Cybersecurity Threats in the Era of Social Media
Analyzing Adverse Impacts of Social Media on Consumer Behavior

Interesting Social Media Research Topics

Evaluating the Effects of Social Media on Language and Communication
Roles of Social Media in Fostering Political Engagement
Misinformation and Propaganda Spread Through Social Platforms
Analyzing the Shift From Traditional Media to Social Media
Dark Patterns in Social Media: Hidden Manipulative Tactics
Social Media and Digital Activism: Revolutionizing Advocacy
Augmented Reality (AR) and Its Impact on Social Networking
Exploring Cybersecurity Issues in Social Media Platforms
Roles and Effects of Social Media and News in Mental Health Promotion
Strategies for Effective Social Media Crisis Management
The Power of Live Streaming for Brands and Influencers
Using Social Media to Enhance Classroom Learning
Analyzing the Influence of Memes on Internet Culture
Impacts of Social Media Algorithms on User Behavior
Assessing the Correlation Between Social Media and Loneliness
Geotagging and Its Implications for Personal Privacy
Social Media and E-commerce: A Cross-Industry Study
The Ethics of Digital Advertising on Social Platforms
Understanding the Psychology of Social Media Trolls
The Cultural Shift Caused by Social Media Localization

Social Media Research Paper Topics for High School

The Phenomenon of Cyberbullying: Prevention and Strategies
How Does Social Media Influence Teen Body Image?
Evaluating the Educational Potential of Social Media Platforms
Impacts of Social Media on Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
Roles of Free Connection and Social Media in Modern Political Activism
Exploring the Concept of ‘Digital Citizenship’ Among Teenagers
The Ethics of Social Media Privacy: User Rights and Responsibilities
Social Media Addiction: Understanding Its Causes and Effects
Influence of Social Media on Modern Communication Styles
Analyzing Positive Roles of Social Media in Promoting Reading Culture
Social Media and Mental Health: Correlation or Causation?
The Role of Social Media in Global Environmental Awareness
Examining Social Media’s Impact on Real-Life Social Skills
Social Media Platforms: Tools for Personal Branding or Narcissism?
Influence of Social Media Trends on Youth Fashion Choices
Impacts of Social Media on Teenagers’ Sleep Patterns
Online Safety: The Role of Parents and Schools in Social Media Usage
How Does Social Media Influence Teenagers’ Views on Relationships?
Social Media and Empathy: Does Online Interaction Decrease Compassion?

Social Media Research Paper Topics for College Students

Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem
The Influence of Social Media on Voting Patterns Among Young Adults
Social Media as a Valid Tool for Social Change: A Case Study Approach
Unveiling the Psychology of Social Media Addiction
Social Media’s Role in Modern Journalism: Opportunities and Challenges
Privacy Implications of Data Collection on Social Media Platforms
Cyberbullying in the Age of Social Media: Scope and Solutions
The Ethical Aspects of Social Media Influencer Marketing
Roles and Effects of Social Media in Crisis Communication and Management
Social Media and Its Effects on Interpersonal Communication Skills
Analyzing Social Media Strategies of Successful Businesses
Impacts of Internet Use and Social Media on Mental Health Among College Students
The Roles That Social Media Has in Modern Political Campaigns
Understanding the Social Media Algorithm: Bias and Implications
Social Media and Consumer Behavior: The Power of Influencer Marketing
Fake News, Authors, and Disinformation Spread Through Social Media Platforms
Exploring Direct Links Between Social Media Use and Academic Performance
Social Media’s Role in Promoting Sustainable Lifestyle Choices
Regulation of Hate Speech and Offensive Content on Social Media
The Power and Peril of Virality in the Age of Social Media

Social Media Research Paper Topics for University

The Effect That Social Media Has on Global Politics
The Ethics of Data Mining in Social Media
Roles of Social Media in Business Marketing Strategies
Social Media, Internet Use, and Their Impacts on Mental Health: A Systematic Review
Algorithmic Bias in Social Media Platforms: Causes and Consequences
The Influence of Colors and Social Media on Consumer Behavior
Exploring Possible Relationships Between Social Media Use and Academic Performance
Privacy, Morality, and Security Concerns in the Age of Social Media
Social Media as a Platform for Digital Activism
Impacts of Social Media on Interpersonal Communication and Relationships
Cyberbullying on Social Media: Scope, Impact, and Preventive Measures
The Role of Social Media in Spreading Health-Related Misinformation
Analyzing the Effect of Social Media on Journalism Practices
Understanding the Influence of Social Media on Body Image Perceptions
Social Media’s Role in Crisis Management: Case Studies
The Power and Effectiveness of Influencer Marketing on Social Media
Fake News and Disinformation in the Social Media Age
Regulatory Approaches to Hate Speech on Social Media Platforms
The Economic Implications of Social Media: From Startups to Giants

Social Media Research Paper Topics for Masters

Advanced Algorithms and Their Role in Shaping Social Media Interactions
Evaluating the Impact of Social Media on Democratic Processes Globally
The Intersection of Privacy, Data Mining, and Ethics in Social Media
Quantitative Analysis of Social Media’s Impact on Consumer Buying Behavior
Cybersecurity Threats in Social Media: Mitigation and Prevention Strategies
Analyzing the Psychological Implications of Social Media Addiction
Using Social Media Data to Predict Market Trends: An Econometric Approach
Role of Social Media in Crisis Management: A Comparative Study
The Sociolinguistic Impact of Social Media on Communication
Machine Learning and AI in Social Media: An Examination of Emerging Trends
Social Media as a Valid Tool for Public Health: Opportunities and Challenges
Social Media’s Influence on Modern Journalism: A Critical Analysis
Mapping Social Networks: A Graph Theory Approach
Evaluating the Efficacy of Social Media Campaigns in Social Change Movements
Analyzing the Role of Social Media in Corporate Reputation Management
Data Privacy Laws and Social Media: A Comparative Study
The Use of Small and Big Data Analytics in Social Media Marketing
Social Media and Its Role in Strengthening Democracy: A Deep Dive
The Impact of Social Media on Cultural Assimilation and Identity
Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Social Media Content Moderation

Social Media Research Paper Topics for Ph.D.

Analyzing the Impact of Social Media Algorithms on User Behavior and Perceptions
Deciphering the Influence of Social Media on Political Campaign Strategies
Examining the Role of Social Media in Corporate Social Responsibility Initiatives
Social Media and Mental Health: A Comprehensive Analysis of Recent Studies
Effects of Social Media and Internet Use on Consumer Buying Behavior: An Econometric Approach
Social Media and Digital Diplomacy: A Critical Analysis
Ethical Implications of Data Mining Techniques in Social Media Platforms
Unpacking the Psychological Mechanisms of Social Media Addiction
Role of Social Media in Contemporary Journalism: Opportunities and Challenges
Social Media and Privacy: A Comparative Study of Data Protection Laws
Machine Learning and AI in Social Media: Identifying Future Trends
Social Media’s Possible Influence on People, Body Image, and Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analysis
Analyzing the Role of Social Media in Crisis Management and Communication
Impacts of Social Media on Different Language and Communication Styles
Cybersecurity in Social Media: An Analysis of Current Threats and Mitigation Strategies
Social Media as a Good Tool for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention
Effects of Social Media on Children and Their Parents: Social Skills and Interpersonal Relationships
Roles of Social Media in Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Rights
Social Media and its Influence on Cultural Assimilation and Identity Formation

Social Media Research Topics for Argumentative Papers

Impacts of Social Media on Social and Political Discourses: Enhancing or Hindering Democratic Engagement?
Social Media and Mental Health: Exploring the Association Between Excessive Usage and Psychological Well-Being
Fostering Online Activism and Social Movements: The Role of Social Media
Balancing Personal Information Sharing and Data Protection: Social Media and Privacy
Exploring the Effects of Social Media on Body Image and Self-Esteem
Social Media and Political Polarization: Reinforcing Echo Chambers or Encouraging Diverse Perspectives?
Youth Culture and Identity Formation: The Influence of Social Media
Fake News and Misinformation: Combating Inaccurate Information in the Era of Social Media
Social Media and Cyberbullying: Examining the Impact on Mental Health and Well-Being
The Ethics of Social Media Research: Privacy, Informed Consent, and Ethical Considerations
Relationships in the Digital Age: Exploring the Influence of Social Media Use
The Influence of Internet, Technology, and Social Media on Consumer Behavior and Buying Decisions
Analyzing the Role of Online Platforms in Elections: Social Media and Political Campaigns
Social Media in Education: Exploring the Benefits and Challenges of Integration in the Classroom
Impacts of Social Media and Interface on News Consumption and Journalism Practices
Body Politics in the Digital Space: Examining Representations of Gender, Race, and Body Image on Social Media
Addressing Ethical and Security Concerns in the Digital Age: Social Media and Cybersecurity
Shaping Consumer Behavior and Brand Perception: The Role of Social Media Influencers
Civic Engagement in the Digital Era: Assessing the Role of Social Media Platforms
The Influence of Social Media Algorithms on Information Consumption and Personalization

Social Media Research Topics for Persuasive Papers

The Power of Social Media in Driving Social and Political Change
Promoting Digital Literacy: Empowering Users to Navigate the Complexities of Social Media
Social Media as a Catalyst for Social Justice Movements: Amplifying Marginalized Voices
Countering Fake News and Misinformation on Social Media: Strategies for Critical Thinking
Harnessing the Influence of Social Media for Environmental Activism and Sustainability
The Dark Side of Social Media: Addressing Online Harassment and Cyberbullying
Influencer Marketing: Ethical Considerations and Consumer Protection in the Digital Age
Leveraging Social Media for Public Health Campaigns: Increasing Awareness and Behavioral Change
Social Media and Mental Health: Promoting Well-Being in a Hyperconnected World
Navigating the Privacy Paradox: Balancing Convenience and Personal Data Protection on Social Media
Roles of Social Media and Internet in Fostering Civic Engagement and Democratic Participation
Promoting Positive Body Image on Social Media: Redefining Beauty Standards and Empowering Individuals
Enhancing Online Safety: Developing Policies and Regulations for Social Media Platforms
Social Media and the Spread of Disinformation: Combating the Infodemic
Roles of Social Media and Technology in Building and Sustaining Relationships: Connecting in a Digital Era
Influencer Culture and Materialism: Examining the Impact on Consumer Behavior
Social Media and Education: Maximizing Learning Opportunities and Bridging the Digital Divide
The Power of Viral Hashtags: Exploring Social Movements and Online Activism
Social Media and Political Polarization: Bridging Divides and Encouraging Constructive Dialogue

Social Media Topics for Pros and Cons Research Papers

Examining the Social Effects of Digital Connectivity: Pros and Cons of Using Social Media
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Redefining Political Participation: The Influence of Digital Networks on Democracy
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Open access
Published: 01 July 2020

The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent

Ine Beyens ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7023-867X 1 ,
J. Loes Pouwels ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9586-392X 1 ,
Irene I. van Driel ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7810-9677 1 ,
Loes Keijsers ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8580-6000 2 &
Patti M. Valkenburg ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0477-8429 1

Scientific Reports volume 10 , Article number: 10763 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Human behaviour

The question whether social media use benefits or undermines adolescents’ well-being is an important societal concern. Previous empirical studies have mostly established across-the-board effects among (sub)populations of adolescents. As a result, it is still an open question whether the effects are unique for each individual adolescent. We sampled adolescents’ experiences six times per day for one week to quantify differences in their susceptibility to the effects of social media on their momentary affective well-being. Rigorous analyses of 2,155 real-time assessments showed that the association between social media use and affective well-being differs strongly across adolescents: While 44% did not feel better or worse after passive social media use, 46% felt better, and 10% felt worse. Our results imply that person-specific effects can no longer be ignored in research, as well as in prevention and intervention programs.

Some socially poor but also some socially rich adolescents feel closer to their friends after using social media

what are some research questions about social media

Associations between youth’s daily social media use and well-being are mediated by upward comparisons

Variation in social media sensitivity across people and contexts

Introduction.

Ever since the introduction of social media, such as Facebook and Instagram, researchers have been studying whether the use of such media may affect adolescents’ well-being. These studies have typically reported mixed findings, yielding either small negative, small positive, or no effects of the time spent using social media on different indicators of well-being, such as life satisfaction and depressive symptoms (for recent reviews, see for example 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ). Most of these studies have focused on between-person associations, examining whether adolescents who use social media more (or less) often than their peers experience lower (or higher) levels of well-being than these peers. While such between-person studies are valuable in their own right, several scholars 6 , 7 have recently called for studies that investigate within-person associations to understand whether an increase in an adolescent’s social media use is associated with an increase or decrease in that adolescent’s well-being. The current study aims to respond to this call by investigating associations between social media use and well-being within single adolescents across multiple points in time 8 , 9 , 10 .

Person-specific effects

To our knowledge, four recent studies have investigated within-person associations of social media use with different indicators of adolescent well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, depression), again with mixed results 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 . Orben and colleagues 6 found a small negative reciprocal within-person association between the time spent using social media and life satisfaction. Likewise, Boers and colleagues 12 found a small within-person association between social media use and increased depressive symptoms. Finally, Coyne and colleagues 11 and Jensen and colleagues 13 did not find any evidence for within-person associations between social media use and depression.

Earlier studies that investigated within-person associations of social media use with indicators of well-being have all only reported average effect sizes. However, it is possible, or even plausible, that these average within-person effects may have been small and nonsignificant because they result from sizeable heterogeneity in adolescents’ susceptibility to the effects of social media use on well-being (see 14 , 15 ). After all, an average within-person effect size can be considered an aggregate of numerous individual within-person effect sizes that range from highly positive to highly negative.

Some within-person studies have sought to understand adolescents’ differential susceptibility to the effects of social media by investigating differences between subgroups. For instance, they have investigated the moderating role of sex to compare the effects of social media on boys versus girls 6 , 11 . However, such a group-differential approach, in which potential differences in susceptibility are conceptualized by group-level moderators (e.g., gender, age) does not provide insights into more fine-grained differences at the level of the single individual 16 . After all, while girls and boys each represent a homogenous group in terms of sex, they may each differ on a wide array of other factors.

As such, although worthwhile, the average within-person effects of social media on well-being obtained in previous studies may have been small or non-significant because they are diluted across a highly heterogeneous population (or sub-population) of adolescents 14 , 15 . In line with the proposition of media effects theories that each adolescent may have a unique susceptibility to the effects of social media 17 , a viable explanation for the small and inconsistent findings in earlier studies may be that the effect of social media differs from adolescent to adolescent. The aim of the current study is to investigate this hypothesis and to obtain a better understanding of adolescents’ unique susceptibility to the effects of social media on their affective well-being.

Social media and affective well-being

Within-person studies have provided important insights into the associations of social media use with cognitive well-being (e.g., life satisfaction 6 ), which refers to adolescents’ cognitive judgment of how satisfied they are with their life 18 . However, the associations of social media use with adolescents’ affective well-being (i.e., adolescents’ affective evaluations of their moods and emotions 18 ) are still unknown. In addition, while earlier within-person studies have focused on associations with trait-like conceptualizations of well-being 11 , 12 , 13 , that is, adolescents’ average well-being across specific time periods 18 , there is a lack of studies that focus on well-being as a momentary affective state. Therefore, we extend previous research by examining the association between adolescents’ social media use and their momentary affective well-being. Like earlier experience sampling (ESM) studies among adults 19 , 20 , we measured adolescents’ momentary affective well-being with a single item. Adolescents’ momentary affective well-being was defined as their current feelings of happiness, a commonly used question to measure well-being 21 , 22 , which has high convergent validity, as evidenced by the strong correlations with the presence of positive affect and absence of negative affect.

To assess adolescents’ momentary affective well-being (henceforth referred to as well-being), we conducted a week-long ESM study among 63 middle adolescents ages 14 and 15. Six times a day, adolescents were asked to complete a survey using their own mobile phone, covering 42 assessments per adolescent, assessing their affective well-being and social media use. In total, adolescents completed 2,155 assessments (83.2% average compliance).

We focused on middle adolescence, since this is the period in life characterized by most significant fluctuations in well-being 23 , 24 . Also, in comparison to early and late adolescents, middle adolescents are more sensitive to reactions from peers and have a strong tendency to compare themselves with others on social media and beyond. Because middle adolescents typically use different social media platforms, in a complementary way 25 , 26 , 27 , each adolescent reported on his/her use of the three social media platforms that s/he used most frequently out of the five most popular social media platforms among adolescents: WhatsApp, followed by Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, and, finally, the chat function of games 28 . In addition to investigating the association between overall social media use and well-being (i.e., the summed use of adolescents’ three most frequently used platforms), we examined the unique associations of the two most popular platforms, WhatsApp and Instagram 28 .

Like previous studies on social media use and well-being, we distinguished between active social media use (i.e., “activities that facilitate direct exchanges with others” 29 ) and passive social media use (i.e., “consuming information without direct exchanges” 29 ). Within-person studies among young adults have shown that passive but not active social media use predicts decreases in well-being 29 . Therefore, we examined the unique associations of adolescents’ overall active and passive social media use with their well-being, as well as active and passive use of Instagram and WhatsApp, specifically. We investigated categorical associations, that is, whether adolescents would feel better or worse if they had actively or passively used social media. And we investigated dose–response associations to understand whether adolescents’ well-being would change as a function of the time they had spent actively or passively using social media.

The hypotheses and the design, sampling and analysis plan were preregistered prior to data collection and are available on the Open Science Framework, along with the code used in the analyses ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ). For details about the design of the study and analysis approach, see Methods.

In more than half of all assessments (68.17%), adolescents had used social media (i.e., one or more of their three favorite social media platforms), either in an active or passive way. Instagram (50.90%) and WhatsApp (53.52%) were used in half of all assessments. Passive use of social media (66.21% of all assessments) was more common than active use (50.86%), both on Instagram (48.48% vs. 20.79%) and WhatsApp (51.25% vs. 40.07%).

Strong positive between-person correlations were found between the duration of active and passive social media use (overall: r = 0.69, p < 0.001; Instagram: r = 0.38, p < 0.01; WhatsApp: r = 0.85, p < 0.001): Adolescents who had spent more time actively using social media than their peers, had also spent more time passively using social media than their peers. Likewise, strong positive within-person correlations were found between the duration of active and passive social media use (overall: r = 0.63, p < 0.001; Instagram: r = 0.37, p < 0.001; WhatsApp: r = 0.57, p < 0.001): The more time an adolescent had spent actively using social media at a certain moment, the more time s/he had also spent passively using social media at that moment.

Table 1 displays the average number of minutes that adolescents had spent using social media in the past hour at each assessment, and the zero-order between- and within-person correlations between the duration of social media use and well-being. At the between-person level, the duration of active and passive social media use was not associated with well-being: Adolescents who had spent more time actively or passively using social media than their peers did not report significantly higher or lower levels of well-being than their peers. At the within-person level, significant but weak positive correlations were found between the duration of active and passive overall social media use and well-being. This indicates that adolescents felt somewhat better at moments when they had spent more time actively or passively using social media (overall), compared to moments when they had spent less time actively or passively using social media. When looking at specific platforms, a positive correlation was only found for passive WhatsApp use, but not for active WhatsApp use, and not for active and passive Instagram use.

Average and person-specific effects

The within-person associations of social media use with well-being and differences in these associations were tested in a series of multilevel models. We ran separate models for overall social media use (i.e., active use and passive use of adolescents’ three favorite social media platforms, see Table 2 ), Instagram use (see Table 3 ), and WhatsApp use (see Table 4 ). In a first step we examined the average categorical associations for each of these three social media uses using fixed effects models (Models 1A, 3A, and 5A) to investigate whether, on average, adolescents would feel better or worse at moments when they had used social media compared to moments when they had not (i.e., categorical predictors: active use versus no active use, and passive use versus no passive use). In a second step, we examined heterogeneity in the within-person categorical associations by adding random slopes to the fixed effects models (Models 1B, 3B, and 5B). Next, we examined the average dose–response associations using fixed effects models (Models 2A, 4A, and 6A), to investigate whether, on average, adolescents would feel better or worse when they had spent more time using social media (i.e., continuous predictors: duration of active use and duration of passive use). Finally, we examined heterogeneity in the within-person dose–response associations by adding random slopes to the fixed effects models (Models 2B, 4B, and 6B).

Overall social media use.

The model with the categorical predictors (see Table 2 ; Model 1A) showed that, on average, there was no association between overall use and well-being: Adolescents’ well-being did not increase or decrease at moments when they had used social media, either in a passive or active way. However, evidence was found that the association of passive (but not active) social media use with well-being differed from adolescent to adolescent (Model 1B), with effect sizes ranging from − 0.24 to 0.68. For 44.26% of the adolescents the association was non-existent to small (− 0.10 < r < 0.10). However, for 45.90% of the adolescents there was a weak (0.10 < r < 0.20; 8.20%), moderate (0.20 < r < 0.30; 22.95%) or even strong positive ( r ≥ 0.30; 14.75%) association between overall passive social media use and well-being, and for almost one in ten (9.84%) adolescents there was a weak (− 0.20 < r < − 0.10; 6.56%) or moderate negative (− 0.30 < r < − 0.20; 3.28%) association.

The model with continuous predictors (Model 2A) showed that, on average, there was a significant dose–response association for active use. At moments when adolescents had used social media, the time they spent actively (but not passively) using social media was positively associated with well-being: Adolescents felt better at moments when they had spent more time sending messages, posting, or sharing something on social media. The associations of the time spent actively and passively using social media with well-being did not differ across adolescents (Model 2B).

Instagram use

As shown in Model 3A in Table 3 , on average, there was a significant categorical association between passive (but not active) Instagram use and well-being: Adolescents experienced an increase in well-being at moments when they had passively used Instagram (i.e., viewing posts/stories of others). Adolescents did not experience an increase or decrease in well-being when they had actively used Instagram. The associations of passive and active Instagram use with well-being did not differ across adolescents (Model 3B).

On average, no significant dose–response association was found for Instagram use (Model 4A): At moments when adolescents had used Instagram, the time adolescents spent using Instagram (either actively or passively) was not associated with their well-being. However, evidence was found that the association of the time spent passively using Instagram differed from adolescent to adolescent (Model 4B), with effect sizes ranging from − 0.48 to 0.27. For most adolescents (73.91%) the association was non-existent to small (− 0.10 < r < 0.10), but for almost one in five adolescents (17.39%) there was a weak (0.10 < r < 0.20; 10.87%) or moderate (0.20 < r < 0.30; 6.52%) positive association, and for almost one in ten adolescents (8.70%) there was a weak (− 0.20 < r < − 0.10; 2.17%), moderate (− 0.30 < r < − 0.20; 4.35%), or strong ( r ≤ − 0.30; 2.17%) negative association. Figure 1 illustrates these differences in the dose–response associations.

The dose–response association between passive Instagram use (in minutes per hour) and affective well-being for each individual adolescent (n = 46). Red lines represent significant negative within-person associations, green lines represent significant positive within-person associations, and gray lines represent non-significant within-person associations. A graph was created for each participant who had completed at least 10 assessments. A total of 13 participants were excluded because they had completed less than 10 assessments of passive Instagram use. In addition, one participant was excluded because no graph could be computed, since this participant's passive Instagram use was constant across assessments.

WhatsApp use

As shown in Model 5A in Table 4 , just as for Instagram, we found that, on average, there was a significant categorical association between passive (but not active) WhatsApp use and well-being: Adolescents reported that they felt better at moments when they had passively used WhatsApp (i.e., read WhatsApp messages). For active WhatsApp use, no significant association was found. Also, in line with the results for Instagram use, no differences were found regarding the associations of active and passive WhatsApp use (Model 5B).

In addition, a significant dose–response association was found for passive (but not active) use (Model 6A). At moments when adolescents had used WhatsApp, we found that, on average, the time adolescents spent passively using WhatsApp was positively associated with well-being: Adolescents felt better at moments when they had spent more time reading WhatsApp messages. The time spent actively using WhatsApp was not associated with well-being. No differences were found in the dose–response associations of active and passive WhatsApp use (Model 6B).

This preregistered study investigated adolescents’ unique susceptibility to the effects of social media. We found that the associations of passive (but not active) social media use with well-being differed substantially from adolescent to adolescent, with effect sizes ranging from moderately negative (− 0.24) to strongly positive (0.68). While 44.26% of adolescents did not feel better or worse if they had passively used social media, 45.90% felt better, and a small group felt worse (9.84%). In addition, for Instagram the majority of adolescents (73.91%) did not feel better or worse when they had spent more time viewing post or stories of others, whereas some felt better (17.39%), and others (8.70%) felt worse.

These findings have important implications for social media effects research, and media effects research more generally. For decades, researchers have argued that people differ in their susceptibility to the effects of media 17 , leading to numerous investigations of such differential susceptibility. These investigations have typically focused on moderators, based on variables such as sex, age, or personality. Yet, over the years, studies have shown that such moderators appear to have little power to explain how individuals differ in their susceptibility to media effects, probably because a group-differential approach does not account for the possibility that media users may differ across a range of factors, that are not captured by only one (or a few) investigated moderator variables.

By providing insights into each individual’s unique susceptibility, the findings of this study provide an explanation as to why, up until now, most media effects research has only found small effects. We found that the majority of adolescents do not experience any short-term changes in well-being related to their social media use. And if they do experience any changes, these are more often positive than negative. Because only small subsets of adolescents experience small to moderate changes in well-being, the true effects of social media reported in previous studies have probably been diluted across heterogeneous samples of individuals that differ in their susceptibility to media effects (also see 30 ). Several scholars have noted that overall effect sizes may mask more subtle individual differences 14 , 15 , which may explain why previous studies have typically reported small or no effects of social media on well-being or indicators of well-being 6 , 11 , 12 , 13 . The current study seems to confirm this assumption, by showing that while the overall effect sizes are small at best, the person-specific effect sizes vary considerably, from tiny and small to moderate and strong.

As called upon by other scholars 5 , 31 , we disentangled the associations of active and passive use of social media. Research among young adults found that passive (but not active) social media use is associated with lower levels of affective well-being 29 . In line with these findings, the current study shows that active and passive use yielded different associations with adolescents’ affective well-being. Interestingly though, in contrast to previous findings among adults, our study showed that, on average, passive use of Instagram and WhatsApp seemed to enhance rather than decrease adolescents’ well-being. This discrepancy in findings may be attributed to the fact that different mechanisms might be involved. Verduyn and colleagues 29 found that passive use of Facebook undermines adults’ well-being by enhancing envy, which may also explain the decreases in well-being found in our study among a small group of adolescents. Yet, adolescents who felt better by passively using Instagram and WhatsApp, might have felt so because they experienced enjoyment. After all, adolescents often seek positive content on social media, such as humorous posts or memes 32 . Also, research has shown that adolescents mainly receive positive feedback on social media 33 . Hence, their passive Instagram and WhatsApp use may involve the reading of positive feedback, which may explain the increases in well-being.

Overall, the time spent passively using WhatsApp improved adolescents’ well-being. This did not differ from adolescent to adolescent. However, the associations of the time spent passively using Instagram with well-being did differ from adolescent to adolescent. This discrepancy suggests that not all social media uses yield person-specific effects on well-being. A possible explanation may be that adolescents’ responses to WhatsApp are more homogenous than those to Instagram. WhatsApp is a more private platform, which is mostly used for one-to-one communication with friends and acquaintances 26 . Instagram, in contrast, is a more public platform, which allows its users to follow a diverse set of people, ranging from best friends to singers, actors, and influencers 28 , and to engage in intimate communication as well as self-presentation and social comparison. Such diverse uses could lead to more varied, or even opposing responses, such as envy versus inspiration.

Limitations and directions for future research

The current study extends our understanding of differential susceptibility to media effects, by revealing that the effect of social media use on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. The findings confirm our assumption that among the great majority of adolescents, social media use is unrelated to well-being, but that among a small subset, social media use is either related to decreases or increases in well-being. It must be noted, however, that participants in this study felt relatively happy, overall. Studies with more vulnerable samples, consisting of clinical samples or youth with lower social-emotional well-being may elicit different patterns of effects 27 . Also, the current study focused on affective well-being, operationalized as happiness. It is plausible that social media use relates differently with other types of well-being, such as cognitive well-being. An important next step is to identify which adolescents are particularly susceptible to experience declines in well-being. It is conceivable, for instance, that the few adolescents who feel worse when they use social media are the ones who receive negative feedback on social media 33 .

In addition, future ESM studies into the effects of social media should attempt to include one or more follow-up measures to improve our knowledge of the longer-term influence of social media use on affective well-being. While a week-long ESM is very common and applied in most earlier ESM studies 34 , a week is only a snapshot of adolescent development. Research is needed that investigates whether the associations of social media use with adolescents’ momentary affective well-being may cumulate into long-lasting consequences. Such investigations could help clarify whether adolescents who feel bad in the short term would experience more negative consequences in the long term, and whether adolescents who feel better would be more resistant to developing long-term negative consequences. And while most adolescents do not seem to experience any short-term increases or decreases in well-being, more research is needed to investigate whether these adolescents may experience a longer-term impact of social media.

While the use of different platforms may be differently associated with well-being, different types of use may also yield different effects. Although the current study distinguished between active and passive use of social media, future research should further differentiate between different activities. For instance, because passive use entails many different activities, from reading private messages (e.g., WhatsApp messages, direct messages on Instagram) to browsing a public feed (e.g., scrolling through posts on Instagram), research is needed that explores the unique effects of passive public use and passive private use. Research that seeks to explore the nuances in adolescents’ susceptibility as well as the nuances in their social media use may truly improve our understanding of the effects of social media use.

Participants

Participants were recruited via a secondary school in the south of the Netherlands. Our preregistered sampling plan set a target sample size of 100 adolescents. We invited adolescents from six classrooms to participate in the study. The final sample consisted of 63 adolescents (i.e., 42% consent rate, which is comparable to other ESM studies among adolescents; see, for instance 35 , 36 ). Informed consent was obtained from all participants and their parents. On average, participants were 15 years old ( M = 15.12 years, SD = 0.51) and 54% were girls. All participants self-identified as Dutch, and 41.3% were enrolled in the prevocational secondary education track, 25.4% in the intermediate general secondary education track, and 33.3% in the academic preparatory education track.

The study was approved by the Ethics Review Board of the Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of Amsterdam and was performed in accordance with the guidelines formulated by the Ethics Review Board. The study consisted of two phases: A baseline survey and a personalized week-long experience sampling (ESM) study. In phase 1, researchers visited the school during school hours. Researchers informed the participants of the objective and procedure of the study and assured them that their responses would be treated confidentially. Participants were asked to sign the consent form. Next, participants completed a 15-min baseline survey. The baseline survey included questions about demographics and assessed which social media each adolescent used most frequently, allowing to personalize the social media questions presented during the ESM study in phase 2. After completing the baseline survey, participants were provided detailed instructions about phase 2.

In phase 2, which took place two and a half weeks after the baseline survey, a 7-day ESM study was conducted, following the guidelines for ESM studies provided by van Roekel and colleagues 34 . Aiming for at least 30 assessments per participant and based on an average compliance rate of 70 to 80% reported in earlier ESM studies among adolescents 34 , we asked each participant to complete a total of 42 ESM surveys (i.e., six 2-min surveys per day). Participants completed the surveys using their own mobile phone, on which the ESM software application Ethica Data was installed during the instruction session with the researchers (phase 1). Each 2-min survey consisted of 22 questions, which assessed adolescents’ well-being and social media use. Two open-ended questions were added to the final survey of the day, which asked about adolescents’ most pleasant and most unpleasant events of the day.

The ESM sampling scheme was semi-random, to allow for randomization and avoid structural patterns in well-being, while taking into account that adolescents were not allowed to use their phone during school time. The Ethica Data app was programmed to generate six beep notifications per day at random time points within a fixed time interval that was tailored to the school’s schedule: before school time (1 beep), during school breaks (2 beeps), and after school time (3 beeps). During the weekend, the beeps were generated during the morning (1 beep), afternoon (3 beeps), and evening (2 beeps). To maximize compliance, a 30-min time window was provided to complete each survey. This time window was extended to one hour for the first survey (morning) and two hours for the final survey (evening) to account for travel time to school and time spent on evening activities. The average compliance rate was 83.2%. A total of 2,155 ESM assessments were collected: Participants completed an average of 34.83 surveys ( SD = 4.91) on a total of 42 surveys, which is high compared to previous ESM studies among adolescents 34 .

The questions of the ESM study were personalized based on the responses to the baseline survey. During the ESM study, each participant reported on his/her use of three different social media platforms: WhatsApp and either Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, and/or the chat function of games (i.e., the most popular social media platforms among adolescents 28 ). Questions about Instagram and WhatsApp use were only included if the participant had indicated in the baseline survey that s/he used these platforms at least once a week. If a participant had indicated that s/he used Instagram or WhatsApp (or both) less than once a week, s/he was asked to report on the use of Snapchat, YouTube, or the chat function of games, depending on what platform s/he used at least once a week. In addition to Instagram and WhatsApp, questions were asked about a third platform, that was selected based on how frequently the participant used Snapchat, YouTube, or the chat function of games (i.e., at least once a week). This resulted in five different combinations of three platforms: Instagram, WhatsApp, and Snapchat (47 participants); Instagram, WhatsApp, and YouTube (11 participants); Instagram, WhatsApp, and chatting via games (2 participants); WhatsApp, Snapchat, and YouTube (1 participant); and WhatsApp, YouTube, and chatting via games (2 participants).

Frequency of social media use

In the baseline survey, participants were asked to indicate how often they used and checked Instagram, WhatsApp, Snapchat, YouTube, and the chat function of games, using response options ranging from 1 ( never ) to 7 ( more than 12 times per day ). These platforms are the five most popular platforms among Dutch 14- and 15-year-olds 28 . Participants’ responses were used to select the three social media platforms that were assessed in the personalized ESM study.

Duration of social media use

In the ESM study, duration of active and passive social media use was measured by asking participants how much time in the past hour they had spent actively and passively using each of the three platforms that were included in the personalized ESM surveys. Response options ranged from 0 to 60 min , with 5-min intervals. To measure active Instagram use, participants indicated how much time in the past hour they had spent (a) “posting on your feed or sharing something in your story on Instagram” and (b) “sending direct messages/chatting on Instagram.” These two items were summed to create the variable duration of active Instagram use. Sum scores exceeding 60 min (only 0.52% of all assessments) were recoded to 60 min. To measure duration of passive Instagram use, participants indicated how much time in the past hour they had spent “viewing posts/stories of others on Instagram.” To measure the use of WhatsApp, Snapchat, YouTube and game-based chatting, we asked participants how much time they had spent “sending WhatsApp messages” (active use) and “reading WhatsApp messages” (passive use); “sending snaps/messages or sharing something in your story on Snapchat” (active use) and “viewing snaps/stories/messages from others on Snapchat” (passive use); “posting YouTube clips” (active use) and “watching YouTube clips” (passive use); “sending messages via the chat function of a game/games” (active use) and “reading messages via the chat function of a game/games” (passive use). Duration of active and passive overall social media use were created by summing the responses across the three social media platforms for active and passive use, respectively. Sum scores exceeding 60 min (2.13% of all assessments for active overall use; 2.90% for passive overall use) were recoded to 60 min. The duration variables were used to investigate whether the time spent actively or passively using social media was associated with well-being (dose–response associations).

Use/no use of social media

Based on the duration variables, we created six dummy variables, one for active and one for passive overall social media use, one for active and one for passive Instagram use, and one for active and one for passive WhatsApp use (0 = no active use and 1 = active use , and 0 = no passive use and 1 = passive use , respectively). These dummy variables were used to investigate whether the use of social media, irrespective of the duration of use, was associated with well-being (categorical associations).

Consistent with previous ESM studies 19 , 20 , we measured affective well-being using one item, asking “How happy do you feel right now?” at each assessment. Adolescents indicated their response to the question using a 7-point scale ranging from 1 ( not at all ) to 7 ( completely ), with 4 ( a little ) as the midpoint. Convergent validity of this item was established in a separate pilot ESM study among 30 adolescents conducted by the research team of the fourth author: The affective well-being item was strongly correlated with the presence of positive affect and absence of negative affect (assessed by a 10-item positive and negative affect schedule for children; PANAS-C) at both the between-person (positive affect: r = 0.88, p < 0.001; negative affect: r = − 0.62, p < 0.001) and within-person level (positive affect: r = 0.74, p < 0.001; negative affect: r = − 0.58, p < 0.001).

Statistical analyses

Before conducting the analyses, several validation checks were performed (see 34 ). First, we aimed to only include participants in the analyses who had completed more than 33% of all ESM assessments (i.e., at least 14 assessments). Next, we screened participants’ responses to the open questions for unserious responses (e.g., gross comments, jokes). And finally, we inspected time series plots for patterns in answering tendencies. Since all participants completed more than 33% of all ESM assessments, and no inappropriate responses or low-quality data patterns were detected, all participants were included in the analyses.

Following our preregistered analysis plan, we tested the proposed associations in a series of multilevel models. Before doing so, we tested the homoscedasticity and linearity assumptions for multilevel analyses 37 . Inspection of standardized residual plots indicated that the data met these assumptions (plots are available on OSF at https://osf.io/nhks2 ). We specified separate models for overall social media use, use of Instagram, and use of WhatsApp. To investigate to what extent adolescents’ well-being would vary depending on whether they had actively or passively used social media/Instagram/WhatsApp or not during the past hour (categorical associations), we tested models including the dummy variables as predictors (active use versus no active use, and passive use versus no passive use; models 1, 3, and 5). To investigate whether, at moments when adolescents had used social media/Instagram/WhatsApp during the past hour, their well-being would vary depending on the duration of social media/Instagram/WhatsApp use (dose–response associations), we tested models including the duration variables as predictors (duration of active use and duration of passive use; models 2, 4, and 6). In order to avoid negative skew in the duration variables, we only included assessments during which adolescents had used social media in the past hour (overall, Instagram, or WhatsApp, respectively), either actively or passively. All models included well-being as outcome variable. Since multilevel analyses allow to include all available data for each individual, no missing data were imputed and no data points were excluded.

We used a model building approach that involved three steps. In the first step, we estimated an intercept-only model to assess the relative amount of between- and within-person variance in affective well-being. We estimated a three-level model in which repeated momentary assessments (level 1) were nested within adolescents (level 2), who, in turn, were nested within classrooms (level 3). However, because the between-classroom variance in affective well-being was small (i.e., 0.4% of the variance was explained by differences between classes), we proceeded with estimating two-level (instead of three-level) models, with repeated momentary assessments (level 1) nested within adolescents (level 2).

In the second step, we assessed the within-person associations of well-being with (a) overall active and passive social media use (i.e., the total of the three platforms), (b) active and passive use of Instagram, and (c) active and passive use of WhatsApp, by adding fixed effects to the model (Models 1A-6A). To facilitate the interpretation of the associations and control for the effects of time, a covariate was added that controlled for the n th assessment of the study week (instead of the n th assessment of the day, as preregistered). This so-called detrending is helpful to interpret within-person associations as correlated fluctuations beyond other changes in social media use and well-being 38 . In order to obtain within-person estimates, we person-mean centered all predictors 38 . Significance of the fixed effects was determined using the Wald test.

In the third and final step, we assessed heterogeneity in the within-person associations by adding random slopes to the models (Models 1B-6B). Significance of the random slopes was determined by comparing the fit of the fixed effects model with the fit of the random effects model, by performing the Satorra-Bentler scaled chi-square test 39 and by comparing the Bayesian information criterion (BIC 40 ) and Akaike information criterion (AIC 41 ) of the models. When the random effects model had a significantly better fit than the fixed effects model (i.e., pointing at significant heterogeneity), variance components were inspected to investigate whether heterogeneity existed in the association of either active or passive use. Next, when evidence was found for significant heterogeneity, we computed person-specific effect sizes, based on the random effect models, to investigate what percentages of adolescents experienced better well-being, worse well-being, and no changes in well-being. In line with Keijsers and colleagues 42 we only included participants who had completed at least 10 assessments. In addition, for the dose–response associations, we constructed graphical representations of the person-specific slopes, based on the person-specific effect sizes, using the xyplot function from the lattice package in R 43 .

Three improvements were made to our original preregistered plan. First, rather than estimating the models with multilevel modelling in R 43 , we ran the preregistered models in Mplus 44 . Mplus provides standardized estimates for the fixed effects models, which offers insight into the effect sizes. This allowed us to compare the relative strength of the associations of passive versus active use with well-being. Second, instead of using the maximum likelihood estimator, we used the maximum likelihood estimator with robust standard errors (MLR), which are robust to non-normality. Sensitivity tests, uploaded on OSF ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ), indicated that the results were almost identical across the two software packages and estimation approaches. Third, to improve the interpretation of the results and make the scales of the duration measures of social media use and well-being more comparable, we transformed the social media duration scores (0 to 60 min) into scales running from 0 to 6, so that an increase of 1 unit reflects 10 min of social media use. The model estimates were unaffected by this transformation.

Reporting summary

Further information on the research design is available in the Nature Research Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The dataset generated and analysed during the current study is available in Figshare 45 . The preregistration of the design, sampling and analysis plan, and the analysis scripts used to analyse the data for this paper are available online on the Open Science Framework website ( https://osf.io/nhks2 ).

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Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the NWO Spinoza Prize and the Gravitation grant (NWO Grant 024.001.003; Consortium on Individual Development) awarded to P.M.V. by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). Additional funding was received from the VIDI grant (NWO VIDI Grant 452.17.011) awarded to L.K. by the Dutch Research Council (NWO). The authors would like to thank Savannah Boele (Tilburg University) for providing her pilot ESM results.

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I.B., J.L.P., I.I.v.D., L.K., and P.M.V. designed the study; I.B., J.L.P., and I.I.v.D. collected the data; I.B., J.L.P., and L.K. analyzed the data; and I.B., J.L.P., I.I.v.D., L.K., and P.M.V. contributed to writing and reviewing the manuscript.

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Beyens, I., Pouwels, J.L., van Driel, I.I. et al. The effect of social media on well-being differs from adolescent to adolescent. Sci Rep 10 , 10763 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-67727-7

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The Top 10 Most Interesting Social Media Research Topics

Finding social media research topics you’re interested in is tricky. Social media is a fairly new field, and the constant arrival of new technology means that it’s always evolving. So, students have a lot to think about in their search for topics.

In this article, we’re going to walk you through social media research paper topics that are timely and relevant. We’ll also show you examples of social media research topics you can get inspiration from. Lastly, we’re going to lay out some social media research questions you can ponder while formulating your topic.

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What makes a strong social media research topic.

A strong social media research topic requires clarity of focus. This means that your topic must be timely, relevant, and coherent. This allows your research topic to be compelling and easily understandable to others.

Tips for Choosing a Social Media Research Topic

Know the trends. Learning what social media topics are trending allows you to know the relevant issues and emergent themes in the field of social media. This also lets you know what topics are well-researched and which ones are still emerging.
Explore knowledge gaps. Knowing what previous researchers have written prevents you from repeating knowledge that has already been explored and shared. Nobody wants to reinvent the wheel when doing research. Exploring knowledge gaps lets you increase the impact of your work and identify opportunities for further research.
Choose something that you’re interested in. Diving deep into a topic that you’re interested in motivates you to learn more about it. The research process becomes more engaging when you know you care about your topic.
Be specific. Knowing what you want to research and what you don’t want to research are keys to the research process. This entails narrowing down your topic to a specific area, subject, theme, or relationship. You want to know the scope and the limitations of your study.
Check your timeframe. Limiting your topic to a specific timeframe helps in narrowing down what you need to study. For example, you can decide to study a phenomenon that has emerged in just the last three years. By doing this, you’re making sure that your research is both specific and relevant.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

The difference between a research topic and a research question is in the scope. Research topics tend to be broader than research questions. Research topics focus on a specific area of study within a larger field, while a research question further narrows down what you are researching. A good research question allows you to write on your topic with greater precision.

How to Create Strong Social Media Research Questions

The key to creating strong social media research questions is learning enough about your topic to know where the gaps are. This means that you have to conduct a thorough social media literature review, reading previous studies until you have a handle on what’s been said and what questions are still unanswered. Your question will emerge from this preliminary research.

2. The Influence of Social Media on Mental Health

Mental health has been an important topic in social media research these past few years. Social media use and its connection to mental health has even been the subject of systematic reviews. This means that there’s a huge body of previous studies that you can look to when developing your research question.

Exploring both the positive effects and negative impacts of social media sites on mental health helps people and firms establish guidelines that help user communities. This research topic might also cover strategies for helping social media users improve their mental health.

3. The Role of Social Media in Political Campaigning

Social media is a new tool for political campaigning. Exploring what social media strategies have been conducted by politicians running for office helps in determining how social media aids in political campaigning. Studying new strategies like user-generated content for political campaigning allows you to know how voters interact with political candidates.

4. The Role of Social Media in Disinformation

The rise of fake news has coincided with the rise of social networking websites. This topic involves dissecting how social media technologies allow certain types of online content to thrive and make it easier for bad actors to spread disinformation.

5. How Social Media Can Benefit Communities

More and more social issues have been popularized through online content. Diving deep into how social media can facilitate organizational networking lets you compare the traditional and new organizing strategies being created in digital spaces. It also lets you understand how social media activity influences trends in virtual communities.

6. The Effects of Social Media Exposure on Child Development

Children also use social media sites. Some children use social networking sites under the supervision of their parents, and some do not. Social interaction, online or not, affects how children develop. Studying the psychological effects of social media exposure lets you know how social media may improve or derail the growth of children.

7. How Communication Has Evolved Through Social Media

Body language, tone of voice, and other non-verbal cues are absent in online forms of communication. In their place, emojis and other new ways to express thoughts and emotions have appeared. Learning how social media changes the way we talk to one another allows you to develop a theory of communication that takes into account the role of digital communities.

8. Social Media Platforms as Primary News Sources

A lot of people now are getting their daily dose of news and current events through social media. News networks have also established their social media presence on platforms that they can use to deliver news and current events to their audiences. Researching this topic lets you investigate the changes and innovations in information dissemination.

9. How Social Media Paves Way for Non-Traditional Advertising

Regular social media posts, advertisements, and other forms of online content aren’t the only ways businesses market to their audiences. Social media has paved the way for user-generated content and other non-traditional types of online marketing. With this topic, you can learn social media marketing strategies that have been capitalized on the social connection fostered by social networking websites.

10. Impacts of Social Media Presence on Corporate Image

More businesses increasingly build and curate their digital presence through various social networks. Knowing how a business can improve its corporate image through social media influence clarifies the role of technology in modern economics and online marketing.

Social Media Research Questions

How was Facebook used as a political campaigning tool in the 2020 United States presidential election?
What social platforms are the most effective in influencing consumer behavior?
How does user-generated content boost the credibility of a business?
How do different types of online content disseminated through popular networks affect the attention span of people?
What are the most effective forms of online content and social media strategies for increasing sales conversions for small businesses?

Choosing the Right Social Media Research Topic

Choosing the right social media research topic helps you create meaningful contributions to the discipline of social media studies. Knowing the most popular topics in the field can make you an expert on social media. By reading up on previous studies, you will not only be more informed but you will also be in a position to make a positive impact on future studies.

Studying the relationship between social media and different fields produces valuable knowledge. Even if you’re only interested in exploring one social platform or a single social media event or phenomenon, your research can help people better understand how social media engagement changes the face of social relationships in the world at large.

Social Media Research Topics FAQ

Social media is a computer-based technology that allows digital communities to exchange information through user networks. Various social media networks specialize in text, photo, or video transfer. All of these are ways for people on the Internet to share information and ideas with each other.

Social media research is important because it helps you contribute to the growing body of knowledge about digital social settings. In 2021, according to DataReportal, at least 4.88 billion people around the world use the Internet . The more that people connect with each other through the social media domain, the more their quality of life changes, for better or worse.

According to Statista, the most popular social media platforms right now are Facebook, YouTube, and WhatsApp , each of which has at least two billion users. These social networks allow users to share text, picture, and video content with one another.

People use social media to connect with each other, share information, and entertain themselves. Social media sites can broadly serve all of these purposes or be focused on just one of these functions.

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MRA Guide to the Top 16 Social Media Research Questions

MRA and IMRO published this simple guide to Social Media Research (SMR) in 2010 in order to help researchers identify and find answers to the most important questions to SMR techniques.

Introduction Social networks engulf everyday life. They represent a place to share news, ideas, and information of all kinds. The connections made among people in these networks, and the resulting information shared, can have a profound effect on the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs of individuals. Moreover, even the flow of information itself can be a powerful predictor of key business and program outcomes.

Recognizing the power of social networks, opinion researchers have increasingly begun to take advantage of social media to answer critical business questions. In doing so, the research profession has invented new tools and methods to supplement an already impressive array of techniques. The Marketing Research Association (MRA) has developed this guide in order to describe the current landscape of social media research as well as to facilitate and advance further development of the technique. Ultimately, it is the goal of the Association and its members to foster universally accepted and practiced standards and best practices for these and other research methods.

What is Social Media?

There are many definitions of social media but, at its core, social media uses Internet-based technologies that facilitate the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media refers to Web sites that permit people to interact with the site and with each other using simple interfaces. At the time of publication, Facebook, qq.com, Twitter and YouTube are among the most popular social media sites.

Social media refers to the information that people share on those sites, including status updates, image and video comments, responses to blogs and forums, and any other individual contributions to the online space. This information reflects naturally occurring conversations among people who may or may not personally know each other.

What is Social Media Research?

Though evolving rapidly, social media research (SMR) is the application of marketing and opinion research methods to social media data for the purposes of conducting research (e.g., usage and attitude studies, social media research tracking studies, custom research, etc.). Similar to other types of marketing research usage and attitude studies, tracking studies, research goals and objectives are developed, methodologies are prepared, and social media data are analyzed quantitatively and/or qualitatively depending on the goals of the project.

SMR is distinct from other forms of marketing research in that it uses social media as its data source as opposed to surveys, focus groups and other data collection modes and techniques. SMR can be a complementary or stand-alone analytical tool for researchers, providing them with a unique opportunity to listen and measure the opinions of potentionally vast numbers of people who communicate online, some of whom may not normally or easily be accessible through non-observational forms of research.

About the Authors MRA is grateful to the following for their contributions to this Guide to the Top 16 Social Media Research Questions: Jim Longo, PRC, Itracks, Committee Chair; Janet Savoie, PRC, Online Survey Solution; Annie Pettit, Conversition Strategies; Ray Poynter, The Future Place; Ellie Schwartz; Ed Sugar, PRC, OLC Global; Tamara Barber, Forrester Research; Tamara Kenworthy, PRC, On Point Strategies; Steven Runfeldt, Schwartz Consulting; Benjamin Smithee, Spych Market Analytics; Aaron Hill, PRC, Sawtooth Software; Susan Saurage-Altenloh, PRC; Steffen Hück, HVYE; and Patrick Glaser, MRA.

THE ROLE OF SOCIAL MEDIA RESEARCH

#1. what are the advantages and disadvantages of smr.

From a capacity standpoint, SMR provides the ability to collect and analyze information from the past as well as in real-time, as it is generated. Moreover, the richness of data available on social media networks is conducive to both qualitative designs (e.g., digital ethnographies) as well as quantitative designs, including numerical aggregation of large quantities of data.

In terms of methodological considerations, SMR utilizes an observational form of data collection. Information is collected from Web sites as posted by individuals who may not be specifically aware of the research role. As such, social media communications are thought to be free of, or less subject to, response biases that occurs in interviewer-administered, and even self-administered, forms of opinion surveys and focus groups. However, social media is inherently a public form of communication, with varying degrees of privacy which may affect some social media users’ willingness to reveal information, particularly sensitive or potentially embarrassing personal details.

From an ethical standpoint, SMR has the additional advantage of eliminating the burden that would otherwise be placed on a research participant. Social media users do not participate in “active” data collection (e.g., survey, focus group). They generate data simply by engaging in their natural online communications. However, SMR presents unique ethical considerations of which researchers must be aware (see “Ethical and Legal Issues”).

SMR offers researchers a host of benefits, a few of which include:

Ease of adjusting research criteria throughout the study
Potential cost savings and reduced logistical burden
Ease of application across locations
Access to hard-to-reach research participants
Benchmarking (e.g., reported vs. observed opinions)

Likewise, researchers should be aware of various challenges associated with SMR. For example, researchers who are new to SMR methods will need to familiarize themselves with both the characteristics of social media users as well as specific SM sites in order to properly draw conclusions about research findings. Additional considerations include the need to learn and become proficient with:

SM tools and techniques including sentiment and content analysis
Indicators of SMR validity and reliability at each stage of the process
Relevant types of biases, particularly those arising from unique SMR tools
The types of brands and categories that are more likely to be successful carrying out SMR, e.g., due to volume of data or consumer importance

#2. What data sources are typically used in SMR?

Millions of Web sites (small and large) currently facilitate the practice of social media research. However, online sites, which currently facilitate social media communications come and go, and change very rapidly. Researchers involved in SMR need to stay abreast of changes in social media communication patterns and trends, including the rise of mobile access, and popular SM vehicles. Current examples of SM Web sites that generate data suitable for SMR include:

Social Networking Sites:Social News: e.g., Digg, Reddit, Mashable, Technorati Facebook: Search, Community Pages, Fan Pages, Groups, Chat, Facebook-based Apps

Twitter: Location-based Application, Real-time Search, Advanced Search (search.twitter.com)

LinkedIn: Search, Groups, Q&A

Photo/Video Sharing: e.g., YouTube, Flickr
Online Communities: Industry, Topic-related, Branded or Unbranded
Blogs: e.g., Blogger, Posterous, Wordpress
Forums: Industry or Topic-related
Questions and Answers: e.g., Yahoo Answers, Linkedin Answers, Yedda
Commenting: e.g., Disqus, Backtype
Traditional News: e.g., CNN, BusinessWeek

#3. How does SMR interact with other forms of traditional and non-traditional research, including online, offline, in-person, and qualitative and quantitative?

SMR can effectively stand on its own, but may also be integrated with traditional research methods to create a holistic research solution. In fact, SMR may sometimes springboard or support other forms of traditional research. Examples of SMR integration with other research methods include:

Observing the flow of conversation in real time, thus prompting the most effective methodology for further research
Accessing user supplied media such as photos and video
Measuring trending topics for further “traditional” research
Assisting in the preparation of discussion guides or surveys
Identifying key influencers in an industry or on a topic
Reaching a segment of the population that may not otherwise be reachable
Comparing community-based insights to natural observational social media insights
Establishing trust between researcher and participant, potentially for further recruitment into another form of research
Exploring, and discovering “unknowns” via observations

#4. How reliable are SMR results?

Validity refers to the degree to which results reflect truth or reality while reliability reflects the degree to which results can be replicated if someone else were to conduct a similar study. Because research suppliers have different methods, standards of quality, and processing rules, research consumers must conduct their own validity and reliability analysis of any potential supplier to ensure the quality of work is sufficient. As with all types of marketing research, the validity and reliability of social media research varies greatly:

What is the validity and reliability of the sentiment and/or content analysis processes? If manual coders are used, reliability might be lower. If automated coders are used, validity might be lower.

Given that sentiment differs by Web site (e.g., Twitter is more negative while blogs are more positive), what is the range of social media venues that are measured and what percentage of the Internet population do they represent? Do any of the sites overwhelm the data collection strategy in a proportion that does not reflect the Internet space? Does the vendor know how and why to sample and weight data?
To what extent is the intended target group reflected by the social media venues being used?
Is the intention to measure and generalize to the general Internet population or to a particular segment of the Internet?
How is geographic and demographic information being measured in order to assess the validity of generalizing outside of the sample?
What timeframe is appropriate for the research objectives? Though small samples may be acceptable for long-term research, shorter time frames must use larger sample sizes.

#5. Within businesses and organizations, how will SMR activities be tracked and aggregated, and whose responsibility is it to handle each of those functions?

Social media research may be executed in multiple ways. For example, numerous departments within a single company may be involved in SMR, including internal research departments, and cross-functional teams from marketing, customer relationship management, public relations, public affairs, and other departments. SMR may also be outsourced to vendors who may or may not specialize in research. Regardless, the skill set of the user must be appropriate for the function.

#6. What additional knowledge, skills, and abilities will a corporate researcher need to learn in order to improve their level of competency with SMR?

SMR may involve several different methods and analytical approaches. As such, corporate researchers may find it most advantageous to learn a wide breadth of relevant techniques while continually honing their skills and knowledge in the areas that are most relevant to their organization. Commonly used techniques include both sentiment analysis and content analysis. Additionally, researchers will need to learn about, and become comfortable with, important explanatory variables beyond traditional “respondent” demographics, such as how different types of Web sites (e.g., blogs, forums, media, etc.) generate and facilitate different types of data (e.g., whether data is more positive versus negative, descriptive versus condensed, etc.).

#7. Are the participants aware that their usergenerated content is under observation?

Research contributors have demonstrated the occasional tendency to provide sub-optimal information when they are aware that others are studying or observing them. Oftentimes, this is attributable to concerns over the privacy of sensitive information or feelings of being compelled to give a socially-desirable response to a question. In SMR, though it commonly is understood that conversations are generally public and open to viewing by almost anyone, the individual under observation may or may not be aware of the presence of a researcher.

At the same time, participation in the social media space offers varying degrees of privacy. Users may participate for personal and/or professional reasons and they may or not seek relationships with other users. Researchers should be aware of the potential and likelihood for “social observational bias” and the effect it will have on the type, candor and direction of the user’s comments.

Ethical and Legal Issues

#8. how are sources cited in research reports and on research web portals are the citations different based on the source, e.g., twitter, blogger, forums.

As in traditional forms of research, it is important to protect the privacy of contributors. As such, without prior express consent, data transmitted from vendor to client should not include direct references or citations to individuals that would reveal their identity.

However, sources may be recorded for validation purposes as well as for potential data quality checks. Any data or reporting intended for transfer to an outside entity should be purged of personally identifiable information (PII) prior to changing-hands. This includes IP addresses, usernames, user id numbers, user photos, e-mail addresses, and other types of commonly available online data.

Where detailed information must be shared for the purposes of data quality or validation, the data should include source citations using the current link of the information (e.g., http:// twitter.com/xxxx/xxxx/). Notably, links should be expected to expire or become “broken” overtime. Researchers should plan to record any pertinent administrative or relevant source data (e.g., date/time, source identifier, query details, etc.) to be used in validation at the time of data collection.

#9. What are the controversies and legal issues regarding the rights of the people whose data is being used?

Social media is a relatively new form of communication and individuals from every stakeholder group, including the public, researchers and governments, are participating in an on-going conversation about the nature of its privacy and ethics. For this reason, it’s critical for researchers to understand that they have a responsibility to respect social media user’s privacy and that the definition and expectations for social media user’s privacy can and will change over time. Some brief areas of consideration are described below.

Privacy: Individuals and their social media privacy expectations should be respected. If an individual has posted information on a public Web site under a public “privacy” setting, they may be considered to have a very low or no expectation of privacy for the information they reveal. Even so, researchers who collect and analyze this information should take care to protect it from becoming identifiable to an individual.

Conversations should not be copied verbatim into reports as those direct quotes can be searched and identities discovered. A small number of relevant conversations can be summarized, without losing their flavor, in reports. Moreover, full quotations can be used with permission.

Interacting with individuals: Clients must never use information collected during or for social media research for the purpose of direct marketing or otherwise influencing the opinions and behaviors of the data subject. Marketing may only occur in places like branded and client communities where contributors would naturally expect those types of conversations to take place.

Combining data from multiple sources where privacy policies differ: In general, the policy provisions that tend to favor the rights and needs of the contributors should be given weight. Best practices call for researchers to respect the coded crawling terms of every Web site they visit. Where Web sites are coded to indicate that crawling is not permitted, those Web sites should not be crawled even if it is technically possible. Researchers must not join Web sites under the pretense of being a member so that they then have access to crawl a Web site that prohibits such crawling otherwise – this condition holds for both automated and manual crawling. Where researchers do join groups, they must immediately make it explicit that they are there for the purposes of marketing research. Notably, issues concerning access to data sources are paramount to the conduct of social media research and can be expected to be a major focus of the opinion research industry moving forward, both in terms of how to ethically gain access to the widest net of sources as well as appropriate ways to handle and adjust for cases where this is not possible.

SM Research Processes & Providers

#10. what is the level of expertise and industry qualifications of social media researchers and/or smr companies.

Anyone selecting a social media research vendor must be aware that the technique is relatively new. They must be careful to select a research partner with the appropriate level of expertise and skill in the practice of SMR. Some relevant questions to ask include:

Is the company primarily an IT or social media company that expanded into research, or a research company that expanded into social media? While IT and social media companies may have expertise in social media, crawling and data collection techniques, research companies have expertise in data analysis techniques.
Does the company focus on research exclusively or do they maintain other functions as well? For example, companies that conduct SMR may specialize in buzz monitoring, customer relationship management, public relations, research, or some other social media function.
Does the company specialize in qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or a combination of both?
Is the provider aware of traditional research practices such as sampling and weighting and, if so, how and when do they apply those practices?
For the practice of ethics and standards of quality, does the provider classify themselves as a researcher or as some other profession?

#11. What are the standard data and/or research outputs?

Since SMR is relatively new, industry standards for outputs have not yet been developed. It is important to understand the vendor’s policies and capacities for standard and custom reporting. Relevant questions include:

Does the company offer a full-service model of data collection, analysis and presentation or do they offer a self-service tool such as a portal?
In cases where the vendor offers full-service reporting and presentation, what substantive outputs may be expected? What technical explanation and reporting may be expected (e.g., a technical appendix)?
Are the SMR analyses incorporated with traditional types of marketing research and does the company have expertise doing so?
Does the provider offer standardized or customized tools?
How often are outputs updated and/or delivered?

#12. What is the process for gathering data?

Like other forms of opinion research, a wide variety of approaches exist for the implementation of SMR. It is important to understand the company policies undertaken. Relevant questions include:

Does the company gather its own data or is a data collection vendor used?
How many Web sites are crawled and how are those Web sites selected?
Does the company seek out permission-based relationships with the sites they crawl?
Does the company honor the electronic privacy notifications of individual Web sites?

#13. What data quality processes are implemented in each stage of the SMR?

What quality and validation protocols have been adopted and implemented to safeguard the quality of the research at each stage of the process? Are there validation processes in place for initial data collection, scoring and coding, etc.? Does the organization collect and retain information at the initial stages for validation purposes while removing/anonymizing data for reporting purposes?

#14. Does the company provide sentiment scoring?

Sentiment scoring is a process of assigning a positive or negative emotion to a conversation. Some vendors may provide strictly positive or negative emotions, while others may assign a continuum ranging from positive to neutral, to negative. If the vendor provides sentiment scoring, is the process an internal proprietary method, a third party purchased product, or some combination of the two? How is the sentiment scored (e.g., dictionary, bayesian, manually)?

#15. If sentiment scoring is provided, what is the process for validating results?

Simple and commonly-used systems of sentiment validation may prove to be inadequate. More rigorous approaches should be used, specifically blinded methods. For example:

For automated systems, researchers should receive a list of uncoded conversations and then code them manually. The manual codes should then be matched back and compared to the automated codes to derive a percentage match (i.e., validation coefficient).

For manual systems, two unique raters should independently code conversations. A validation coefficient may be derived from a comparison of the two outputs.

The above processes are two relatively simple examples of validation systems. More complicated calculations are available, but their use should be weighed according to the capacity of stakeholders to understand the meaning and method of the technique.

Language constantly changes and evolves due to new and lapsed slang, terminology, and speech patterns. As such, simple systems of sentiment validation may prove to be inadequate. When conducting SMR, rigorous and constantly monitored approaches to sentiment analysis are most appropriate.

#16. What, if any, methods are used for determining the geography associated with the data?

Demographic and geographic information can often be an important and meaningful element for research and validation purposes. When considering SMR, what geographic information is available and how precise is the information (e.g., city or town, region, country, unknown)? What types of demographic data are available (e.g., age, gender, income, education)?

Researchers must take care to specify the methodology and sample size associated with the information. Inferred methods (based on Web site sources or language) may be associated with large sample sizes but have low validity. On the other hand, precise information is currently only available for an extremely tiny percentage of conversations and therefore often has insufficient generalizability.

The “Top 16 Questions” presented in this guide represent the core matters of importance to the research field with respect to social media research. They include issues of reliability, execution, interaction with other kinds of research, ethics and legal compliance, data quality, process, and outputs.

Importantly, the 16 questions in this document do not stand as the only ones the opinion research profession needs to address, nor do they take the place of standards of practice. Instead, they provide a starting point for experts and professionals to debate and discuss development toward this goal. As in any profession, a reasonable consensus should be reached in order to validly define and represent an industry standard of best practice. It is the goal of the Marketing Research Association that this document be widely distributed and contribute as such.

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74 Best Social Media Research Paper Topics

Whether in college or high school, you will come across research writing as a student. In most cases, the topic of research is assigned by your teacher/professor. Other times, students have to come up with their topic. Research writing in school is inescapable. It’s a task you are bound to undertake to fulfill your academic requirements. If you are in college, there are several topics for research depending on your discipline. For high school students, the topic is usually given. In this article, we focus on social media and topics about social media.

A social media paper is a research paper about social media that studies social media generally or an aspect of it. To write research papers on social media, you’ll need to conduct thorough research for materials and scholarly materials that’ll assist you. For social media, most of the scholarly works will be media-focused.

Sometimes, Professors or teachers ask students to write an essay or research a topic without narrowing it down. In that case, students will have to develop specific research topics. If you’re writing a paper on social media, we’ve provided you with helpful topics to consider for research.

How to Start a Social Media Research Paper

Social media topics to write about, social media research topics for college students, interesting topics to research for fun, research questions about social media, social media essay topics for high school students, narrow research topic ideas students can consider, research paper on social media marketing, good social topics for research papers, easy social issues to write about, social science research topics for college students, interesting research topics for high school students, comprehensive social networking research papers, final words about social media topics.

Before giving a research writing, Professors and teachers believe students already know how to write one. Not every student knows how to write a research paper in most cases.

Research writing follows a systematic pattern, which applies to research on social media. Below is the pattern of a research paper to use;

Paper title
Introduction
Statement of problem
Research methodology
Research objective
Critical analysis
Results and discussion

Every research follows this basic pattern, and it also applies to your research paper on social media.

Social media has become a powerful tool for engagement of various kinds. Before now, social media was merely apps used for interpersonal affairs. Today, with the modification of digital technology, social media encompasses a lot more. Below are some social media topics to write about.

The impact of social media in promoting interpersonal relationships
A study on how social media is a vital tool for social change
Social media censorship: A new form of restriction on freedom of speech
The constantly growing oversharing nature of social media
Social media is a vital tool for political campaign
The proliferation of social media platforms into a buying space
The juxtaposition of personal engagement and business on social media platforms

There is a wide range of topics to coin from social media for college students because social media is a platform with diverse issues that can form into topics. Here are some research topics about social media to consider.

Breach of Privacy: A study on the ability of the government to monitor personal affairs on social media
A study of the toxicity brewing within social media
The increased cyberbullying perpetrated on social media platforms
The evolution of Twitter into a space for diverse conversations
A study of the emergence and growth of social media over the years
Effects of social media: How social media is breeding laziness amongst children
Social media as a distraction tool for students

If you are searching for interesting topics, there are many interesting research topics on social media. Examples of research paper topics that sound fun to choose from include;

A study on how the emergence of social media and social media advertising has infiltrated its primary purpose
An evaluation of how social media has created employment opportunities for people
Social media influence and its negative impact on society
Advertising on social media: Will influencer businesses take over advertising agencies?
A study on ways to improve advertisement for social media engagement
A look into how social media creates a distorted view of real life
Social media and real-life: Does social media obscure reality?

Research questions are helpful when carrying out research in a particular field. To know more about your thesis on social media, you will need to create research questions on social media to help inform your writing. Some social media research questions to ask are;

Are social media platforms designed to be addictive?
What is a social media Algorithm, and how to navigate it?
To what extent are personal data stored on social app databases protected?
Can social media owners avoid government monitoring?
Should parents allow their children to navigate social media before they are 15?
Have social media jobs come to stay, or are they temporary?
Is social media influencer culture overtaking celebrity culture?
To what extent can social media help to curb racism and homophobia?
Does social media exacerbate or curb discriminatory practices?
Is social media an effective tool for learning?

Everyone has access to social media apps until they’ve reached a certain age. There are several social media essay topics for high school students to write about. Some social media titles for essays include;

How social media affects the academic performance of students
Why the use of social media is prohibited during school hours
Why students are obsessed with Tiktok
Running a profitable social media business while in high school and the challenges
The dangers of overusing editing apps
A critical essay on how editing apps and filters promote an unrealistic idea of beauty
The death of TV: how social media has stolen student’s interest

The challenge students have with their topic ideas for research papers is that they’re broad. A good social media thesis topic should be narrowed down. Narrowing a topic down helps you during research to focus on an issue.

Some narrow social media topics for the research paper include;

A study of how social media is overtaking Television in entertainment
A study of how social media has overtaken traditional journalism
An evaluation of the rise of influencer culture on Instagram
YouTube and how it has created sustainable income for black content creators
A comparative study of social media managers and content creators
A study of the decline of Instagram since the emergence of Tiktok
How Twitter breeds transphobic conversations

There are several areas of social media to focus your research on. If you are looking for some social media marketing topics, below are some social media research paper topics to consider;

Influencer culture and a modified model of mouth-to-mouth marketing
The growth of video marketing on Instagram
Social media managers as an essential part of online marketing
A study on how social media stories are optimized for marketing
An analysis of social media marketing and its impact on customer behavior
An evaluation of target marketing on social media

There are so many topics to choose from in this aspect. Some social issues research paper topics to explore are;

The growth of cyberattacks and cyberstalking in social media
Social media and how it promotes an unrealistic idea of life
Social media and the many impacts it has on users and businesses
Social media detox: Importance of taking scheduled social media breaks
How social media enable conversation on social challenges

Writing a research paper on social issues touches on various areas. Some are challenging, while others are easier to navigate.

Below are some of the easy social issues topics to choose from.

The growing issue of women’s and trans people’s rights
Religious bigotry and how it affects social progress
Sustainable living and why it’s important to the society
The social impact of climate change and global warming

Social science is a broad discipline. If you are looking for social science essay topics, below are some social science topics for research papers to look into;

Consumerism and how it’s perpetrated on social media
How religious beliefs impact social relationships
Inflation and how it affects the economy of a nation
A study of the limited availability of work opportunities for minority groups
A look into the concept of “low wage” jobs

Research writing is not always technical or challenging. Sometimes, it can be fun to write. It all depends on your choice of topic. Below are some topics on social media that are fun to work on;

The importance of social media branding for small businesses
A look into the monetization of Instagram
User engagement and how it can be converted into business leads
The study of emojis and their role in social media engagement
From Instagram to Tiktok: the poaching nature of social media apps

Research writing on social media networking studies social networking and its design and promotion on social media platforms. Some research papers on social media networking are;

The impact of social media networking on business owners
Social media networking and how it impacts influencer culture
Social media and how it’s used to build and develop social relationships
How social media made social networking services easier

Social media research writing is one of the most interesting research to conduct. It cuts across several interesting areas. The writer can handle almost every aspect of the dissertation or thesis statement about social media . But, students who find it challenging should seek professional help. You can reach out to our expert team of writers to help you handle every element of your writing. We have the best on our team who are always ready to give you their best.

54 answers to the most common social media questions

Written by by Natalie O'Grady

Published on April 22, 2024

Reading time 14 minutes

With the social media landscape constantly evolving, there’s always something new to learn for both novice and experienced marketers alike. Naturally, you might have many pressing social media marketing questions you’re embarrassed to ask because they seem like common knowledge. But no social media question is too simple because it can be challenging to catch up, especially in 2024, when changing social media regulations bring something different every day.

In this post, we answer some of the most common and important social media questions. Besides general FAQs, we’ll also tackle platform-specific questions. Let’s get started!

Table of contents:

General social media questions

Instagram faqs, facebook faqs, youtube faqs, linkedin faqs, 1. how many people are on social media.

As of January 2024, a total of 5.04 billion people around the world use social media, putting the worldwide social media penetration rate at 62%.

2. What is the most popular social media platform?

Based on user count alone, Facebook continues to be the most popular social media platform. It had 3 billion monthly active users in Q4 2023.

3. How long does the average person spend on social media per day?

As of 2024, the average social media user spent around 2 hours and 23 minutes per day on social media according to Statista . Interestingly, this is down from 2 hours and 31 minutes the previous year.

Bar graph from Statista showing average number of minutes users spend daily on various social media platforms.

4. What is the fastest-growing social media platform?

While Facebook remains the largest overall platform at three billion users, TikTok has climbed to the fifth largest platform in a short time, with 1.5 billion users. YouTube, WhatsApp and Instagram round out the top five largest platforms.

5. What’s the best time to post on social media?

The best time to post on social media depends on several factors. While your choice of platform and your industry both matter, your audience activity plays the biggest role. You should look at your post performance to get valuable data about the perfect post timing for your business.

You can also use our guide on the best time to post as a starting point before you find what works best for your business and industry.

6. How often should I post on social media?

Again, this largely depends on your audience. While you definitely should publish at least one post every day, you should see if posting more often will make any difference in your performance. Once you find a posting frequency that works for you, create a publishing calendar , and follow it consistently.

Sprout Social publishing calendar in month view featuring content by social media network, message type, tags and campaigns.

7. Which social media platform should I use to promote my business?

Having a presence on all popular platforms can be counterproductive if not executed with a strategy. Instead, focus on the platforms that are highly popular among your target audience. The best platforms to use will vary for each business. Check out our guide on how to choose the best social media channels for your business.

8. How do I get started with social media marketing?

There are a few things you need to begin marketing on social media—a goal, target audience and strategy. Determine what you want to achieve through social media marketing and what types of people you want to attract. Then create a social media strategy to streamline and organize your approach.

9. What kind of content should I post?

This also depends on your industry and what appeals to your target audience, although visuals typically take the cake on social media. Try out some of our social media post ideas and see which ones perform the best to find out what type of content your audience likes.

10. How can I get more followers on social media?

Growing your social media following involves a lot of planning and strategizing as well as posting the right content and targeting the right audience. Use our comprehensive guide on how to grow your social media audience to get started.

11. Can I use social media to build a B2B marketing strategy?

Absolutely. With 53% of consumers saying their social media usage has increased over the last two years, your target audience is active on these platforms more than ever. Sprout’s Social Listening tools provide indepth insights including demographic information such as audience segmentation based on factors like age, gender and location when analyzing social conversations about a specific topic for a more comprehensive grasp of your prospects.

Insights from Sprout’s Listening tool showcasing audience demographics like age and gender.

Leverage our guide to building a customer-centric B2B social media strategy to start planning.

12. How can I use social media data for market research?

Annual market research is critical for keeping your overall marketing strategy ahead of the curve, and social media data is ripe with actionable insights. Uncover useful insights like audience intent, trends your customers are following and how customers are using your products and services. We have a full article on ways to use social media for market research to get you started.

13. What are the best social media metrics to track?

It’s important to track social media metrics that are important to your organization. Vanity metrics like follower growth and audience still tell a part of your overall story, and can be useful to include. You’ll also want to consider customer satisfaction metrics like reply time, total response volume and customer satisfaction scores (CSAT). Awareness is trackable through metrics like reach, and customer retention is spotlighted in reviews and net promotor score (NPS). Find a full list of suggestions in our guide to the best social media metrics to track in 2024.

14. How can I build an effective influencer marketing strategy?

Influencer marketing has evolved greatly over the years; no longer are brands required to shell out major money for sponsorships with celebrities. The type of influencer you need will depend on your brand persona and target audience. You don’t always need macro influencers with millions of followers to make an impact; micro-influencers with niche followers might just be what your brand needs. Here is a complete guide on the key considerations you need to keep in mind to build an effective influencer marketing strategy.

Influencer marketing tools like Tagger are pivotal in optimizing influencer marketing efforts. They help you find the right influencers from thousands of vetted content creators, manage contract negotiations and analyze campaigns in real time so you get prompt performance insights and use them to improve your strategy.

Tagger helps you find the right influencers from thousands of vetted content creators and analyze campaigns in real time so you get prompt performance insights and use them to improve your strategy.

15. What are the best metrics to track for influencer marketing?

Once you’ve got a solid influencer marketing strategy built, hone in on what metrics you need to track, such as post performance and the influencer’s overall account performance. We suggest these 10 best metrics to track for influencer marketing including audience engagement and website traffic.

16. How many active users does Instagram have and can it really help my brand?

Over 2 billion users are active on the platform monthly. Additionally, there are over 200 million business accounts on Instagram. And on average, most Instagram users are between the ages of 18 and 34. Learn more Instagram stats .

Instagram data reveals that 70% of consumers research brands and products on the platform for their next purchase. Instagram is also the most-used platform for influencer marketing and 80.8% of marketers plan to use it to strengthen their influencer marketing strategy in 2024. Instagram Stories has further solidified the network’s status as the primary platform to promote visual content and Instagram Story ads has resulted in more advertisers promoting their products through Instagram Stories than ever before.

There are several apps you can use to enhance your Instagram marketing strategy —apps that can save you time and effort in content creation, scheduling and reporting. Check out a curated list of Instagram apps you’ll need to meet your marketing goals on the platform.

17. How many followers does the average Instagram user have?

The average Instagram personal account has about 150 followers . For public influencer accounts, the number varies widely; an account is considered a micro-influencer with around 1,000 followers.

18. What percentage of Instagram followers sees your post?

While Instagram hasn’t made anything official, many users have noticed that their posts reach only about 7% of their followers. This is because the platform prioritizes posts from accounts you regularly interact with.

19. What is the average age of Instagram users?

On average, most Instagram users are between the ages of 18 and 34. Learn more Instagram demographic stats .

Statista bar graph showing what percentage various age groups make up of Instagram's overall user base.

20. Does Instagram sell your information?

No. According to Instagram’s data policy , the network promises to never sell your information. It does, however, share analytics data about users’ activity and preferences with third-party partners such as advertisers and analytics services.

21. What information does Instagram collect?

Besides your device information, Instagram collects the content, communication and information you provide. This can include metadata about your content such as the location. It also collects information about how you use the platform and the people, accounts and hashtags you interact with. Read the full Instagram data policy to learn more.

22. Can you export Instagram followers?

Yes. While not in the Instagram app itself, several tools such as IGExport and Phantombuster will let you export your Instagram followers into a .csv file.

23. Is there a way to download Instagram posts?

Instagram gives you an option to download a copy of all the posts you’ve shared on the platform. Find out how to do this through the Instagram Help Center . As for posts shared by other people, Instagram won’t let you download them directly but you can use third-party apps like DownloadGram and Ingramer. Check out Instagram’s terms of use for image downloading, reposting and embedding.

24. How do you save someone else’s picture on Instagram?

Click on the “Save” button at the bottom of the post and Instagram will add it to your collection. This isn’t the same as downloading a photo or video. To download a picture, you’ll need to use third-party apps.

Image of comment section of Denny's Instagram page, with a red arrow pointing to the save button.

25. How can I see who saved my pictures on Instagram?

Instagram doesn’t give you the option to see who’s saved your posts, but with an Instagram Business Profile can find out how many times a post has been saved. You can find this information under Post Insights.

26. How do you remove pictures from Instagram?

To remove pictures or videos you’ve posted on Instagram, tap on the “Options” button above your post and then choose “Delete.” You’ll need to tap “Delete” again to confirm that you want to remove the post from Instagram.

27. How do you get your “Top Live” on Instagram?

You could access this “Top Live” section at the top of your “Explore” page before, but Instagram has since removed it. Your curated “Explore” page may show suggested Lives alongside Reels and regular posts.

28. How can I share live video replays?

Choose “Share Video” when you see the option at the bottom of your screen once the broadcast ends. You’ll also get the option to “Download Video” in case you want to save it to your camera roll or “Delete Video” if you don’t want to keep it.

29. How can I see who is live on Instagram?

When someone you follow goes live on Instagram, you’ll see their profile picture at the top of your Feed with a colorful ring around it along with the word “Live.” Tap on the profile picture to start watching their live video.

30. How can I see active users on Instagram?

If users are currently active, you’ll see a green dot next to their profile picture and username. You won’t be able to see this feature if users have turned off their activity status.

31. What is Threads and can I use it for my brand?

Threads is a social platform with a similar structure to Twitter/X that connects directly to Instagram. Users can sign up for Threads via their Instagram account.

Threads can be a piece of your overall social strategy and leveraged in much the same way you use Twitter. One thing to note is that your audience on Threads will likely be identical to your Instagram audience. This offers new ways for your brand to engage with this specific following, reaching them in a different format.

32. How do I get started with Threads?

You can set up a Threads account through your established Instagram account. Download the Threads app from the App Store or Google Play Store and login with your Instagram credentials to get started. The username you use on Instagram will carry over to Threads, and you’ll have the option to customize your profile and bio on the new platform. If you already have the Instagram app downloaded, you can also search “Threads” and tap the ticket icon that appears in the search bar. Read everything you need to know about getting started with Threads.

33. What is Meta Business Suite?

Meta Business Suite is a desktop and mobile app that lets you connect both your Facebook and Instagram accounts in one place. Connect your Facebook and Instagram business pages to Meta Business Suite and dive into scheduling posts, parsing data insights and connecting third party tools like Sprout Social . You can manage Facebook, Instagram, Messenger posts, ads and communications and track their content performance. You can also add and manage an Ad account with Business Manager.

The add an ad account screen in Meta Business Suite

34. What is the Creator Studio for Facebook and Instagram?

Creator Studio is a platform that allows brands and content creators to manage their content, track audience engagement and monetize content on Meta platforms. There are several tools you can use on the platform; we recommend reviewing our full guide to Creator Studio for Facebook and Instagram .

35. What are the best times to post on Facebook?

The short answer is whenever your target audience is most often on the platform. The longer answer is that it varies by industry and day of the week. In general, Monday through Thursday, 8 a.m. to early afternoon are the best times to post, with any time on Sunday being the worst. You can get more specific in our guide to the best times to post on Facebook .

36. How can you schedule Facebook posts?

It’s difficult to imagine running an entire social media strategy without being able to schedule Facebook posts . There are a few ways you can schedule content ahead of time. First, navigate to the main dashboard of the Meta Business Suite. From here, choose the planner tab and then “Create Post.”

You also have two options for scheduling posts in Sprout. The first is by choosing the “Compose” icon, drafting your post and then choosing a time to schedule. The other path is to use Sprout Queue, found in the “Publishing” tab of your Sprout dashboard. This is a great option when you have content you don’t need to go out at a specific time, as you can let the Sprout Queue choose the best option with the Viral Post feature.

Sprout Social's Facebook dashboard with optimal send times that allows you to manage post publishing based on the best engagement rates.

37. How do hashtags work on Facebook for businesses?

Hashtags on Facebook are great for tracking influencer campaigns as well as trending topics. They can be used to categorize conversations your brand is having on the platform. Make sure you avoid spaces between words and all forms of punctuation in the hashtag.

A Facebook page shows search results for #Portland, which includes 3.4 million posts. A post from a florist called Botanica Floral Design is at the top.

TikTok FAQs

38. how many active users does tiktok have.

As of 2024, TikTok has over 1.5 billion monthly active users. This makes it the fifth most popular social media platform in the world.

39. How often should I post on TikTok?

TikTok suggests a best practice of posting one to four times a day, and experimenting with times and types of content. Ultimately, how often you post on TikTok should be guided by your audience and how often you can intentionally create quality content to share.

40. What are the best times to post on TikTok?

The optimum times to post on TikTok are generally Tuesday to Wednesday, in two time blocks: 2 p.m. to 5 p.m. or 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. To get more specific, we have a guide to the best times to post on TikTok broken down by industry.

Based on data from Sprout Social, a data heat map show shows the best times to post on TikTok globally in 2024.

41. How do I get started with ads on TikTok?

TikTok offers a wide variety of ad types, including both video and image. To get started, you’ll need to create an account on TikTok Ads Manager . Once you’re all signed up, dive into our full guide to ads on TikTok for next steps, including how to install the TikTok Pixel on your website.

42. How do I increase my TikTok engagement rate?

The number one approach to increasing your TikTok engagement rate is to focus on quality over quantity.. For example, posting a well-planned and executed video once a week will give you better results than posting subpar content multiple times a week. Also ensure you post at optimal times (see above) and invite your audience to engage in the comments.

43. How can I use TikTok for influencer marketing?

As a video-forward platform, TikTok is a goldmine for brands looking to strengthen their influencer marketing strategy. There are over 100,000 influencers on TikTok in the US alone. Using TikTok in your influencer strategy involves identifying the right influencers, tracking trending hashtags and keeping a pulse on conversations relevant to your brand. Read more in our guide to TikTok for influencer marketing .

44. What are YouTube Shorts and how can I use them to promote my brand?

Consumers love short-form content . If you’re familiar with Instagram’s Reels or TikTok in general, YouTube Shorts will feel similar. These vertical videos tend to be 60 seconds or less, and creators use them as standalone pieces or to share clips of their longer videos. You can use the same approach you would with TikTok, tweaking to speak specifically to your YouTube subscribers.

45. Are marketers using YouTube Stories?

Yes! According to a report, 59% of marketers currently using YouTube plan to increase their usage. This was the largest percentage of any social media platform.

46. How do I promote my videos on YouTube?

YouTube’s Help page offers an in-depth guide on how to promote videos on YouTube. Suggestions include cross-posting, interacting with your audience and using Google Ads for Video.

47. How can I optimize my videos on YouTube?

Search engine optimization (SEO) is key to making sure your videos get in front of your target audience. There are several things to consider—thankfully, we have a guide for YouTube SEO that breaks it down.

48. What are YouTube hashtags and why should I use them?

YouTube hashtags are similar to hashtags on other platforms. They help you categorize your content and help users find your videos. However, on YouTube, hashtags come with a few extra benefits in the SEO realm. Hashtags help YouTube understand the context of your video, and increase the chances of your content getting in front of the right people.

YouTube hashtags help you understand the context of your video

49. How can I use YouTube for influencer marketing?

YouTube is the second most popular platform for influencer marketing, and it’s easy to see why. With options for both short form and long-form videos, brands can work with influencers to tell visual, engaging stories in multiple ways. Use our YouTube influencer marketing guide to build your strategy.

50. How many members does LinkedIn have around the world?

Globally, LinkedIn membership exceeds 900 million in 200 countries and regions.

51. How can I create an effective LinkedIn Business Page?

Creating an effective LinkedIn Business Page comes down to building and managing it like a true marketing asset. There are many different sections, sub pages and approaches that allow you to be creative and explore new ways to connect with your target audience.

52. Are LinkedIn Ads worth the hype?

Linked Ads can bring a high return on investment. LinkedIn is rated the number one platform for B2B lead generation, and brands have seen a 33% increase in purchase intent from ad exposure on LinkedIn. Marketers say they see two times higher conversion rate on LinkedIn.

53. How do LinkedIn hashtags work?

LinkedIn hashtags are keywords and phrases that help bring your content to your target audience.. You can add them to your posts and on your business and personal pages. Unlike other platforms, LinkedIn heavily encourages using multiple hashtags, including a space where you can select up to three relevant hashtags for your business page.

A search bar at the top of the LinkedIn page shows “#cybersecurity.” Below on the left, there are options to sort search results, like “people” and “products.” In the center is a post from a LinkedIn user that includes the cybersecurity hashtag.

54. What are the most important LinkedIn metrics to track?

Ultimately, your brand may have specific metrics you want to track, even if these don’t appear on common “most important” lists. However, we recommend focusing on data in the visitors, followers and engagement spaces. These LinkedIn metrics will give you a solid look at how your content is performing and who is coming to your page.

Bonus Question

Did we answer most of your social media questions?

Let us know if you have any other pressing questions about social media or platform FAQs that you’d like us to answer. We understand that things change quickly and you need answers just as fast. Be sure to check out our social media stats to understand the landscape better across all social platforms.

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The use of social media and its impact for research

Social media is an omnipresent part of everyday life. It provides users with an easy way to engage and connect with others without meeting face-to-face. This form of communication provides a lot of opportunity for companies and individuals to reach a massive audience. What is the purpose of social media, and how does it tie into science? Well, you see, it all depends on who you know and how active your social media presence is. Is there a benefit for sharing research across social media? The benefits of social media stem from active participation and the generation of new attractive content from an individual. Research is about producing new information, and social media offers unique opportunities to present new content.

Full Article

The Use of Social Media and its Impact for Research

Jessica Rogers

Keywords: Social media; Research; Engagement

Contact information: BioResources Process Editor, Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 8005, Raleigh, NC 27606, USA; e-mail: [email protected]

What is Social Media?

In today’s world social media is an ever-present facet of life that surrounds us. Almost every advertisement, whether television, radio, magazine, movie preview, podcast, newspaper, or elsewhere, will mention its social media presence in some way. ‘You can like us on Facebook, Check us out on Instagram,’ or perhaps ‘Watch our channel on YouTube’, are just some of the hooks that companies will provide to further build their brand and increase their visibility. As of January 2019, there were around 7.7 billion people in the world, of which 3.397 billion were active social media users (Smith 2019). Moreover, there are almost one million new users to some form of social media each day, or a new user every 10 seconds; 300 hours of video are uploaded to YouTube alone every minute (Smith 2019). To summarize, if you have found yourself boycotting the idea of social media, I hate to break it to you but it is here to stay.

The Underlying Purpose of Social Media

For those who do not know, a key theme of social media is ‘engagement’. Have you ever reached out to a company on their social media for any reason? The different social media outlets are simply interactive pathways on the internet that companies and businesses use to form relationships and network with others without leaving one’s desk. As a scientist, it is essential to attend conferences, give lectures, and lead panel discussions to network with others about common science interests. Today, there are an endless amount of resources accessible on the internet at your fingertips that allow you to do the same thing. Twitter first surfaced as a news and social networking site in which users post content and interact with each other through messages called ‘tweets’. The use of hashtags (a type of metadata tag) across all social media platforms allows people to search for certain interests and see all content related to that particular hashtag. This is a quick way to find and engage with people through common interests. Of course, you should still actively participate in your community by attending conventions and conferences, but if you truly seek to engage with more people, then you should not simply ignore the outlet of social media until you try it, as it can connect you with an even larger audience. Think of it this way, your lecture or discussion is most likely already being recorded, so what will you do with that recording?

Social media has a clear and direct purpose for businesses that sell a product or service and are searching for ways to advertise their brand. Of course, there other ways to use social media. Most people use social media to be, well, social, and communicate with family, former colleagues, or keep in touch with old classmates. The idea of a technological way of staying in touch with people is how Facebook was created. Facebook adds 500,000 new accounts each day, which equates to 6 new profiles every second (Smith 2019). So who exactly is in your friends list on Facebook? Who is subscribing to your channel on YouTube? Who is retweeting your tweets? If you want to broaden your impact beyond your discipline, you need to have a strong base of connections in your network.

The average person has 5.54 social media accounts (Smith 2019). Of those accounts, whatever one’s goal is, is it being projected across multiple platforms? Exactly who is engaged? These are all important questions that deal with your potential reach as an individual. The bottom line is if you seek community engagement in what you are doing, you must first be active in that particular community.

Social Media and Research

Now let us change course and focus on a different path of social media, that is where scientists use it to promote their research. The same rule applies. While all social media outlets have the potential for massive reach, it all comes back to a matter of whom you connect with or engage. However, the fast-paced and live aspect of social media can drive skeptical researchers not to publish, but successful reactions and quick responses can increase a researcher’s credibility. Research is about producing new information, and social media offers unique opportunities to present new content.

As a scientist, once you publish your research, you want to share it with as many colleagues and people so that they may read your novel findings. You want to share your hard work with many individuals. Almost all researchers send an email to their colleagues and individuals within their institution, which essentially is the first step in promoting their work. What if you took that one-step further and reached out to the scientific community on social media? You probably already have some form of a social media account and possibly one that relates to the scientific community; ResearchGate is a popular academic social media outlet. ResearchGate is a website that provides scientists with a forum to share and discuss their research as well as find collaborators. If you share your research on your personal account, then the only people that will see it are those whom you connect with. However, if you were active on different community or special interest pages that relate to your area of study and participate in regular discussions with other researchers on these sites, then you may find yourself having a much wider reach. Again, it all stems back to what you wish to accomplish with your research.

What Does that Mean for you?

Before getting started, you must ask yourself what exactly you want to gain from social media. If an increased reach is primarily what you seek, then you must be active in multiple communities related to your specialty. You already stay current on industry news and new research on your own, which is what others may be doing when they discover your research. However, if engagement and stimulated discussions are what you seek, then your active presence is required. Participating and driving discussions and posting content is what ultimately increases your visibility. Sharing and reposting others’ work, and being an active member on social media brings more attention to your profile and can enhance your reputation. A good place to start is with the professional social networking site LinkedIn that allows you to make connections with people based on job interests.

You can always go the old fashioned, tried and true route and send an email about your research, but how many new people reach out to you regarding your work? Maybe next time, try posting your research on a couple of industry pages, tag a few people in the community, and see if you make any new connections or spark any intriguing conversations. Because social media allows you to interact instantly with people across the globe, you may be surprised at who or how many people engage with you.

References Cited

Jaring, P., and Bäck, A. (2017). “How researchers use social media to promote their research and network with industry,” Technology Information Management Review 7(8), 32-39. DOI: 10.22215/timreview/1098

Smith, K. (2019). “123 Amazing social media statistics and facts,” brandwatch , (https://www.brandwatch.com/blog/amazing-social-media-statistics-and-facts/), Accessed 26 March 2019.

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Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019

Thomas aichner.

1 Department of Business Administration, John Cabot University, Rome, Italy.

Matthias Grünfelder

2 Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria.

Oswin Maurer

3 Faculty of Economics and Management, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen-Bolzano, Italy.

Deni Jegeni

In this article, the authors present the results from a structured review of the literature, identifying and analyzing the most quoted and dominant definitions of social media (SM) and alternative terms that were used between 1994 and 2019 to identify their major applications. Similarities and differences in the definitions are highlighted to provide guidelines for researchers and managers who use results from previous research to further study SM or to find practical applications. In other words, when reading an article about SM, it is essential to understand how the researchers defined SM and how results from articles that use different definitions can be compared. This article is intended to act as a guideline for readers of those articles.

Introduction

The term “social media” (SM) was first used in 1994 on a Tokyo online media environment, called Matisse. 1 It was in these early days of the commercial Internet that the first SM platforms were developed and launched. Over time, both the number of SM platforms and the number of active SM users have increased significantly, making it one of the most important applications of the Internet.

With a similarly fast pace, businesses have moved their marketing interests toward SM platforms. The presence of both businesses and users on SM has further led to a shift in how companies interact with their customers, who are additionally no longer limited to a passive role in their relationship with a company. 2 Customers give feedback, ask questions, and expect quick and customized answers to their specific problems. In addition, customers post text, pictures, and videos. Managers came to the understanding that the brand transition to SM ultimately involves a re-casting of the customer relationship, where the customer has become an ally or an enemy, not an audience. 3

In research, SM is generally used as an umbrella term that describes a variety of online platforms, including blogs, business networks, collaborative projects, enterprise social networks (SN), forums, microblogs, photo sharing, products review, social bookmarking, social gaming, SN, video sharing, and virtual worlds. 4 Given this broad spectrum of SM platforms, the applications of SM are quite diverse and not limited to sharing holiday snapshots or advertising and promotion.

As of January 2020, there are more than 110,000 publications that have the term “social media” in their title. Over the past 25 years in which these works were published, countless researchers have formulated quite varying definitions of SM—sometimes using alternative terms. In this period, the perceptions and understanding of what SM is, what it includes, and what it represents have also varied considerably. This can make it difficult for both researchers and companies to interpret and apply research findings; for example , when referring to SM in general, rather than referring to a specific type of SM, such as SN. It can be problematic to quote previous research that was carried out exclusively on one SM platform as being generalizable to SM, or to refer to results from research that defined SM as being more or less inclusive in terms of which platforms qualify as SM and which do not.

Major Applications of SM

This section serves as the background of SM functions, rather than how the definition has changed. It provides a general, although not comprehensive, overview of some of the most important applications of SM over the past two and a half decades. This is important, as it highlights that SM cover a broad variety of scopes with specific functions and applications that can differ greatly between the different types of SM. Consequently, also the purpose and the users' perceived value of using SM varies. From a research perspective, this section serves as a foundation for classifying and discussing the SM definitions that are presented in the following chapters.

Socializing with friends and family

Although not all SM platforms are specifically designed to facilitate socialization between its users, it may be considered one of the most apparent commonalities of all types of SM. 4 Sometimes referred to as online communities, these SM platforms are valuable given that people often do not perceive a difference between virtual friends and real friends, as long as they feel supported and belong to a community of like-minded individuals. 5 The SM helps to strengthen relationships through the sharing of important life events in the form of status updates, photos, etc., reinforcing at the same time their in-person encounters as well. 6

The SM has also become a common tool for communication in families. A study conducted by Sponcil and Gitimu 7 showed that for 91.7 percent of students the main reason for using SM is communicating with family and friends. In addition, 50 percent of the students communicated with their family and friends every day, and another 40 percent at least a few days a week. Williams and Merten 8 suggest that by using SM in everyday life, people strengthen the relationships with family. Especially in relation to globalization and constant migration, it has become a vital tool for maintaining contact within migrant families. The need for transnational communication between family members and the people they left behind is of great importance. 9

Romance and flirting

Several studies suggest that SM significantly influences the romantic aspects of life. Aside from facilitating human interaction, communication technologies are also shaping and defining our relationships. 10 It has been shown that SM is important in the starting phases of a relationship and has a significant influence on the relationship of many couples in the long run. 11 The SM can help when starting a romantic relationship, for example , contacting a crush through SM can have special benefits for introverts, who otherwise would avoid face-to-face contact and would otherwise communicate less. 7 Moreover, in some cases, online dating is preferable to live dating, as it gives the same feeling and allows users to avoid unnecessary discomforts. 11 Finally, rejection on SM is less painful compared with face-to-face rejection. 10 Further, users can contemplate their responses and do not have to worry about their physical appearance while conversing/chatting online, making it a less stressful environment to flirt with people on SM than face-to-face conversations. 12

Interacting with companies and brands

It is estimated that close to 100 percent of larger companies (both B2C and B2B) are using some sort of SM platform to inform their customers, gather information, receive feedback, provide after-sales service or consultancy, and promote their products or services. The key characteristic that makes SM so relevant for companies is the fact that SM allows for two-way communication between the brand and the customer. 13 Sometimes referred to as “social customer relationship management,” 14 SM can be viewed as an effective tool used to get closer to the customer. However, some studies suggest that what customers seek is somewhat different from what companies offer through SM. 14 Customers are mainly interested in communicating easily and quickly with the company. From a business perspective, the company wants to make sure customers receive the right information in a timely manner, linking the customer closer to the brand and, simultaneously, controlling the flow of information. Successful SM managers understand how an SM platform works and is used by its customers, and they then develop corporate communication tools that fit the behavior of their users. Many researchers highlight the need for customer relationship management to adapt to the rise of SM 2 to efficiently manage relationships with modern, connected, and empowered customers.

Job seeking and professional networking

Another application of SM is to connect job seekers with employers. The vast majority of Fortune 500 companies use LinkedIn for talent acquisition. 15 With more than 660 million users in 2020, it is an important tool for companies searching to expand their talent pool. This pool of individuals is extended, as the nature of SM also allows recruiters to identify and target, apart from active users, talented candidates who are passive or semi-passive and lure them to prospective job positions. 16 In fact, through SM platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter, recruiters can post job advertisements to lure potential applicants who are not actively looking for a job. 17 Rather than the costly and time-consuming traditional ways of staffing with interviews and tests, hiring through SM offers recruiters the benefit of free access to prospects' profiles and an instant means of communication. For users, LinkedIn profiles allow them to create an idealized portrait by displaying their skills to recruiters and peers. 18 Indeed, LinkedIn asks members to highlight their relevant skills, promoting their abilities and strengths, urging them to complete their profiles through getting recommendations and praise from peers/colleagues and clients for their performance or skills. 19

Doing business

The SM has a considerable impact on how companies approach clients and vice versa. In addition, SM utilizing SM as a means of understanding and informing customers has become imperative for businesses to remain competitive. The SM providers have created possibilities for companies to improve their internal operations and communicate in new ways with customers, other businesses, and suppliers. 20 At the same time, companies can actively engage customers, encouraging them to become advocates of their brands. 2 This is certainly important, as users can create online customer communities, which potentially add value to the brand beyond just increased sales. 20 The engagement of customers can be beneficial, as they will frequently interact with the brand and share positive word-of-mouth since they have become more emotionally attached to the brand. 21 This electronic word-of-mouth created in SM communities helps consumers in their purchasing decisions. 22 This suggestion is important given that customers are actually more interested in other users' recommendations and word-of-mouth rather than the vendor-created product information. 23

Research questions

Reviewing the existent literature about SM applications inevitably leads to the question of whether the researchers had the same definition in mind when talking about SM, SN, online communities, and the like. It is also apparent that the focus of the researcher's interest has changed over time, and that the time when the research was conducted could have an impact on how the findings should be interpreted. Therefore, the remainder of this article aims at answering the following research questions (RQ):

RQ1: How has the definition of social media changed from 1994 to 2019? RQ2: What are the differences and commonalities in social media definitions from 1994 to 2019?

To answer the two RQ, we decided to conduct a systematic literature review (SLR). Using a multi-step SLR approach as recommended by Tranfield et al. 24 ( Fig. 1 ), we structurally examined the literature between 1994 and 2019 to find all relevant SM definitions to identify the major differences and commonalities.

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Structure and process of the systematic literature review.

After identifying 88 potential papers, all the articles were read to find original definitions for SM or related terms. In addition, we used backward and forward snowballing, two methods frequently employed in academic research to find additional relevant sources based on the references used in the original publication (backward snowballing) and searched papers that cited the article (forward snowballing), respectively. 25 In combination with the SLR, the backward snowballing led to the identification of a total number of 21 original definitions, including some definitions that were published in books and conference proceedings, which were not included in the SLR.

In this chapter, we present all major definitions of SM (and synonymous terms) that were formulated from 1994 to 2019 ( Table 1 ). Table 1 further includes details about the source and the number of citations according to Google Scholar as of August 2020.

Social Media Definitions with Author Names, Source, and the Number of Citations As of August 2020

Before we assess the meaning and compare the definitions in terms of the two RQ, a few quantitative results are provided. Analyzing the 21 definitions, we found a lexical density (i.e., the percentage of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs) of 57.5 percent. The most frequently used word with 23 occurrences is “social,” followed by “people” with 12 occurrences, and “virtual,” “content,” “user,” and “network” with 8 occurrences each. In terms of two-word phrases, “social network[s]” (8 occurrences) is followed by “social media” and “social networking” (5 occurrences each), as well as “virtual communities” (VC) (4 occurrences).

Notably, the first formal definition is from 1996 and uses “computer-supported social networks” or “CSSNs,” although the term “SM” was coined about 2 years earlier. Later, researchers used different terms such as “virtual communities,” “social networks,” “social networking services,” “online social network,” “social networking sites,” “social network sites,” and “social media.” Although there are small variations in these terms, they can be classified into three categories: VC, SN, and SM. It is important to mention that all these definitions describe the same concept, but with different terms. Assessing the SM definitions that resulted from the SLR reveals that from 1997 to 2002, VC was the dominant term. In contrast, SN was used over a longer period, but it was dominant from 2005 to 2009. It was only in 2010 that researchers started using predominantly SM. But how did the definitions—independent from their terminology—change?

Throughout the observed period, the role of SM, as an enabler for human interaction as well as an avenue to connect with other users, has been a constant in defining SM. In early definitions, the focus was mainly on people and how people interact, whereas later definitions (after 2010) have largely substituted the term “people” with “user” and placed more focus on generating and sharing content. This changed focus, with regard to both the application of SM and the terminology of people versus user, may also reflect the increasingly important role of anonymity in SM. 47

The role of user-generated content is not reflected in early definitions, whereas it has become a central part of recent definitions. It was Kaplan and Haenlein 38 who first mentioned “creation,” whereas later definitions use terms such as “user-supplied content” and “user-driven platforms” in addition to “user-generated content,” which is the common term used in research and practice today.

Another notable change is that until 2009, several researchers included the common interests that linked people with each other, whereas this link is completely missing in post-2010 definitions. Again, this may be reflected by the fact that in the early days, SM users were mostly close or loosely related friends communicating with each other, whereas in recent years, SM has evolved to a set of media that are also used as a powerful tool by companies, celebrities, and influencers to reach the masses. 48

Finally, although sharing information and content is generally not the central aspect in defining SM, the terminology has changed over time. Until 2010, researchers used “exchange” or “upload,” which were substituted with the term “share” in subsequent years. The underlying meaning, however, remained the same.

Conclusions

About 60,000 articles have cited the SM definitions summarized in this article. Therefore, the value this research provides goes beyond a simple overview of the definitions and major applications of SM in the 25 years, since the term was originally coined. The result is a timeline of SM definitions that helps researchers and practitioners to quickly put the results of previous research in perspective and to avoid time-consuming research of the single definitions in different papers. Why is this necessary? This is because, based on the definition, the results may need to be interpreted in a more or less different way.

One notable result is that, although SM is one of the main research areas in social sciences (and beyond) and its landscape has been changing quickly, only a handful of scholars have made an effort to develop a definition of SM. Although some elements, for example , the fact that SM connects people, are common, the definitions are rather different from each other. The commonalities and differences highlighted in the previous section allow for the division of the definitions into two main streams: those published before 2010 and after 2010. Before 2010, SM was commonly approached as a tool of connectivity for people with common interests. After 2010, the focus changed to creating and sharing user-generated content.

These results are in line with previous research about the evolution of SM literature, which concluded that SM definitions changed over time, namely from platforms for socializing in the past to tools for information aggregation. 45 Similarly, Kapoor et al. 45 found that there was an evolution in SM definitions and a cut in the early 2010. Our research shows that there is no single or commonly accepted definition, but that several definitions have been co-existing and found broad acceptance in literature.

Future SM researchers can use these findings to better compare SM articles and avoid flaws in their theory or methodological design. Especially when comparing the results of empirical studies, it may be critical to consider both when the study was conducted and which SM definition was used as a basis for hypothesis development and data analysis. In addition, this article gives SM researchers the possibility to make an informed choice of which SM definition to use for their studies.

Given the method employed to identify the SM definitions, we are confident that this is the most comprehensive overview that includes all major publications. However, the results may be limited by the original search terms used to identify the papers to be included in the SLR. Although the use of backward snowballing should have helped in minimizing this risk, there may still be some less explicit definitions of SM that were not included in this article. In addition, non-English articles and other gray literature were not considered, which is common criticism in academic research. Future research could also try to identify the differences in how SM is defined by researchers from different scientific backgrounds, for example , marketing versus medicine versus psychology versus anthropology versus engineering versus information technology. It would also be insightful to see whether there are tendencies of certain researchers, for example , from engineering, to base their research on specific definitions rather than on others. For example, if one definition is dominant in engineering but not in medical research, this would imply that interdisciplinary research about SM applications needs to be compared more carefully, as the basic definition differs. Similarly, it would be interesting to link the use of SM definitions to the cultural or national context of where the research was carried out, for example , to identify whether European versus American versus Asian researchers have a generally different understanding of SM and its applications. These possible cultural differences in the definition or selection of an SM definition as a basis for research could be linked to the fact that in different countries and cultural clusters different SM platforms are more or less popular. 49 Overall, our research will help compare findings from SM literature more easily and avoid misinterpretations of past and future research.

Author Disclosure Statement

No competing financial interests exist.

Funding Information

This work was supported by the Open Access Publishing Fund of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Young users of social media: an analysis from a gender perspective.

1 Blanquerna School of Communication and International Relations, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain
2 Faculty of Education and Sport, University of Deusto, Donostia, Spain
3 Faculty of Education and Sport, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain
4 CESAG, Comillas Pontifical University, Mallorca, Spain

One of the major challenges for edu-communication research is to analyze the influence of social media on young and adolescent users. This article examines the evaluation of gender inequalities – real and symbolic – in the consumption of social networks such as YouTube and Instagram among young people. Within the framework of a Research & Development & innovation (R&D + i ) project, it presents a discursive-theoretical analysis of how young users of social media perceive the presence and representation of gender on social media and whether such digital representations can be associated with an empowering gender perspective. This study presents results from 14 focus groups ( N = 83), composed of students aged 12 to 18, drawn from three Spanish Autonomous Communities (Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the Basque Country). The results show that gender issues arise in participants’ conversations, especially among female participants, who perceive the importance of physical appearance on platforms such as Instagram and TikTok. Female participants feel more pressure in terms of appearance and dress compared to male participants. Among male participants there are more expressions of self-affirmation and more mentions related to fun and social prestige. Both male and female participants express concern about the impact of that pressure on younger girls. The influence of social media on self-image is more evident among female participants, who make frequent mention of the importance of self-esteem in relation to beauty standards and exposure to idealized body images. Notably, there were no comments by male participants that acknowledge any influence of social media on their self-image. The findings are in line with existing research and taken as a whole gives rise to concern as to the gender disparities observed in the use of social media, which do not constitute a picture of female empowerment. This research underlines the importance of promoting a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality within digital spaces. Thus, this study provides support for the need to develop and implement edu-communicative initiatives to foster critical thinking around the influence of social media in this context and the evaluation of the impact of such initiatives in future research.

1 Introduction

One of the major challenges for research in edu-communication – a term used in the field of Communication ( Orozco, 1997 , 2010 ; Kaplún, 2013 ) and which UNESCO defined in 2002 as teaching and critical learning about the media – and its dissemination to the wider community is to analyze the influence of social media on young users. Prior research has indicated the significant impact of social media on identity development ( Ahn, 2011 ; Valkenburg and Peter, 2011 ; boyd, 2014 ; Baym, 2018 ; van Eldik et al., 2019 ). Social media such as YouTube and Instagram are considered privileged spaces for the construction and (self-)representation of youth identity ( Cover, 2012 ; Thumim and Enli, 2012 ; boyd, 2014 ), and allow for parasocial relationships with influencers ( Rihl and Wegenerpp, 2017 ; Ferchaud et al., 2018 ; Rasmussen, 2018 ), who may act as role models ( Westenberg, 2016 ). As studies in Spain and internationally show, adolescents are now heavy users of social media use, especially YouTube and Instagram ( Ríos Hernández et al., 2022 ; IAB, 2023 ). Here, however, we are concerned with the extent to which this scenario of hyperconnectivity favors or impedes the (co-)responsibility of the new generations for gender equality in the digital media space, as new moral subjects – active audiences ( Ruiz, 2015 ). That responsibility is linked to the concept of participation that we take up here from the perspective of the complexity and ambivalences that its practice requires ( Jenkins and Carpentier, 2013 ), so as to overcome the magical or cosmetic roles often assigned to that have often been attributed to the participatory activity of audiences ( Bergillos, 2019 ).

As is well known, digital platforms are part of the societal and media discourse that constitutes and shapes collective imaginaries, including representations of gender. Since the 1970s, the incorporation of gender into research approaches has highlighted stereotypical representations of men and women ( Bernárdez, 2015 ) that lead people to internalize inequality in ways that even today continue to hinder the development of fairer societies.

Progress toward equality and women’s empowerment has been marked by a number of milestones on a global scale, such as the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. Within the European Union there has been progress at a political level such as the Charter of Fundamental Rights, the creation of the European Institute for Gender Equality and the issue of the Gender Equality Strategy by the European Commission ( García-Ruiz et al., 2014 ). In fact, gender equality and empowering all women and girls is one of the UN’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals and is integral to every facet of inclusive, sustainable development. As stated by UN Women (2023) , there is an urgent need to identify and eliminate all forms of discrimination against women and girls, in both the public and the private sphere. In Spain, it is a cause for concern that the progress made in bridging the gender gap since 2006 ( IME, 2023 ) will come under threat between 2021 and 2023 ( Statista, 2023 ), at the same time as the country is seeing growing anti-feminism and denial of gender violence among adolescent males ( Boneta-Sádaba et al., 2023 ).

In the digital space, the rise in hate speech aimed at feminist principles or directly against women, has been noted, as shown by different assessments of the internet and social media ( EIU, 2021 ; Tortajada and Vera, 2021 ). Several studies show how users of social media tend to coalesce around highly polarized positions driven by partisan differences in the framing of discourse ( Demszky et al., 2019 ). As Diepeveen (2024 , p. 5) points out, “over the past ten years, online spaces with content that rejects feminism and gender equality and promotes male supremacy – sometimes termed the “manosphere” ( Marwick and Caplan, 2018 ; Kimeu, 2023 ) have become increasingly prevalent.” Some authors ( Medina and Talarn, 2020 , pp. 494–495) observe the spread of a neo-liberal feminism among young men and women, “the belief that the acceptance of rigid patterns of an idealized femininity is, in fact, an exercise of free and determined will.” Among the risks of social media consumption among young people, the impact of esthetic standards from the world of fashion and the persistence of stereotyped roles are highlighted ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ). Nevertheless, there are other more encouraging developments. The notoriety of popular feminism ( Banet-Weiser, 2018 ) seems to have influenced the digital imaginary around the construction of gender, giving rise to more diverse and inclusive representations that partially invalidate postfeminist theses ( Caballero-Gálvez et al., 2017 ; Keller and Ryan, 2018 ). The opportunities that the consumption of digital sources can offer compared to the use of other media are said to include less divergence in the roles assigned to males and females ( Feijoo and García-González, 2017 ). In Spain, according to the Youth Report ( Injuve, 2021 ), young people have an interest in gender inequality, very possibly in consequence of having been socialized in an environment in which the most actively advocated social issues were associated with feminism ( Peña-Fernández et al., 2023 ).

In order to understand the evidence on whether, how and to what extent social media affect gender norms among adolescents, in 2023 the ODI ( Diepeveen, 2024 ) conducted a targeted review of empirical studies published since 2015, focusing on publications in English, Spanish, French and German on adolescent boys. Included in the review were 51 studies on social media platforms with public-facing content, such as Instagram and YouTube. The evidence was diverse. As Diepeveen (2024) summarizes, many of the quantitative studies explored correlations and tended to assume that the direction of influence went from social media platforms to gender norms and attitudes, rather than vice versa or in both directions. Qualitative studies provided a useful corrective, revealing the many ways in which adolescents use social media and select and produce online content in function of their pre-existing interests and attitudes.

Our article provides qualitative research that captures the subtle and sometimes contradictory comments of adolescents themselves about what they perceive social media to be and, in turn, what it is that social media entrench or undermine.

For all these reasons, it appears to us appropriate to address the discourse of adolescents from a gender perspective, in order to determine whether they take gender differences into account in their assessments of social media such as YouTube and Instagram and whether they make any link between those differences and forms of power and discrimination ( EIGE, 2023 ). The gender perspective is (or should be) understood, consequently, as a consubstantial element of the (trans)media education or literacy of digital generations, in line with the understanding of those terms and the importance attributed to them by various authors ( García-Ruiz and Pérez-Escoda, 2019 ; Balladares-Burgos and Jaramillo-Baquerizo, 2022 ) and international organizations and initiatives such as Unesco, the Agenda 2030 action plan and Unicef. Spaces for reflection, debate and content creation from a feminist perspective can be created for young girls and adolescent women and their male peers through such media empowerment ( Tornay-Marquez, 2019 ).

2 Gender perspective and transmedia education

Despite the theoretical nuances between their conceptual frameworks, edu-communication and transmedia education or transmedia literacy can be understood as convergent approaches from the perspectives of education and communication, respectively, to the growing interrelation between media, communication and education in different stages of the lives of children, adolescents and young adults. Both theoretical frameworks aim to encourage and facilitate critical reflection and empowerment of users of media, information, and communication technology.

The concept of media literacy has been approached from different perspectives and has evolved as digital and virtual technology has developed. As Ríos Hernández et al. (2022) point out, in today’s digital ecosystem audiences have a more active role, generating a relationship of dialog between different media and their users. Thus, Scolari (2018) posits the term transmedia literacy to reflect contemporary reality: such literacy consists not only in critical analysis of content, but also in treating consumers of media as active subjects in the digital world, with increasingly sophisticated interpretative and creative skills.

In relation to the media literacy of young people, we are in agreement with theoretical stances that reject simplistic solutions or hypodermic’ processes ( Bragg et al., 2011 ). Zimmerman (2000) expands this holistic approach by emphasizing the positive aspects of human behavior (including identification and capacity building) that accompany “the analysis of the influence of the environment rather than blaming the victims” ( Silva and Martínez, 2004 , p. 2).

Several formulations have been proposed of the competencies and indicators that make up (trans)media literacy. For example, the dimensions of media competence put forward by Ferrés and Piscitelli (2012) : language, technology, processes of interaction, processes of production and dissemination, ideology, and values and esthetics. Similarly, Scolari (2018) posits the following transmedia competencies: production, management, performative, media and technology, narrative and esthetics, risk prevention, and ideologies and ethics.

Our principal interest resides in the competencies that can be seen as making up a journey, since such a journey can bring together the notion of transmedia education – alert to new technological and social realities – with empowerment as a process ( Montero, 2003 ). That is so not only because it is a non-linear model of change ( Kabeer, 1999 ), but also because it is in itself a double process: individual, as the acquisition of greater autonomy, and collective, “with the aim of achieving a fair and egalitarian society, especially in terms of relations between men and women” ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 6).

Making a link between media literacy and the concept of empowerment raises the issue of the role of men’s and women’s involvement and participation in the digital environment. In academic works, different studies ( Tufecki, 2017 ; Dussel et al., 2021 ) discuss the contradictions of the new conditions of popular participation in the digital world. While some authors observe that more gender differences have been found in the offline world, in the “real” life of young people ( Renau et al., 2012 ), others continue to focus on the risks presented by beauty standards and the persistence of stereotypical female roles ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ; Santos et al., 2022 ) and stereotypical gender roles in general ( Ringrose et al., 2013 ; Van Oosten et al., 2017 ). In other words, there may be inequalities in media access and representation that reflect differences in digital participation. We want to determine whether any such inequalities are found among adolescents and young adults: a particularly important stage in the journey of edu-communication and transmedia literacy development.

Previous studies on social media and young people point out that, beyond the interests of each individual, the self-perception of the skills and competencies needed to manage cyberspace is different between males and females, with males more positive ( Siddiq and Scherer, 2019 ; Estanyol et al., 2023 ). However, there are also studies that point to the influence of sexist stereotypes that can sentence one of the genders to a position of inequality in the “onlife reality”, a term used by Floridi (2015 , p. 1) to refer to a hyperconnected reality in which online and offline realities are in practice inseparable [cited by Serrate-González et al. (2023) ].

Specifically, we are interested in the perceptions conveyed by male and female participants of their experience on YouTube and Instagram around gender identity in the representations and discourses in these media. To that end, our research questions can be summarized as two questions:

RQ 1. How do young users of social media such as YouTube and Instagram of either sex see the presence and representation of gender on social media?

RQ 2. Is it possible to say that the way they see gender on social media is empowering for them?

3 Materials and methods

3.1 participants.

An exploratory qualitative study was carried out using focus groups (FG) with adolescents aged 12 to 18 in the Autonomous Communities of Catalonia, the Basque Country and the Balearic Islands in Spain according to a criterion of convenience, in light of the location of the three universities participating in the project. The selection of the sample responds to age criteria, to cover the three stages of adolescence ( UNICEF, 2024 ): early or initial adolescence (10–13 years), middle adolescence (14–16) and late or post-adolescence (17 up to as late as 21 years of age), in three geographic areas, and to a criterion of convenience in the selection of the three Autonomous Communities, corresponding in which the three participating universities are located (anonymized). The sample was selected with the help of the educational settings that had participated in a previous questionnaire ( Aran-Ramspott et al., 2022 ) using two filter criteria:

• age of the participants: three categories according to stage of education, first year of Compulsory Secondary Education (approximately 12 years of age); fourth year of Compulsory Secondary Education (15–16 years old) and first year university students (18–20 years old) following Communication and Education courses most closely related to Media literacy at each of the three participating universities.

• gender balance.

Finally, in late 2021 and early 2022, 14 FGs were held, involving a total of to 76 students (37 male, 39 female): five FGs of first year of Compulsory Secondary Education, five FGs of fourth year of Compulsory Secondary Education and four FGs of first year university students.

3.1.1 Procedure

The focus groups were designed with semi-structured prepared questions and topics and were conducted and audio-recorded in the settings with the consent of the parents or guardians of participants under 18 and of the students themselves. The open-ended script is based on the prior literature review ( Buckingham, 2008 ; Ferrés and Piscitelli, 2012 ; boyd, 2014 ; Gill, 2017 ; Aran-Ramspott et al., 2018 , 2022 ; Scolari, 2018 ), the method ( Barbour, 2007 ) and the objectives of the study. The script, which was intended to be flexible as this was an exploratory analysis, initially canvassed general categories related to the participants’ views of social media, their preferences and motives for consuming social media; types of functions and uses made; characteristics of preferred YouTubers and Instagrammers; and specifically, toward the participants’ identification and perception of (trans)media competencies in Ideology and Ethics [ Aran-Ramspott et al., 2024 ; based mainly on Ferrés and Piscitelli (2012) and Scolari (2018) ]. These competencies can be summarized as the ability to detect and critically analyze representations of stereotypes related to gender, or sexual and gender orientation, among other things, and the ethical and social implications related to processes of emotional identification, manipulation or invisibility of certain groups, including women. Gill (2017) particularly allows us to review notions seen in contemporary culture as “postfeminism” which currently operates as a kind of gender neoliberalism (“cultivation of the “right” dispositions to survive in neoliberal society: confidence, resilience and self-confidence”).

The open-ended script design facilitated the coding of categories; new categories emerged from participants’ comments. First, the literal comments (in sentences or phrases) related to the priority dimensions of the script were independently analyzed by each researcher. Second, they were cross-checked within the team to refine and validate the coding in successive sessions ( Bryman, 2012 ), taking into account their nature and importance, and in light of their frequency, occurrence and repetition. In order to gather data on participants’ gender perspectives, the relevant interventions were taken to be those in which an informant reflected their personal gender perspective in the discourse in relation to social media. We analyzed co-occurrence with the type of social media, content, reasons for use, references to influencers, (trans)media competence and characteristics of the remarks by age and gender (in function of how each participant introduced themselves). The location variable proved not to be significant in the focus groups. Coding shows the FG number _age_gender (F: Female/M: Male, the numbers show order of intervention where there is more than one participant of a given gender).

The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of University Ramón LLull University, Barcelona, which confirmed that participation was voluntary and anonymous, the confidentiality of the participants’ data, the collection of permissions and informed consents. This research was overseen and monitored by the public body that financed the research project.

The most relevant results directly related to the research questions for the study are presented below. First, we show distribution by gender and age of the total number of comments by participants in the FGs in relation to gender perspective in their discourse in relation to social media ( Figure 1 ), so as to show the origin of each remark. Figure 2 shows principal co-occurrences of the gender perspective in the discourse in relation to the dimensions set out in the materials and method section.

Figure 1 . Distribution by gender and age of comments concerning gender perspective.

Figure 2 . Principal co-occurrences of the gender perspective by dimension (Sankey Diagram).

Explicit mentions of gender perspective have been broken down by gender of the participants. As can be seen in Figure 1 , female participants made almost 70% of the total number of comments. By age, the gender perspective is mentioned progressively more at older ages: 27.7% among 12–13 year-old participants (1st year of Compulsory Secondary Education), 33.8% in 15–16 year-olds (4th year of Compulsory Secondary Education) and 38% among 18–19 year-olds (first-year university students).

Figure 2 shows not only how female participants comment materially more on the gender perspective, but also how the information from the focus groups identifies the dimensions that students consider more important. Thus, dimensions related to the type of social media, the type of content, the definition of influencer, (trans)media skills and age are more salient in participants’ discourse. Further detail is provided in the following paragraphs.

4.1 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by type of social media

The analysis of the perceptions of adolescents and young people of gender on social media shows that most comments concern Instagram (23%), TikTok (20%), and YouTube (17%). TikTok was spontaneously mentioned by participants. In terms of gender, females make more mentions than males, and refer to Instagram, TikTok and YouTube in descending order.

But what is the discourse of young people as revealed by these comments about social media? In relation to Instagram, TikTok and YouTube, the significance attributed to personal appearance is what is most commented on. The obsession with physical appearance is expressed in terms of self-representation, whereby appearance contributes to identity in terms of approximation to esthetic ideals and beauty standards:

“Lots of girls who go on TikTok may be affected by seeing influencers who look perfect, at least at first, and then they may look at other bodies and that may lower their self-esteem” (G9_12–13_F).

The same is true of the sexualization of physical appearance, which participants refer to, directly or indirectly, in relation to the bodies of girls and women. Instagram is perceived to be somewhere where females can more readily take a leading role.

“Boys are more popular on YouTube and on Instagram it’s women, perhaps girls’ content seems more attractive, not only because it is more or less sexualized, which depends, but because on Instagram you have to be really careful, you have to know what photo to take, how, what lighting, see how you tell the story, whether you post it this way or that way, and girls take greater care over those details, and so they are more popular” (G14_15–16_F).

Females make almost twice as many comments about the importance of body image as males (21 and 13 quotes, respectively):

“I think as girls we expose ourselves more” (G4_18–19_F).

In turn, they are more affected by beauty standards, including the risk of developing an eating disorder.

“[Referring to the influencer Marina Yers]… but to say that after eating, being sick is good for you… That can lead to illness in 12-year-old girls” (G2_15–16_F).

On the other hand, there are female participants who demand parity with males in relation to the display of the body on the social media, with comments that identify contradictions inherent to post-feminist discourses ( Gill, 2017 ), by presenting as a personal choice what others might see as the internalization of objectification or sexual neoliberalism ( de Miguel, 2015 ).

“TikTok also does a lot of harm, for example if any of the three of us posts a video of us wearing a top or bikini, TikTok unpublishes it, it does not let us post it, but the guys can post videos in their underwear or shirtless, and TikTok’s algorithm does not say anything to them. We are super censored (G10_15–16_F).

• -And on Instagram even more so (G10_15–16_M).

• No (G10_15–16_F2).

• More on Instagram than TikTok (G10_15–16_M).

• I posted a video in trackies and T-shirt and they censored it” (G10_15–16_ F3).

YouTube is seen as a social media platform on which people can find less invasive spaces and activities supportive of the manifest need to improve self-esteem and build a more empowered attitude. On two separate occasions, 12-year-old girls explicitly mention an empowering movement, “Love in positive” and, from a feminist perspective, “Me too.”

“I have watched a YouTuber who I think is a good influence, there are a lot of people now who say they feel insecure because of their body, but this influencer was about “Love in positive,” love yourself as you are, and I think that a very good thing about social media is people like that who are trying to boost your self-esteem, make you feel confident” (G11_12–13_F).

Self-confidence, related to satisfaction with a person’s own body, is shown on social media through the control of image, posture, and esthetics. Young people subject themselves to those mechanisms depending on what is trending. No comments were collected, however, in which male participants acknowledge the influence of social media on their image. In contrast to females, their attitude appears distanced or rebellious.

“I like to be happy, and fashion is the last thing that interests me, for example, if everyone is wearing Nike, I’ll still wear Adidas (…) I’m fine with my 80s hairstyle” (G10_15–16_M).

4.2 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by type of content consumed

Generally speaking, the discourse of both male and female participants shows that the content consumed is highly gender specific.

“Do boys and girls follow the same things at this age? (Moderator 1, G1_12–13).

• No (G1_12–13_F&M).

• Some things Yes and some things No (G1_12–13_F).

• Sometimes maybe, what we have most in common is series, films…(G1_12–13_F2).

• Him and me do not share any content, he’s more into sports and I’m more into languages, travel…” (G1_12–13_F).

Comments about entertainment in terms of watching series and films come equally from male and female participants. There are differences in which types of content are most frequently mentioned: Beauty/fashion and Videogames. Dance is only commented on by male participants (“usually the dances on TikTok are by girls”), in contrast to current affairs. This confirms earlier results on gender specific preferences for content types ( Fernández-de-Arroyabe-Olaortua et al., 2018 ; García-Jiménez et al., 2021 ), and about motivation, where boys and young men express a preference for entertainment ( Lozano-Blasco et al., 2023 ). In this study, entertainment and strengthening friendships are positively rated by both genders. For example:

“(On Youtube), but I think my friends are more on Instagram, they make stories and I see what happened to them during the day, we talk and you can also go to the entertainment area…” (G11_12–13_M).

4.3 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by influencer

Basque streamer Ibai Llanos is most recognized for his positivity – acknowledging his personal and financial interests – and for his friendly personality. Consequently, he is the influencer who has the most followers, both male and female.

“And we are talking about YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, which are, like, social media, at the end of the day kids are searching for tutorials on how to play Minecraft, they are searching Ibai, because a lot of boys, and some girls of course, are obsessed with Ibai. I see Ibai as everything, super-responsible and very incisive. There are many others who aren’t, but Ibai just is. At the end of the day, if you upload content, you are going to influence those children through that content” (G6_18–19_M).

The participants associate the term influencer more with women who are successful on social media (Dulceida and Paula Gonu, two Catalan bloggers seen as celebrities, clearly figure in that role in the comments). The association between girl or woman and influencer is much more apparent as perceived by the participants, and is attributed to fame (celebrities, It Girls) and to so-called posing, which does not seem to apply to boys or young men.

“There are also influencers, boys, (…) but I have not seen a boy say he is an influencer, or that he uploads that type of content” (G6_18–19_F).

Some girls, especially older girls, explicitly express pleasure in displaying themselves, in line with the style of some influencers. For instance:

“I really like influencers, seeing how they dress, to keep up to date with fashion and I also really like to display my life, especially for the people around me to see what I do, I like them knowing about it” (G4_18–19_F).

At the opposite end of the spectrum to popular influencers, there is universal criticism of Naim Darrechi, a TikToker from Mallorca, known for his controversial sexist remarks, which have even led him to be accused of seeking to justify rape and sexual abuse.

“He is a sexist and has done a lot of bad shit” (G7_15–16_ M).

“There are people who follow him and the worst thing is that he’s proud of what he says and even has a lot of followers” (G2_15–16_F).

4.4 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by transmedia competence

The vast majority of comments linking the gender perspective to transmedia competencies ( Scolari, 2018 ) refer to the dimension of Ideology and Rigorousness, which by definition includes stereotyping, emotional identification mechanisms and recognition of manipulation (e.g., fakes). Comments, especially from female participants, reflect participants’ awareness of the need to (self-)regulate their media diet and of the risk of becoming addicted, even though a number of participants, particularly younger participants, explicitly state that they have been given cybersafety training at school.

“Right, I think it’s the typical thing that you say to everyone “Instagram is bad, do not be on it so much”, but I know that there are things that you cannot watch and I do not watch them, but my parents aren’t on my case the whole time” (G1_12–13_F).

The rest of the (trans)media competencies identifiable in the discourse of the young participants from a gender perspective were only commented on by the female participants. In descending order, comments fall under Language and Esthetics, Technology, and Production and Dissemination, where female participants comment on aspects such as the algorithm used.

“It’s that TikTok gets you addicted, you say you are going to watch it for 5 min and then a whole day goes by (…) with Instagram it’s harder to get addicted, because on TikTok you scroll down and more and more videos come up, and on Instagram there’s a moment when there’s nothing else to see” (G1_12–13_F2).

4.5 Participants’ perception of gender perspective by age

In the results, the gender perspective also appears to be related to age, expressed as a concern for children.

“There are a lot of 11 and 12-year-old girls (…) most of them are girls (…) who join a fan club, whatever. And they do not stop to think what nonsense the people are talking. And I think so much freedom has been given to those content creators that they think they have the right to publish whatever they want, without thinking that their fame is due to people who aren’t mature enough to think and weigh opinions, and to see what’s right (…) your followers are at an age when if you tell them something, they’ll believe you, it’s like you are indoctrinating them, they are so young that they’ll believe anything you say” (G10_15–16_M).

5 Discussion and conclusions

The presence and use of social media by young people requires a debate in wider society and the academic community around the opportunities and risks that social media present in the construction of young people’s identities. Of particular importance is the analysis of the gender perspective that emerges in the context of digital empowerment, since it reflects the expression by young people of differing levels of awareness of their responsibility for progress toward a just society, free (among other things) of gender-based prejudice and inequality.

In relation to the first research question, whether young people of both sexes consider gender in their assessments of social media – such as YouTube and Instagram -, the results show that it is principally females who refer to gender in their comments. They associate gender with the importance of image and appearances on social media, principally on Instagram and TikTok. Our results are partially consistent with a focus group study with 15 to 19-year-old teenagers in Finland ( N = 35) and provided understanding of the important role of commercial social media in young people’s consumption styles. While in the Finnish study boys appeared more materialistic and interested in luxury and sustainable consumption seemed to be a more “girly” thing ( Wilska et al., 2023 ), in our research boys do not acknowledge the influence of social media on their image. Female participants perceive that they are more exposed and under greater pressure than boys and young men, a perception also reflected in the comments of male participants. They also associate that pressure mostly with fashion and, to a lesser extent, with trends in consumer or capitalist society. Among male participants, there are more expressions of self-assertion and self-judgment. Both genders express concern about the effects of this body-image pressure on young girls. There is no mention of other possible gender identities beyond male and female (non-binary, gender-fluid…).

The obsession with image as a way of making visible the self is part of a generational culture of appearance and public approval ( Guardiola, 2018 ), which is acknowledged with critical reflection by both male and female participants. Sexualization is associated with certain influencers.

In relation to the second research question, whether the perception of male and female social media users can be seen as empowering for them, most of the positive comments from both genders in discourse concerning YouTube and Instagram refer to entertainment and the strengthening of friendships and the sense of belonging to a peer group. This feeling of belonging, which is reinforced by influencers, can be recognized in a small-scale qualitative research work in Germany: adolescents are often particularly attracted to influencers they believe themselves to have things in common with, such as around gender/sex, hobbies, and geographical location [ Bamberger et al., 2022 , cited in Pérez-Torres et al. (2018) , Diepeveen (2024) ].

The results allow us to identify comments that include some sensitizing concepts ( Gill, 2017 ) articulated around the construction of gender on social media, such as comments on the “Me too” movement. However, as noted, the importance of image is mentioned to a greater extent by female participants and in relation to material on social media directed at girls and women, while male participants particularly mention having fun and success or social status. Explicit references to self-esteem are also more common among female participants, especially among young girls, in the form of concern about low self-esteem due to the influence of ideal bodies, as often displayed by influencers. In fact, there are no comments from male participants that acknowledge the influence of social media on their self-image, rather the reverse. This may suggest less external oversight and greater self-confidence than among female participants. The spontaneous expressions of such views may reflect the internalization of personal empowerment among male participants.

On the other hand, some of the youngest girls (aged 13–14) demand fairer treatment on social media and that demand is based on the rejection of censorship of their bodies by social media platforms. As Caballero-Gálvez et al. (2017) point out, we can reconcile the apparent paradox of freedom of choice and the forcefully expressed demands of young girls for the recognition of an (idealized) image rather than gender equality. In relation to the characteristics of postfeminist discourse ( Gill, 2017 ), we saw this emphasis on bodily self-monitoring, especially among female participants, related to the management of the individual’s own image and perceived sexualization in some representations.

The contribution of this study is to attend to the voices of adolescents and young people, providing them with a platform to express their views freely in focus groups. This approach offers valuable insights into their perceptions and experiences with social media and gender. Focusing on young people’s perception of gender issues on social media is a critical additional layer in the discussion around the potential consequences for young adults and adolescents of content, use and engagement in social media. For adolescents, social media constitute a new arena in which they can express themselves and explore, but they are also to a significant forum for the dissemination of certain beauty standards that may represent a risk to adolescents in relation to their body image ( Arab and Díaz, 2015 ; Segovia Aguilar et al., 2016 ; Malo-Cerrato et al., 2018 ; Shah et al., 2019 ). One can find on social media content related to the human body that may influence adolescents and cause them to obsess about their appearance and the photos that they post ( Goodyear, 2020 ). In that sense, the risk resides in interiorization of such messages, especially by girls, which may have significant repercussions on their body image and mental health ( Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997 ; Karsay et al., 2018 ). Given differences in gender roles and societal pressure, there is a need to display an image that society considers acceptable. In that sense, social media and mass communication media play a fundamental role in objectification, and may have a significant impact on self-esteem, self-image, body positivity and psychological wellbeing ( Aydm and San, 2011 ; Shah et al., 2019 ). In short, this research shows how the digital empowerment of young people is constructed through the dominant paradigm of image in its presence and representation on social media.

However, from a gender perspective, female participants perceive the negative dimension of this (false) empowerment more than males. Across social media platforms, as also noted by Scharrer et al. (2023) , our results show that YouTube is perceived to give more equal prominence to the genders and to have more balanced activities and content suitable for each gender relative to Instagram and Tiktok. In our results, the impression predominates that YouTube is where males contribute more content. On Instagram, on the other hand, the importance of body image is clearly recognized by young people, especially females, in consequence of the centrality of (self-)image on Instagram, which in turn reflects the logic of today’s society of (hyper) visibility ( Imbert, 2004 ).

Finally, we have identified tensions that could even be seen as contradictions in the perceptions of young users of social media, in relation to life offline. The blurring of the boundaries between intimacy and extimacy may be a cause for more hope than might appear: Sabich and Steinberg (2017) believe that, although the discourse of YouTubers is trapped in a consumer culture, those online spaces for interaction allow the construction of symbolic bonds of belonging, that are particularly propitious for young people.

“The evidence indicates there is not a simple cause and effect relationship between social media use and (harmful) gender attitudes” ( Diepeveen, 2024 , p. 9). Part of the context for our research is the fact that the relationship between use of social media and gender equality is not simple and involves at least three different elements: personal experience and social context, i.e., individual perceptions; platform design, and online experience, especially the types of relationship built with social media ( Diepeveen, 2024 ). Our study highlights different aspects in relation to those different elements, based on the perceptions of our young participants. The limitations of our study include that the sample was drawn from a specific geographic area and culture in Spain. Some prior research in Spain (e.g., García-Jiménez et al., 2021 ; Herrero-Curiel and La-Rosa, 2022 ; Serrate-González et al., 2023 ) studied the behavior of adolescents on social media in general, “but so far as we have been able to confirm there has been no research looking at their preferences in relation to the content generated specifically by their favorite influencers” ( Martín-Cárdaba et al., 2024 , p. 83). Another limitation is that the study coincided with the Covid-19 pandemic. This exceptionality meant that the importance of social media was increasing ( Wilska et al., 2023 ).

The results of our research are consistent with other works in expressing concern about gender differences that go beyond differences in degree of participation and topics engaged with on social media. Our data align with findings in Europe [EU Kids online 2020 in Smahel et al. (2020) ] that show that the digital gender divide does not reflect a significant difference among European youth in terms of access. It rather betokens prevalent differences in the modalities of use and consequently in the skills deployed ( Masanet et al., 2021 ). Processes of socialization reflect the structural inequality fostered by, among other agents, the media system itself. That seems to be a persisting historical issue rather than a contemporary anomaly and entails a so-called cognitive cost for the most disadvantaged, including women ( Benesch, 2012 ).

From a developmental perspective, here we take up Kabeer's (1999) idea of trajectory, describing a notion of transmedia education that engages with new technologies and social realities, with empowerment as an individual process leading to greater autonomy and capacity to make life choices; and as a collective process of the development of a group’s capacity to drive social change so as to create a just, fair society, particularly in terms of relationships between men and women ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 6). In other words, empowerment here means achieving not power over but power to, power with and power within, as described by those authors ( Charlier and Caubergs, 2007 , p. 10).

The fact that the study’s sample was drawn from three Autonomous Communities increases the diversity of perspectives and enriches the data collected. While it limits the extent to which the findings can be generalized to other cultural or geographical contexts, it opens avenues for future research.

Despite the limitations of extrapolating qualitative data to adolescents and young people in Spain more widely, this study allows us to hear the participants and so develop greater understanding of digital empowerment from an edu-communication and gender perspective. The interpretation of the results points to the need for transmedia education that promotes reflection and critical production among adolescents and young people, specifically from the perspective of their as-yet only partially constructed identities that pays greater heed to the importance of aspects of their lives beyond conventional ideas of physical beauty. In that area, users need to become more aware of the influence of social media in the construction of notions of gender and to develop their capacity to engage critically with such notions in both formal and informal settings. That will enable them to engage with postfeminist perspectives in the context of the dominant values of today’s neoliberal society ( Medina, 2021 ), particularly as concerns the internalization of rigid beauty standards in relation to the bodies of women and girls especially, through (for example) programs to make people more aware of their own stereotyped beliefs around gender ( Panerati et al., 2023 ). The journey is for both boys and girls, men and women, toward greater empowerment of women and girls and a respectful, fair system that embraces diversity.

Although this study acknowledges gender disparities in social media, to delve deeply into the potential causes or solutions would strengthen the impact of future works. The evolving nature of social media platforms and research with “big data” in the field of perceptions and sexist content is still limited, not only because of the role of algorithms, but also because of aspects such as pseudonymization ( Lozano-Blasco et al., 2023 ) or because of adolescents’ own search for an ideal representation of themselves ( Stockdale and Coyne, 2020 ). Moreover, adding a comparative analysis with older age groups or with data from other countries could offer a broader perspective on how these perceptions might vary across different demographics or cultural contexts.

Based on our findings, we provide specific considerations for educators, policymakers, and social media platforms on how to address the identified issues. Furthermore, future works should develop, implement and evaluate edu-communicative and media education initiatives to develop critical reflection on the influence of social media, given that the results of this study underline the importance of a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality in digital spaces, which helps to implement educational measures for working with esthetic and erotic body image ( Pires et al., 2021 ), to develop self-awareness and self-regulation ( Mirgos et al., 2023 ) and to deepen protective factors against the risks online ( Ramos-Soler et al., 2018 ). Along those lines, the sessions focused on the responsible critical use of the Internet and digital devices for adolescents aged 13–15 developed by Cuervo et al. (2022a) , and aged 12–17 by Medrano et al. (2019) and Cuervo et al. (2022b) ; the classes put forward by Mirgos et al. (2023) around hate speech, privacy, digital intoxication, and perceived values on social media; the digital interactive tool to develop and assess the media competence of European students aged 14–18 ( Ferrés et al., 2022 ); the worksheets in Scolari (2018) ; and the use of Service Learning proposed by Villacampa et al. (2020) for collaboration to eradicate gender violence through online behaviors deserve special attention. Moreover, we consider that in this process both teachers and families should be involved together with students, to educate in the ethical and responsible use of social networks, for example using the guides developed by Martínez Ten (2021) .

As discussed above, future works should address the role of digital platforms in highlighting stereotypical representations of men and women ( Bernárdez, 2015 ) could lead people to internalize inequality, due that evolving nature of social media platforms and research with “big data” in the field of perceptions and sexist content is still limited.

Policy makers should consider the importance of promoting a respectful and equitable environment in relation to gender equality within digital spaces, in order to provide support for the need to develop and implement edu-communicative initiatives to foster critical thinking around the influence of social media in this context and the evaluation of the impact of such initiatives in future research.

Data availability statement

The anonymised raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the project’s coordinating University (Blanquerna School of Communication and International Relations, Ramon Llull University, Barcelona, Spain). The studies were conducted in accordance with laws applying throughout Spain and locally to the research institutions and the requirements of those institutions. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants and/or their legal guardians/next of kin. Online written and paper written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) and/or participants’ legal guardians/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable data included in this article.

Author contributions

SA-R: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. OK-A: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. IE-A: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. ÁM-I: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. IB-G: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. The research reported in this article has been financed with public funds from the National Plan financed by the Spanish State Research Agency, Project Reference/AEI/10.13039/501100011033. Ministry of Science and Innovation.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there are no commercial or financial relationships connected with this research that could be constitute a conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: gender, social media, adolescence, youth, edu-communication, empowerment, perception, media literacy

Citation: Aran-Ramspott S, Korres-Alonso O, Elexpuru-Albizuri I, Moro-Inchaurtieta & and Bergillos-García I (2024) Young users of social media: an analysis from a gender perspective. Front. Psychol . 15:1375983. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1375983

Received: 24 January 2024; Accepted: 06 May 2024; Published: 30 May 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Aran-Ramspott, Korres-Alonso, Elexpuru-Albizuri, Moro-Inchaurtieta and Bergillos-García. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Oihane Korres, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Brandwatch Consumer Research

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Formerly Paladin

Published September 6 th 2016

Conducting Social Media Research: How to Find Real Consumer Insights

Social is a rich source of data but only if you know how to conduct good social media research. This post explains the methods for finding consumer insights

Social media research can surface consumer insights that can be difficult and expensive to find in any other way. The volume of conversation on the web gives this research method a unique ability – uncovering qualitative insights on a quantitative scale.

For many people, however, it can be daunting. There is so much data: millions upon millions of conversations happen online every day. If you don’t know how to refine what you are listening to, you’ll drown in the data.

It’s also easy to rely on the metrics that are constantly produced on social: likes, followers, fans and so on. Knowing how to cut through the noise to find the information that can drive business decisions is a real skill. I recently spoke to Bex Carson, Head of Brandwatch’s Research Services team, to get an insight into best practice when it comes to social media research.

social media research puts the whole world in your hands

Developing an approach to social media research

Uncovering insights requires a certain approach. You need to move beyond the simple social metrics to uncover robust insights that can recommend a real business action. The problem can be knowing who to listen to, how to spot a trend, knowing what’s significant and putting your findings into context.

Many people will start with the metrics they know about. They then think about the questions it is possible to answer with those metrics, and develop a research plan based on that. A good social intelligence tool has the flexibility that renders this way of thinking very restrictive – it starts with what was already known and therefore limits the possibilities of what can be discovered.

Ask interesting questions

The foundation for good social media research is asking the right questions. If you start with a bad question, you’ll receive a bad answer.

Start by forgetting any concerns about how you are going to conduct the research. Focus on the problems and questions you need to answer, without thinking about the methodology. Once you have the question, you can work on the methodology.

With Brandwatch there’s a way to answer pretty much any question. The joy of social media is its flexibility and Brandwatch Analytics has been built to be flexible to match that.

Bex Carson, Head of Research Services, Brandwatch

The questions need to be specific. They need to be able to deliver an answer that can be acted upon. Examples of this sort of question might be “What do women in their 50s want from a fashion brand?” or “Is our content resonating with our target customers?”

Spend time developing questions, and brainstorm with others where possible. Consider the following:

What do we want to be able to do that is different based on this research?
What capacity/power/authority for change does the reader of the report have?
How do I recognize success? What does good look like?
What do I already know about this subject/audience?
Is my question answerable within the timeframe available?

Do better analysis

There are two main approaches you can take to answering your questions. The first involves uncovering metrics that answer a defined question. The second is more of an exploratory approach, discovering insights as you work through the data. Where time and budget allows, a combination of the two approaches will generally reveal the most interesting and robust answers.

The best social media research that produces the best results will combine some elements of both. That way you know you are investing time to get definite answers to specific questions, but you’re leaving yourself open to discover something new about your audience.

BEX CARSON, BRANDWATCH

Structured and planned analysis.

For this type of research, you are looking for an answer to a specific question. You need to identify specific metrics that you can bring together to answer that question. By using the power of segmentation – Brandwatch’s Rules , Categories, and Tags – you can arrive at specific answers.

You can take a structured approach to social media research

This method is great for answering defined, objective questions. For example, if you have run a campaign and want to know if it drove spontaneous awareness, you can look at the volume of discussion for both the campaign assets and the brand baseline over time. These relatively simple queries will result in metrics that uncover the success of your campaign.

Follow the breadcrumbs analysis

This approach is exploratory, listening to the data to discover the story within it. Think of it as social media ethnography. You can arrive at a fuller understanding of your consumers, uncovering different audience groups as you move through the data and spot trends.

This methodology can be a challenge. You need to enter the project without preconceptions and ensure you don’t draw your own conclusions. It’s a harder way to conduct social media research – using open listening to find underlying themes.

The benefits are plentiful, though. First, you are closer to the voice of the customer . There is no substitute for listening to your customers verbatim, understanding the nuance and sentiment of their conversations.

As a human analyst, you can understand and categorize things that a machine simply can’t. Someone might be talking about the same topic even if they don’t use the same words. Reading through the conversations, you can find people might talk in a way that you hadn’t thought of, and use that to enrich your research.

1. Decide on your dataset

Broad topics and themes often drive more interesting results than brand queries. You want to analyze of a type of conversation rather than a particular brand. Within the conversation theme, you still need to define the problem clearly so you can create a targeted query and reduce noise in the data.

As an example, let’s say you wanted to know what people who have seen the movie thought about the new Ghostbusters film . If you just wrote a query on Ghostbusters, there would be a lot of conversation around the all-female cast, or the abuse that Leslie Jones received on Twitter.

By writing a query that includes personal pronouns, mentions of cinema brands, people saying “just seen/watched” and so on, you will have a much cleaner data set without manipulating it too much.

2. Clean your data

This can be a really important way of revealing the interesting, more concealed consumer insights. Many topics can be dominated by a few obvious and popular themes, so that the insights get lost in comparison.

You want to surface underlying themes with a unique value, rather things you can see easily on a topic cloud/trend line. To do this, you can look at you initial query results to identify the popular themes, and then exclude those mentions by using tags.

The data that remains lets you see what else people are saying beyond what you already know. It can also be useful to remove retweets, leaving you with only the original conversations.

3. Take a random sample

While automation can be a useful tool, the type of analysis we are talking about here is human led. This means you need a manageable dataset. It needs to be large enough to be representative of the mentions, but small enough so it can be read completely, and in detail. Mark off the mentions as you work through them to ensure you cover your whole sample.

This allows you to undertake the next step…

4. Read and code using grouped categories

There is no right way to do this step, and it will largely depend on your dataset. This is where you go on a journey of discovery, hunting down the insights in the data. You want to start grouping themes and topics.

You can start by creating categories that you think you are going to find. To go back to the Ghostbusters example, you would expect some people to say they “loved it”, others that “hated it”, and everything in between.

It’s important to remember that this is just a starting point. You need to be completely data-led. New themes will emerge as you work through the data, so you need to add these.

Human analysis allows you to have nuanced emotional categories, such as anger, frustration, humor, joy and so on. A human analyst is able to pick these up where automated processes would not be able to.

You can also set up categories for author type, to understand the different conversations among different actors.

Brandwatch allows you to group categories together, so each emotional or author response can form a sub-group within a parent group. This can prove useful during your analysis.

Crucially, you want to liberally add categories as you read through the data. At the end, you might find there were only a couple of mentions of one category and decide to delete it. It’s better to do this than be conservative and realize you missed an important topic of discussion only once you reach the end of the dataset.

5. Analyze and chart

Now you need to dive into the charts and start analyzing.

The best way to start is to simply create a standard chart component and apply filters to the data. You can start looking at your different categories, moving the data around to spot interesting patterns.

Some of the most useful insights come from crossing your parent categories. So if you have author type on one axis, and emotion on the other, you can start to see different emotional responses from different author types.

Golden rules for social media research

1. compare everything and constantly seek out difference.

The fundamental tenet of social media research is noticing a difference between things. You don’t know what good looks like without seeing the bad, but you are looking for a significant difference. You don’t want to recommend sweeping changes because of a tiny difference in the data. Be curious and keep exploring.

If you want to be interesting, be interested.

2. Be curious and ask why

If you notice a difference, start digging into it. Then dig some more. Keep digging until you have read something that helps explain why that difference exists.

You can’t create a suggested action based on a piece of data if you don’t understand why that piece of data is the way that it is.

Presenting your social media research

First, remember that you are telling a story. With any story, you need to consider your audience.

There may be several people or departments that are going to read your report. They won’t all have the same amount of time available to read what you have written, and they might not all be interested in the same things.

While it’s a good idea to start with a methodology to give the report transparency, hit them with the key findings and consumer insights straight away.

Then, as you continue through the story of the data, you can explain each insight more thoroughly with charts, graphs, and analysis to back it up.

You might like

How to write a social media report.

We reveal how to write a social media report, whether you want to present in-depth research, a campaign-specific report, or a regular round-up of metrics.

Having insights buried in a 27 page PDF is frustrating and risks your hard work being overlooked.

Finally, remember that you’re not really telling your story; you’re telling the story of the people you’re listening to, so make sure to include the voice of the customer. Real examples of social posts, with real customer profile pictures, will bring your social media research to life.

Content Writer

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Spending too much time on social media and doomscrolling? The problem might be FOMO

Senior Lecturer - Psychology | Chair, Researchers in Behavioural Addictions, Alcohol and Drugs (BAAD), Charles Darwin University

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For as long as we have used the internet to communicate and connect with each other , it has influenced how we think, feel and behave.

During the COVID pandemic, many of us were “cut off” from our social worlds through restrictions, lockdowns and mandates. Understandably, many of us tried to find ways to connect online .

Now, as pandemic restrictions have lifted, some of the ways we use the internet have become concerning. Part of what drives problematic internet use may be something most of us are familiar with – the fear of missing out, or FOMO.

In our latest research , my colleagues and I investigated the role FOMO plays in two kinds of internet use: problematic social media use and “doomscrolling”.

What are FOMO, problematic social media use and doomscrolling?

FOMO is the fear some of us experience when we get a sense of “missing out” on things happening in our social scene. Psychology researchers have been studying FOMO for more than a decade , and it has consistently been linked to mental health and wellbeing , alcohol use and problematic social media use .

Social media use becomes a problem for people when they have difficulty controlling urges to use social media, have difficulty cutting back on use, and where the use has a negative impact on their everyday life.

Doomscrolling is characterised by a need to constantly look at and seek out “bad” news . Doomscrollers may constantly refresh their news feeds or stay up late to read bad news.

While problematic social media use has been around for a while, doomscrolling seems to be a more recent phenomenon – attracting research attention during and following the pandemic.

What we tried to find out

In our study, we wanted to test the idea that FOMO leads individuals to engage in problematic use behaviours due to their difficulty in managing the “fear” in FOMO.

The key factor, we thought, was emotion regulation – our ability to deal with our emotions. We know some people tend to be good at this, while others find it difficult. In fact, greater difficulties with emotion regulation was linked to experiencing greater acute stress related to COVID .

Read more: Why am I online? Research shows it's often about managing emotions

However, an idea that has been gaining attention recently is interpersonal emotion regulation . This means looking to others to help us regulate our emotions.

Interpersonal emotion regulation can be helpful (such as “ affective engagement ”, where someone might listen and talk about your feelings) or unhelpful (such as “ co-rumination ” or rehashing problems together), depending on the context.

In our analyses, we sought to uncover how both intrapersonal emotion regulation (ability to self-manage our own emotional states) and interpersonal emotion regulation (relying on others to help manage our emotions) accounted for the link between FOMO and problematic social media use, and FOMO and doomscrolling, respectively.

What we found – and what it might mean for the future of internet use

Our findings indicated that people who report stronger FOMO engage in problematic social media use because of difficulty regulating their emotions (intrapersonally), and they look to others for help (interpersonally).

Similarly, people who report stronger FOMO are drawn to doomscrolling because of difficulty regulating their emotions intrapersonally (within themselves). However, we found no link between FOMO and doomscrolling through interpersonal emotion regulation.

We suspect this difference may be due to doomscrolling being more of a solitary activity, occurring outside more social contexts that facilitate interpersonal regulation. For instance, there are probably fewer people with whom to share your emotions while staying up trawling through bad news.

While links between FOMO and doomscrolling have been observed before, our study is among the first to try and account for this theoretically.

We suspect the link between FOMO and doomscrolling may be more about having more of an online presence while things are happening . This would account for intrapersonal emotion regulation failing to help manage our reactions to “bad news” stories as they unfold, leading to doomscrolling.

Problematic social media use, on the other hand, involves a more complex interpersonal context. If someone is feeling the fear of being “left out” and has difficulty managing that feeling, they may be drawn to social media platforms in part to try and elicit help from others in their network.

Getting the balance right

Our findings suggest the current discussions around restricting social media use for young people , while controversial, are important. We need to balance our need for social connection – which is happening increasingly online – with the detrimental consequences associated with problematic internet use behaviours.

It is important to also consider the nature of social media platforms and how they have changed over time. For example, adolescent social media use patterns across various platforms are associated with different mental health and socialisation outcomes.

Public health policy experts and legislators have quite the challenge ahead of them here. Recent work has shown how loneliness is a contributing factor to all-cause mortality (death from any cause).

Read more: Doomscrolling is literally bad for your health. Here are 4 tips to help you stop

We have long known, too, that social connectedness is good for our mental health . In fact, last year, the World Health Organization established a Commission on Social Connection to help promote the importance of socialisation to our lives.

The recent controversy in the United States around the ownership of TikTok illustrates how central social media platforms are to our lives and ways of interacting with one another. We need to consider the rights of individuals to use them as they please, but understand that governments carry the responsibility of protecting users from harm and safeguarding their privacy.

If you feel concerned about problematic social media use or doomscrolling, you can speak to a healthcare or mental health professional. You can also call Lifeline on 13 11 14, or 13 YARN (13 92 76) to yarn with Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander crisis supporters.

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Home / 2024 / May / Researchers explain social media’s role in rapidly shifting social norms on gender and sexuality

Researchers explain social media’s role in rapidly shifting social norms on gender and sexuality

May 29, 2024

By Allison Arteaga Soergel

Hand holding a phone, with social media "like" icons appearing, and a rainbow background

A new paper summarizing decades of research demonstrates how social media has supported an explosion of diversity in gender and sexuality in America during the 21st Century, and also how these technologies have equally enabled a cultural backlash.

The paper’s authors, UC Santa Cruz Psychology Department faculty members Phil Hammack and Adriana Manago, identified five main narratives about gender and sexuality that they believe emerged through social media as people have strived to be “authentic” on these platforms. The findings, along with resulting recommendations for psychology researchers and practitioners, were published in American Psychologist , the flagship research journal of the American Psychological Association.

Since its inception, social media has essentially reversed the flow of information in American society, challenging traditional sources of authority and empowering individuals to create and share information for themselves, the paper says. The formats and customs of social media especially encourage self-expression and “authenticity,” or sharing your inner experience. Online connectivity also removes geographic barriers to finding other like-minded individuals.

Together, these conditions set the stage perfectly for new cultural norms to emerge, the paper’s authors argue. Manago, an associate professor of psychology who studies how communication technology shapes human development, explained that the team’s theory runs directly counter to “social contagion theory.”

“We’ve seen so much change so quickly in things like pronouns and sexual orientation that people have been hungry for an explanation, and as a result, social contagion theory is this very harmful idea that has become popular, despite not being backed by good evidence,” she said.

“Social contagion theory argues that adolescents are going online and seeing that expressing yourself as having an LGBTQ+ identity is cool and popular, so they are conforming to a popular notion outside of themselves,” Manago continued. “Our paper argues the opposite. The diversity that we’re seeing now was always there, but the dominant cultural paradigms previously masked it. Now, new communications tools are bringing it to light by promoting and enabling authenticity.”

New cultural narratives of gender and sexuality

Among the new cultural narratives that researchers say have emerged from online authenticity is the concept of gender as self-constructed, meaning that there can be a difference between sex assigned at birth and a person’s gender identity or expression. For example, research shows that Tumblr blogs have helped transgender people navigate the gender affirmation process, and TikTok has become a central resource for youth who are questioning their own gender or sexuality to explore identities and connect with others.

Hammack, a psychology professor and expert on generational differences in gender and sexuality, emphasizes that people are using social media as a tool to better understand complexities around gender identity that they already feel within themselves.

“We have to remember that, with social media, an algorithm responds to the person,” he said. “So if you’re starting to question your gender, you’re going to look for related content, and then the algorithm affirms that, but you are still the active agent who is on social media liking things. That agency sometimes gets downplayed when we talk about the influence of social media.”

Another narrative that has gained traction on social media is the idea that sexuality is plural, playful, flexible, and fluid. One aspect of this is the possibility for attraction to multiple genders. For example, research that used the Craigslist personals section to recruit participants has bolstered new understandings of bisexuality among men and has also shown that some people who identify as straight still seek same-sex contact. Meanwhile, Tumblr helped to popularize the pansexual identity. And new social networking websites for people with fetishes have increased acceptance of a wider variety of sexual practices.

Some modern online narratives also present sexuality and monogamy as cultural compulsions, rather than biological ones. For example, asexuality has become an accepted identity for those who feel little or no sexual attraction, with help from a website that challenged traditional pathologizing views. And new dating apps have been developed specifically to support forms of consensual nonmonogamy that are gaining public visibility.

Intersectionality has become a key part of many online narratives too, such as the #SayHerName campaign on Twitter, which sought to draw attention to state-sanctioned violence against Black cisgender and transgender women alike. New terminologies and forms of identity have also developed on Tumblr that increasingly recognize how gender and sexuality intersect with each other, and these concepts have spilled over onto platforms like Twitter, now called X, and TikTok.

But not all online narratives that seek to convey authenticity in gender and sexuality promote diversity. A transphobic, homophobic, and misogynistic backlash has also spread through social media technology, sometimes resulting in real-world violence. One example is how Reddit and TikTok have spread “incel” or “involuntary celibate” ideology that views both women’s equality and sexual and gender diversity as threats to masculinity.

“These reactionary forces that are being destabilized from their dominant position in society are also using authenticity narratives about being a ‘real man’ to spread their views, and they’re claiming that all of these other narratives are false,” Manago explained. “So authenticity is a central concept in all of the narratives on gender and sexuality that we see emerge through these platforms, regardless of whether they’re progressive or regressive.”

Recommendations for psychologists

Based on their findings, the paper’s authors offer several recommendations. Psychology researchers and practitioners should start by grounding their work in people’s lived experiences, the paper says. That could include counselors making sure they stay up to date on new popular terminology around gender and sexuality and researchers asking more open-ended questions and offering write-in options for collecting information about gender and sexuality.

The team also recommends approaching emerging forms of identity with affirmation, rather than suspicion and focusing on the phenomena of sexual and gender diversity more so than individual identity labels, which inevitably always leave someone out. The paper advises that social change on these issues is fluid and nonlinear, and the current context is not necessarily one of “achievement” for rights and recognition, as evidenced by regressive authenticity narratives that have spread alongside progressive ones.

Hammack and Manago ultimately encourage psychologists to continue challenging normative thinking, both around sexuality and gender and around social media’s role in identity formation. They say social media is neither a source of youth corruption nor a cure-all for advancing acceptance and equity. Instead, meaningful cultural change that starts on social media should result in new resources and support in our geographic communities.

“If community spaces and educational spaces don’t keep pace with these changes, that can become dangerous, because young people will continue to turn to social media, and they may lose confidence in other sources of authority, like teachers and parents, who they see as being socially behind the times,” Hammack said. “As adults, the responsible thing is for us to acknowledge that we live in a time of great change on gender and sexuality and to find ways to integrate new perspectives into education, our communities, and our families, so that young people don’t experience isolation and don’t lose confidence in us.”

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Teens and social media: Key findings from Pew Research Center surveys

Laughing twin sisters looking at smartphone in park on summer evening

For the latest survey data on social media and tech use among teens, see “ Teens, Social Media, and Technology 2023 .”

Today’s teens are navigating a digital landscape unlike the one experienced by their predecessors, particularly when it comes to the pervasive presence of social media. In 2022, Pew Research Center fielded an in-depth survey asking American teens – and their parents – about their experiences with and views toward social media . Here are key findings from the survey:

Pew Research Center conducted this study to better understand American teens’ experiences with social media and their parents’ perception of these experiences. For this analysis, we surveyed 1,316 U.S. teens ages 13 to 17, along with one parent from each teen’s household. The survey was conducted online by Ipsos from April 14 to May 4, 2022.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, which is an independent committee of experts that specializes in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Ipsos invited panelists who were a parent of at least one teen ages 13 to 17 from its KnowledgePanel , a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses, to take this survey. For some of these questions, parents were asked to think about one teen in their household. (If they had multiple teenage children ages 13 to 17 in the household, one was randomly chosen.) This teen was then asked to answer questions as well. The parent portion of the survey is weighted to be representative of U.S. parents of teens ages 13 to 17 by age, gender, race, ethnicity, household income and other categories. The teen portion of the survey is weighted to be representative of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 who live with parents by age, gender, race, ethnicity, household income and other categories.

Here are the questions used for this report, along with responses, and its methodology .

Majorities of teens report ever using YouTube, TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat. YouTube is the platform most commonly used by teens, with 95% of those ages 13 to 17 saying they have ever used it, according to a Center survey conducted April 14-May 4, 2022, that asked about 10 online platforms. Two-thirds of teens report using TikTok, followed by roughly six-in-ten who say they use Instagram (62%) and Snapchat (59%). Much smaller shares of teens say they have ever used Twitter (23%), Twitch (20%), WhatsApp (17%), Reddit (14%) and Tumblr (5%).

A chart showing that since 2014-15 TikTok has started to rise, Facebook usage has dropped, Instagram and Snapchat have grown.

Facebook use among teens dropped from 71% in 2014-15 to 32% in 2022. Twitter and Tumblr also experienced declines in teen users during that span, but Instagram and Snapchat saw notable increases.

TikTok use is more common among Black teens and among teen girls. For example, roughly eight-in-ten Black teens (81%) say they use TikTok, compared with 71% of Hispanic teens and 62% of White teens. And Hispanic teens (29%) are more likely than Black (19%) or White teens (10%) to report using WhatsApp. (There were not enough Asian teens in the sample to analyze separately.)

Teens’ use of certain social media platforms also varies by gender. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to report using TikTok (73% vs. 60%), Instagram (69% vs. 55%) and Snapchat (64% vs. 54%). Boys are more likely than girls to report using YouTube (97% vs. 92%), Twitch (26% vs. 13%) and Reddit (20% vs. 8%).

A chart showing that teen girls are more likely than boys to use TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat. Teen boys are more likely to use Twitch, Reddit and YouTube. Black teens are especially drawn to TikTok compared with other groups.

Majorities of teens use YouTube and TikTok every day, and some report using these sites almost constantly. About three-quarters of teens (77%) say they use YouTube daily, while a smaller majority of teens (58%) say the same about TikTok. About half of teens use Instagram (50%) or Snapchat (51%) at least once a day, while 19% report daily use of Facebook.

A chart that shows roughly one-in-five teens are almost constantly on YouTube, and 2% say the same for Facebook.

Some teens report using these platforms almost constantly. For example, 19% say they use YouTube almost constantly, while 16% and 15% say the same about TikTok and Snapchat, respectively.

More than half of teens say it would be difficult for them to give up social media. About a third of teens (36%) say they spend too much time on social media, while 55% say they spend about the right amount of time there and just 8% say they spend too little time. Girls are more likely than boys to say they spend too much time on social media (41% vs. 31%).

A chart that shows 54% of teens say it would be hard to give up social media.

Teens are relatively divided over whether it would be hard or easy for them to give up social media. Some 54% say it would be very or somewhat hard, while 46% say it would be very or somewhat easy.

Girls are more likely than boys to say it would be difficult for them to give up social media (58% vs. 49%). Older teens are also more likely than younger teens to say this: 58% of those ages 15 to 17 say it would be very or somewhat hard to give up social media, compared with 48% of those ages 13 to 14.

Teens are more likely to say social media has had a negative effect on others than on themselves. Some 32% say social media has had a mostly negative effect on people their age, while 9% say this about social media’s effect on themselves.

A chart showing that more teens say social media has had a negative effect on people their age than on them, personally.

Conversely, teens are more likely to say these platforms have had a mostly positive impact on their own life than on those of their peers. About a third of teens (32%) say social media has had a mostly positive effect on them personally, while roughly a quarter (24%) say it has been positive for other people their age.

Still, the largest shares of teens say social media has had neither a positive nor negative effect on themselves (59%) or on other teens (45%). These patterns are consistent across demographic groups.

Teens are more likely to report positive than negative experiences in their social media use. Majorities of teens report experiencing each of the four positive experiences asked about: feeling more connected to what is going on in their friends’ lives (80%), like they have a place where they can show their creative side (71%), like they have people who can support them through tough times (67%), and that they are more accepted (58%).

A chart that shows teen girls are more likely than teen boys to say social media makes them feel more supported but also overwhelmed by drama and excluded by their friends.

When it comes to negative experiences, 38% of teens say that what they see on social media makes them feel overwhelmed because of all the drama. Roughly three-in-ten say it makes them feel like their friends are leaving them out of things (31%) or feel pressure to post content that will get lots of comments or likes (29%). And 23% say that what they see on social media makes them feel worse about their own life.

There are several gender differences in the experiences teens report having while on social media. Teen girls are more likely than teen boys to say that what they see on social media makes them feel a lot like they have a place to express their creativity or like they have people who can support them. However, girls also report encountering some of the pressures at higher rates than boys. Some 45% of girls say they feel overwhelmed because of all the drama on social media, compared with 32% of boys. Girls are also more likely than boys to say social media has made them feel like their friends are leaving them out of things (37% vs. 24%) or feel worse about their own life (28% vs. 18%).

When it comes to abuse on social media platforms, many teens think criminal charges or permanent bans would help a lot. Half of teens think criminal charges or permanent bans for users who bully or harass others on social media would help a lot to reduce harassment and bullying on these platforms.

A chart showing that half of teens think banning users who bully or criminal charges against them would help a lot in reducing the cyberbullying teens may face on social media.

About four-in-ten teens say it would help a lot if social media companies proactively deleted abusive posts or required social media users to use their real names and pictures. Three-in-ten teens say it would help a lot if school districts monitored students’ social media activity for bullying or harassment.

Some teens – especially older girls – avoid posting certain things on social media because of fear of embarrassment or other reasons. Roughly four-in-ten teens say they often or sometimes decide not to post something on social media because they worry people might use it to embarrass them (40%) or because it does not align with how they like to represent themselves on these platforms (38%). A third of teens say they avoid posting certain things out of concern for offending others by what they say, while 27% say they avoid posting things because it could hurt their chances when applying for schools or jobs.

A chart that shows older teen girls are more likely than younger girls or boys to say they don't post things on social media because they're worried it could be used to embarrass them.

These concerns are more prevalent among older teen girls. For example, roughly half of girls ages 15 to 17 say they often or sometimes decide not to post something on social media because they worry people might use it to embarrass them (50%) or because it doesn’t fit with how they’d like to represent themselves on these sites (51%), compared with smaller shares among younger girls and among boys overall.

Many teens do not feel like they are in the driver’s seat when it comes to controlling what information social media companies collect about them. Six-in-ten teens say they think they have little (40%) or no control (20%) over the personal information that social media companies collect about them. Another 26% aren’t sure how much control they have. Just 14% of teens think they have a lot of control.

Two charts that show a majority of teens feel as if they have little to no control over their data being collected by social media companies, but only one-in-five are extremely or very concerned about the amount of information these sites have about them.

Despite many feeling a lack of control, teens are largely unconcerned about companies collecting their information. Only 8% are extremely concerned about the amount of personal information that social media companies might have and 13% are very concerned. Still, 44% of teens say they have little or no concern about how much these companies might know about them.

Only around one-in-five teens think their parents are highly worried about their use of social media. Some 22% of teens think their parents are extremely or very worried about them using social media. But a larger share of teens (41%) think their parents are either not at all (16%) or a little worried (25%) about them using social media. About a quarter of teens (27%) fall more in the middle, saying they think their parents are somewhat worried.

A chart showing that only a minority of teens say their parents are extremely or very worried about their social media use.

Many teens also believe there is a disconnect between parental perceptions of social media and teens’ lived realities. Some 39% of teens say their experiences on social media are better than parents think, and 27% say their experiences are worse. A third of teens say parents’ views are about right.

Nearly half of parents with teens (46%) are highly worried that their child could be exposed to explicit content on social media. Parents of teens are more likely to be extremely or very concerned about this than about social media causing mental health issues like anxiety, depression or lower self-esteem. Some parents also fret about time management problems for their teen stemming from social media use, such as wasting time on these sites (42%) and being distracted from completing homework (38%).

A chart that shows parents are more likely to be concerned about their teens seeing explicit content on social media than these sites leading to anxiety, depression or lower self-esteem.

Note: Here are the questions used for this report, along with responses, and its methodology .

CORRECTION (May 17, 2023): In a previous version of this post, the percentages of teens using Instagram and Snapchat daily were transposed in the text. The original chart was correct. This change does not substantively affect the analysis.

Age & Generations
Age, Generations & Tech
Internet & Technology
Platforms & Services
Social Media
Teens & Tech
Teens & Youth

Emily A. Vogels is a former research associate focusing on internet and technology at Pew Research Center .

Risa Gelles-Watnick is a former research analyst focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center .

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ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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