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Compare and contrast is a common form of academic writing, either as an essay type on its own, or as part of a larger essay which includes one or more paragraphs which compare or contrast. This page gives information on what a compare and contrast essay is , how to structure this type of essay, how to use compare and contrast structure words , and how to make sure you use appropriate criteria for comparison/contrast . There is also an example compare and contrast essay on the topic of communication technology, as well as some exercises to help you practice this area.
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To compare is to examine how things are similar, while to contrast is to see how they differ. A compare and contrast essay therefore looks at the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences. This essay type is common at university, where lecturers frequently test your understanding by asking you to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two historical periods, two characters in a novel, etc. Sometimes the whole essay will compare and contrast, though sometimes the comparison or contrast may be only part of the essay. It is also possible, especially for short exam essays, that only the similarities or the differences, not both, will be discussed. See the examples below.
There are two main ways to structure a compare and contrast essay, namely using a block or a point-by-point structure. For the block structure, all of the information about one of the objects being compared/contrasted is given first, and all of the information about the other object is listed afterwards. This type of structure is similar to the block structure used for cause and effect and problem-solution essays. For the point-by-point structure, each similarity (or difference) for one object is followed immediately by the similarity (or difference) for the other. Both types of structure have their merits. The former is easier to write, while the latter is generally clearer as it ensures that the similarities/differences are more explicit.
The two types of structure, block and point-by-point , are shown in the diagram below.
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Compare and contrast structure words are transition signals which show the similarities or differences. Below are some common examples.
When making comparisons or contrasts, it is important to be clear what criteria you are using. Study the following example, which contrasts two people. Here the criteria are unclear.
Although this sentence has a contrast transition , the criteria for contrasting are not the same. The criteria used for Aaron are height (tall) and strength (strong). We would expect similar criteria to be used for Bruce (maybe he is short and weak), but instead we have new criteria, namely appearance (handsome) and intelligence (intelligent). This is a common mistake for students when writing this type of paragraph or essay. Compare the following, which has much clearer criteria (contrast structure words shown in bold).
Below is a compare and contrast essay. This essay uses the point-by-point structure . Click on the different areas (in the shaded boxes to the right) to highlight the different structural aspects in this essay, i.e. similarities, differences, and structure words. This will highlight not simply the paragraphs, but also the thesis statement and summary , as these repeat the comparisons and contrasts contained in the main body.
Title: There have been many advances in technology over the past fifty years. These have revolutionised the way we communicate with people who are far away. Compare and contrast methods of communication used today with those which were used in the past.
Before the advent of computers and modern technology, people communicating over long distances used traditional means such as letters and the telephone. Nowadays we have a vast array of communication tools which can complete this task, ranging from email to instant messaging and video calls. While the present and previous means of communication are similar in their general form , they differ in regard to their speed and the range of tools available . One similarity between current and previous methods of communication relates to the form of communication. In the past, both written forms such as letters were frequently used, in addition to oral forms such as telephone calls. Similarly , people nowadays use both of these forms. Just as in the past, written forms of communication are prevalent, for example via email and text messaging. In addition, oral forms are still used, including the telephone, mobile phone, and voice messages via instant messaging services. However , there are clearly many differences in the way we communicate over long distances, the most notable of which is speed. This is most evident in relation to written forms of communication. In the past, letters would take days to arrive at their destination. In contrast , an email arrives almost instantaneously and can be read seconds after it was sent. In the past, if it was necessary to send a short message, for example at work, a memo could be passed around the office, which would take some time to circulate. This is different from the current situation, in which a text message can be sent immediately. Another significant difference is the range of communication methods. Fifty years ago, the tools available for communicating over long distances were primarily the telephone and the letter. By comparison , there are a vast array of communication methods available today. These include not only the telephone, letter, email and text messages already mentioned, but also video conferences via software such as Skype or mobile phone apps such as WeChat, and social media such as Facebook and Twitter. In conclusion, methods of communication have greatly advanced over the past fifty years. While there are some similarities, such as the forms of communication , there are significant differences, chiefly in relation to the speed of communication and the range of communication tools available . There is no doubt that technology will continue to progress in future, and the advanced tools which we use today may one day also become outdated.
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Below is a checklist for compare and contrast essays. Use it to check your own writing, or get a peer (another student) to help you.
The essay is a essay | ||
An appropriate is used, either or | ||
Compare and contrast are used accurately | ||
The for comparison/contrast are clear | ||
The essay has clear | ||
Each paragraph has a clear | ||
The essay has strong support (facts, reasons, examples, etc.) | ||
The conclusion includes a of the main points |
There is a downloadable graphic organiser for brainstorming ideas for compare and contrast essays in the writing resources section.
Find out how to write cause & effect essays in the next section.
Go back to the previous section about persuasion essays .
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Author: Sheldon Smith ‖ Last modified: 08 January 2022.
Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .
Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.
Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).
Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.
Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).
Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.
Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.
Compare and contrast essays are a specific form of academic essay with unique requirements, so if you’re a student , it’s important that you to know how to write one. Luckily, we’ve pieced together this guide to help you plan, structure, and put together your essay, complete with tips for comparing and contrasting.
Let’s begin.
As you may have guessed, when writing a compare and contrast essay, you’ll need to do two things:
Compare and contrast essays are a common essay style because they allow your teacher or lecturer to assess your understanding of two theories, research methods, literary techniques, or other subjects. These subjects are usually related and may sometimes be confused with one another or are in conflict with each other.
By comparing and contrasting the subjects, you can also improve your analysis skills .
Some examples of compare and contrast essay titles include:
Compare and contrast a Shakespearean sonnet with a Petrarchan sonnet. What are the similarities and differences between anabolic and catabolic reactions? How were Nehru’s political beliefs similar to Gandhi’s? How did they differ?
As with any essay, before you begin writing, you should have a plan . In this case, you’ll first need to identify the similarities and differences between your subjects.
You can do this by writing out a list of all the qualities each subject possesses. Then, you can pick out any similar qualities that show up in both lists, and any qualities that are unique to just one of them. If you’re a visual learner, you might want to draw this as a Venn diagram .
Once you have all the similarities and differences prepared, consider which of them will be the most useful to include in your essay. Ask yourself:
To answer that last question, let’s take a look at some ways to structure your essay.
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Now that you’ve got a plan for your essay, it’s time to organize it. There are three main structures you can follow when writing a compare and contrast essay:
There are benefits to each of these structures. The block structure, for example, can be easier to write, while the alternating structure presents each similarity and difference clearly, and the similarities and differences structure focuses on those points rather than the subjects themselves.
So, when deciding which structure to use, consider what would work best for your essay. If you intend to cover each subject in detail, for example, you might want to choose the block structure.
On the other hand, if you want to emphasize the connections between each subject, the alternating structure might be best.
Finally, if you want to conclude that the subjects are either overwhelmingly similar or different to each other, the similarities and differences structure may work in your favor.
Whichever structure you follow, though, you’ll need to include a strong introduction and conclusion.
Your introduction should:
Meanwhile, your conclusion should:
Here are some important tips to keep in mind when writing your compare and contrast essay:
Once you’ve written your compare and contrast essay, don’t forget to have it proofread. Our dedicated essay editing team is available 24/7 to help polish your paper. Try us out with a free proofreading and editing sample .
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A compare and contrast paper discusses the similarities and differences between two or more topics. The paper should contain an introduction with a thesis statement, a body where the comparisons and contrasts are discussed, and a conclusion.
Because this is a compare and contrast paper, both the similarities and differences should be discussed. This will require analysis on your part, as some topics will appear to be quite similar, and you will have to work to find the differing elements.
Just like any other essay, a compare and contrast essay needs a thesis statement. The thesis statement should not only tell your reader what you will do, but it should also address the purpose and importance of comparing and contrasting the material.
Transitions are important in compare and contrast essays, where you will be moving frequently between different topics or perspectives.
For more information, check out our transitions page.
Consider how you will present the information. You could present all of the similarities first and then present all of the differences. Or you could go point by point and show the similarity and difference of one point, then the similarity and difference for another point, and so on.
It is tempting to just provide summary for this type of paper, but analysis will show the importance of the comparisons and contrasts. For instance, if you are comparing two articles on the topic of the nursing shortage, help us understand what this will achieve. Did you find consensus between the articles that will support a certain action step for people in the field? Did you find discrepancies between the two that point to the need for further investigation?
When drawing comparisons or making contrasts, be sure you are dealing with similar aspects of each item. To use an old cliché, are you comparing apples to apples?
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Compare and contrast essays are academic papers in which a student analyses two or more subjects with each other. To compare means to explore similarities between subjects, while to contrast means to look at their differences. Both subjects of the comparison are usually in the same category, although they have their differences. For example, it can be two movies, two universities, two cars etc.
Good compare and contrast papers from college essay writer focus on a central point, explaining the importance and implications of this analysis. A compare and contrast essay thesis must make a meaningful comparison. Find the central theme of your essay and do some brainstorming for your thesis.
This type of essay is very common among college and university students. Professors challenge their students to use their analytical and comparative skills and pay close attention to the subjects of their comparisons. This type of essay exercises observance and analysis, helps to establish a frame of reference, and makes meaningful arguments about a subject. Let's get deeper on how to write a compare and contrast essay with our research writing services .
Now that you know what is compare and contrast essay and are set with your topic, the first thing you should do is grab a piece of paper and make a list with two columns: similarities and differences. Jot down key things first, the most striking ones. Then try to look at the subjects from a different angle, incorporating your imagination.
If you are more of a visual learner, creating a Venn diagram might be a good idea. In order to create it, draw two circles that overlap. In the section where it overlaps, note similarities. Differences should be written in the part of the circle that does not overlap.
Let’s look at a simple example of compare and contrast essay. Let one of the subjects be oranges, and the other one be apples. Oranges have thick peel, originally from India, and are tropical fruit. These characteristics pertain only to oranges and should be in the part of the circle that does not overlap. For the same section on apples, we put thin peel, originated in Turkey or Kazakhstan, and moderate to subtropical. In the section that overlaps, let’s say that they are both fruit, can be juiced, and grow on trees. This simple, yet good example illustrates how the same concept can be applied to many other complicated topics with additional points of comparison and contrast.
This format of visual aid helps to organize similarities and differences and make them easier to perceive. Your diagram will give you a clear idea of the things you can write about.
Another good idea for brainstorming in preparation for your comparison contrast essay is to create a list with 2 columns, one for each subject, and compare the same characteristics for each of them simultaneously. This compare and contrast format will make writing your comparison contrast paper argument a breeze, as you will have your ideas ready and organized.
One mistake you should avoid is simply listing all of the differences or similarities for each subject. Sometimes students get too caught up in looking for similarities and differences that their compare and contrast essays end up sounding like grocery lists. Your essay should be based on analyzing the similarities and differences, analyzing your conclusions about the two subjects, and finding connections between them—while following a specific format.
So, how do you structure this compare and contrast paper? Well, since compare and contrast essay examples rely heavily on factual analysis, there are two outline methods that can help you organize your facts. You can use the block method, or point-by-point method, to write a compare and contrast essay outline.
While using the block structure of a compare and contrast essay, all the information is presented for the first subject, and its characteristics and specific details are explained. This concludes one block. The second block takes the same approach as the first for the second subject.
The point-by-point structure lists each similarity and difference simultaneously—making notes of both subjects. For example, you can list a characteristic specific to one subject, followed by its similarity or difference to the other subject.
Both formats have their pros and cons. The block method is clearly easier for a compare and contrast essay writer, as you simply point out all of the information about the two subjects, and basically leave it to the reader to do the comparison. The point-by-point format requires you to analyze the points yourself while making similarities and differences more explicit to the reader for them to be easier to understand. Here is a detailed structure of each type presented below.
Example thesis: Cars and motorcycles make for excellent means of transportation, but a good choice depends on the person’s lifestyle, finances, and the city they live in.
Body Paragraph 1 - LIFESTYLE
Body Paragraph 2 - FINANCES
Body Paragraph 3 - CITY
Body Paragraph 1
Body Paragraph 2
Body Paragraph 3
Use the last paragraph to evaluate the comparisons and explain why they’re essential. Giving a lot of facts can be intense. To water it down, try to give the reader any real-life applications of these facts.
Depending on the structure selected, you can begin to create an outline for your essay. The typical comparison essay follows the format of having an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion — though, if you need to focus on each subject in more detailed ways, feel free to include an extra paragraph to cover all of the most important points.
To make your compare and contrast essay flow better, we recommend using special transition words and phrases. They will add variety and improve your paper overall.
For the section where you compare two subjects, you can include any of the following words: similarly, likewise, also, both, just like, similar to, the same as, alike, or to compare to. When contrasting two subjects, use: in contrast, in comparison, by comparison, on the other hand, while, whereas, but, to differ from, dissimilar to, or unlike.
Arguments for any essay, including compare and contrast essays, need to be supported by sufficient evidence. Make good use of your personal experiences, books, scholarly articles, magazine and newspaper articles, movies, or anything that will make your argument sound credible. For example, in your essay, if you were to compare attending college on campus vs. distance-based learning, you could include your personal experiences of being a student, and how often students show up to class on a daily basis. You could also talk about your experience taking online classes, which makes your argument about online classes credible as well.
The biggest tip dissertation writing services can give you is to have the right attitude when writing a compare contrast essay, and actively engage the reader in the discussion. If you find it interesting, so will your reader! Here are some more compare and contrast essay tips that will help you to polish yours up:
Now that you know everything there is to know about compare and contrast essays, let’s take a look at some compare and contrast examples to get you started on your paper or get a hand from our essay helper .
Different countries across the world have diverse cultural practices, and this has an effect on work relationships and development. Geert Hofstede came up with a structured way of comparing cultural dimensions of different countries. The theory explains the impacts of a community’s culture on the values of the community members, and the way these values relate to their behaviors. He gives scores as a way to help distinguish people from different nations using the following dimensions: long-term orientation, individualism, power distance, indulgence, necessity avoidance, and masculinity. Let us examine comparisons between two countries: the United Kingdom and China — based on Hofstede’s Six Dimensions of Culture.
Over the last two decades, the demand from consumers for organic foods has increased tremendously. In fact, the popularity of organic foods has exploded significantly with consumers, spending a considerably higher amount of money on them as compared to the amount spent on inorganic foods. The US market noted an increase in sales of more than 10% between 2014 and 2015 (Brown, n.p). The increase is in line with the views of many consumers that organic foods are safer, tastier, and healthier compared to the inorganic foods. Furthermore, considering the environmental effects of foods, organic foods present less risk of environmental pollution — compared to inorganic foods. By definition, organic foods are those that are grown without any artificial chemical treatment, or treatment by use of other substances that have been modified genetically, such as hormones and/or antibiotics (Brown, n.p).
Still feeling confused about the complexities of the compare and contrast essay? Feel free to contact our paper writing service to get a professional writing help.
When choosing a topic for your comparison essay, remember that subjects cannot be drastically different, because there would be little to no points of comparison (similarities). The same goes for too many similarities, which will result in poor contrasts. For example, it is better to write about two composers, rather than a composer and a singer.
It is extremely important to choose a topic you are passionate about. You never want to come across something that seems dull and uninspiring for you. Here are some excellent ways to brainstorm for a topic from essay writer :
Use our rewrite essay service when you need help from professionals.
College students should consider providing themselves with a chance to use all topic examples. With enough revision, an advantage is gained. As it will be possible to compare arguments and contrast their aspects. Also, discuss numerous situations to get closer to the conclusion.
For example:
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Choosing a topic can be a challenging task, but there are plenty of options to consider. In the following sections, we have compiled a list of 150 compare and contrast essay topics to help you get started. These topics cover a wide range of subjects, from education and technology to history and politics. Whether you are a high school student or a college student, you are sure to find a topic that interests you. So, read on to discover some great compare and contrast essay ideas.
When attending a college, at any time your professor can assign you the task of writing this form of an essay. Consider these topics for college students from our team to get the grades you deserve.
Some topics for the compare and contrast essay format can be boring. To keep up motivation, doing a research , have a look at these topics. Maybe they can serve you as research paper help .
When writing essays for high school, it is good to keep them informative. Have a look at these compare and contrast sample topics.
At some point, every science student will be assigned this type of essay. To keep things at flow, have a look at best compare and contrast essay example topics on science:
Studying Physical Education? Or a gym fanatic? Have a look at our compare and contrast essay topics for sports and leisure.
Culture can have several meanings. If you’re a Religious Studies or Culture student, take a look at these good compare and contrast essay topics about culture.
What about writing an essay which is out of the ordinary? Consider following these topics to write a compare and contrast essay on, that are unique.
Sometimes, it may be a requirement to take it back a notch. Especially if you’re new to these style of writing. Consider having a look at these good compare and contrast essay topics that are pretty easy to start off.
We all enjoy at least one of these things. If not, all of them. Why not have a go at writing a compare and contrast essay about what you have been recently watching or listening to?
Sometimes, art students are required to write this style of essay. Have a look at these compare and contrast essay topics about the arts of the centuries.
Almost every student at any stage of academics is assigned this style of writing. If you’re lacking inspiration, consider looking at some of the best compare and contrast essay topics to get you on track with your writing.
In all types of academics, these essays occur. If you’re new to this style of writing, check our easy compare and contrast essay topics.
Deciding upon good compare and contrast essay topics for psychology assignments can be difficult. Consider referring to our list of 10 psychology compare and contrast essay topics to help get the deserved grades.
From time to time, your teacher will assign the task of writing a compare and contrast essay. It can be hard to choose a topic, especially for beginners. Check out our easy compare and contrast essay topics for sixth graders.
Sometimes, it is good to have a laugh. As they always say : 'laughter is the best medicine'. Check out these funny compare and contrast essay topics for a little giggle when writing.
Give us your paper requirements, set the deadline, choose a writer and chill while we write an original paper for you.
How to start a compare and contrast essay, how to write a thesis for a compare and contrast essay.
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is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.
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This section will help you determine the purpose and structure of comparison/contrast in writing.
Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while contrast in writing discusses elements that are different. A compare-and-contrast essay, then, analyzes two subjects by comparing them, contrasting them, or both.
The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. The purpose of conducting the comparison or contrast is not to state the obvious but rather to illuminate subtle differences or unexpected similarities. For example, if you wanted to focus on contrasting two subjects you would not pick apples and oranges; rather, you might choose to compare and contrast two types of oranges or two types of apples to highlight subtle differences. For example, Red Delicious apples are sweet, while Granny Smiths are tart and acidic. Drawing distinctions between elements in a similar category will increase the audience’s understanding of that category, which is the purpose of the compare-and-contrast essay.
Similarly, to focus on comparison, choose two subjects that seem at first to be unrelated. For a comparison essay, you likely would not choose two apples or two oranges because they share so many of the same properties already. Rather, you might try to compare how apples and oranges are quite similar. The more divergent the two subjects initially seem, the more interesting a comparison essay will be.
The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide useful knowledge to the reader. Take the following thesis as an example that leans more toward contrasting:
Thesis Statement: Organic vegetables may cost more than those that are conventionally grown, but when put to the test, they are definitely worth every extra penny.
Here the thesis sets up the two subjects to be compared and contrasted (organic versus conventional vegetables), and it makes a claim about the results that might prove useful to the reader.
You may organize compare-and-contrast essays in one of the following two ways:
The organizational structure you choose depends on the nature of the topic, your purpose, and your audience.
Given that compare-and-contrast essays analyze the relationship between two subjects, it is helpful to have some phrases on hand that will cue the reader to such analysis.
Phrases of Comparison and Contrast
one similarity | one difference |
another similarity | another difference |
both | conversely |
like | in contrast |
likewise | unlike |
similarly | while |
in a similar fashion | whereas |
First choose whether you want to compare seemingly disparate subjects, contrast seemingly similar subjects, or compare and contrast subjects. Once you have decided on a topic, introduce it with an engaging opening paragraph. Your thesis should come at the end of the introduction, and it should establish the subjects you will compare, contrast, or both as well as state what can be learned from doing so.
The body of the essay can be organized in one of two ways: by subject or by individual points. The organizing strategy that you choose will depend on, as always, your audience and your purpose. You may also consider your particular approach to the subjects as well as the nature of the subjects themselves; some subjects might better lend themselves to one structure or the other. Make sure to use comparison and contrast phrases to cue the reader to the ways in which you are analyzing the relationship between the subjects.
After you finish analyzing the subjects, write a conclusion that summarizes the main points of the essay and reinforces your thesis.
Comparing and Contrasting London and Washington, DC
By Scott McLean in Writing for Success
Both Washington, DC, and London are capital cities of English-speaking countries, and yet they offer vastly different experiences to their residents and visitors. Comparing and contrasting the two cities based on their history, their culture, and their residents show how different and similar the two are.
Both cities are rich in world and national history, though they developed on very different time lines. London, for example, has a history that dates back over two thousand years. It was part of the Roman Empire and known by the similar name, Londinium. It was not only one of the northernmost points of the Roman Empire but also the epicenter of the British Empire where it held significant global influence from the early sixteenth century on through the early twentieth century. Washington, DC, on the other hand, has only formally existed since the late eighteenth century. Though Native Americans inhabited the land several thousand years earlier, and settlers inhabited the land as early as the sixteenth century, the city did not become the capital of the United States until the 1790s. From that point onward to today, however, Washington, DC, has increasingly maintained significant global influence. Even though both cities have different histories, they have both held, and continue to hold, significant social influence in the economic and cultural global spheres.
Both Washington, DC, and London offer a wide array of museums that harbor many of the world’s most prized treasures. While Washington, DC, has the National Gallery of Art and several other Smithsonian galleries, London’s art scene and galleries have a definite edge in this category. From the Tate Modern to the British National Gallery, London’s art ranks among the world’s best. This difference and advantage has much to do with London and Britain’s historical depth compared to that of the United States. London has a much richer past than Washington, DC, and consequently has a lot more material to pull from when arranging its collections. Both cities have thriving theater districts, but again, London wins this comparison, too, both in quantity and quality of theater choices. With regard to other cultural places like restaurants, pubs, and bars, both cities are very comparable. Both have a wide selection of expensive, elegant restaurants as well as a similar amount of global and national chains. While London may be better known for its pubs and taste in beer, DC offers a different bar-going experience. With clubs and pubs that tend to stay open later than their British counterparts, the DC night life tend to be less reserved overall.
Both cities also share and differ in cultural diversity and cost of living. Both cities share a very expensive cost of living—both in terms of housing and shopping. A downtown one-bedroom apartment in DC can easily cost $1,800 per month, and a similar “flat” in London may double that amount. These high costs create socioeconomic disparity among the residents. Although both cities’ residents are predominantly wealthy, both have a significantly large population of poor and homeless. Perhaps the most significant difference between the resident demographics is the racial makeup. Washington, DC, is a “minority majority” city, which means the majority of its citizens are races other than white. In 2009, according to the US Census, 55 percent of DC residents were classified as “Black or African American” and 35 percent of its residents were classified as “white.” London, by contrast, has very few minorities—in 2006, 70 percent of its population was “white,” while only 10 percent was “black.” The racial demographic differences between the cities is drastic.
Even though Washington, DC, and London are major capital cities of English-speaking countries in the Western world, they have many differences along with their similarities. They have vastly different histories, art cultures, and racial demographics, but they remain similar in their cost of living and socioeconomic disparity.
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Essay writing is a fundamental skill, a basic task, that is expected of those who choose to pursue their undergraduate and master’s degrees. It constitutes a key requirement for students to complete a given course credit. However, many students and early career researchers find themselves struggling with the challenge of organizing their thoughts into a coherent, engaging structure. This article is especially for those who see essay writing as a daunting task and face problems in presenting their work in an impactful way.
Read on as we delve into the basic elements of essay writing, outline key principles for organizing information, and cover some foundational features of writing essays.
Essays are written in a flowing and continuous pattern but with a structure of its own. An introduction, body and conclusion are integral to it. The key is to balance the amount and kind of information to be presented in each part. Various disciplines may have their own conventions or guidelines on the information to be provided in the introduction.
A clear articulation of the context and background of the study is important, as is the definition of key terms and an outline of specific models or theories used. Readers also need to know the significance of the study and its implications for further research. Most importantly, the thesis or the main proposition should be clearly presented.
The body of the essay is therefore organized into paragraphs that hold the main ideas and arguments and is presented and analyzed in a logical manner. Ideally, each paragraph of the body focuses on one main point or a distinct topic and must be supported by evidence and analysis. The concluding paragraph should bring back to the reader the key arguments, its significance and food for thought. It is best not to re-state all the points of the essay or introduce a new concept here.
In other words, certain general guidelines help structure the information in the essay. The information must flow logically with the context or the background information presented in the introductory part of the essay. The arguments are built organically where each paragraph in the body of the essay deals with a different point, yet closely linked to the para preceding and following it. Importantly, when writing essays, early career researchers must be careful in ensuring that each piece of information relates to the main thesis and is a building block to the arguments.
The structure of an essay can be determined by the kind of essay that is required.
Also known as the cause-and-effect approach, this is a straightforward way to structure an essay. In such essays, events are discussed sequentially, as they occurred from the earliest to the latest. A chronological structure is useful for discussing a series of events or processes such as historical analyses or narratives of events. The introduction should have the topic sentence. The body of the essay should follow a chorological progression with each para discussing a major aspect of that event with supporting evidence. It ends with a summarizing of the results of the events.
Where the essay focuses on a specific problem, the problem-methods-solutions structure can be used to organize the essay. This structure is ideal for essays that address complex issues. It starts with presenting the problem, the context, and thesis statement as introduction to the essay. The major part of the discussion which forms the body of the essay focuses on stating the problem and its significance, the author’s approach or methods adopted to address the problem along with its relevance, and accordingly proposing solution(s) to the identified problem. The concluding part offers a recap of the research problem, methods, and proposed solutions, emphasizing their significance and potential impact.
This structure of essay writing is ideally used when two or more key subjects require a comparison of ideas, theories, or phenomena. The three crucial elements, introduction, body, and conclusion, remain the same. The introduction presents the context and the thesis statement. The body of the essay seeks to focus on and highlight differences between the subjects, supported by evidence and analysis. The conclusion is used to summarize the key points of comparison and contrast, offering insights into the significance of the analysis.
Depending on how the subjects will be discussed, the body of the essay can be organized according to the block method or the alternating method. In the block method, one para discusses one subject and the next para the other subject. In the alternative method, both subjects are discussed in one para based on a particular topic or issue followed by the next para on another issue and so on.
An essay structure serves as a framework for presenting ideas coherently and logically. It comprises three crucial elements: an introduction that communicates the context, topic, and thesis statement; the body focusing on the main points and arguments supported with appropriate evidence followed by its analysis; and a conclusion that ties together the main points and its importance .
An essay structure well-defined essay structure enhances clarity, coherence, and readability, and is crucial for organizing ideas and arguments to effectively communicate key aspects of a chosen topic. It allows readers to better understand arguments presented and demonstrates the author’s ability to organize and present information systematically.
Yes, while expert recommend following an essay structure, early career researchers may choose how best to adapt standard essay structures to communicate and share their research in an impactful and engaging way. However, do keep in mind that deviating too far from established structures can hinder comprehension and weaken the overall effectiveness of the essay, By understanding the basic elements of essay writing and employing appropriate structures such as chronological, problem-methods-solutions, or compare and contrast, researchers can effectively organize their ideas and communicate their findings with clarity and precision.
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Published September 27, 2020. Updated May 4, 2022.
A compare and contrast essay discusses similarities and differences between two subjects. The discussion shows the writer’s deep understanding of both subjects.
This page will cover the following points:
What is a compare and contrast essay, step 1: choose what to compare and contrast, step 2: brainstorm similarities and differences, step 3: write an introduction and a thesis, step 4: use block method or point-to-point, step 5: write a conclusion.
A compare and contrast essay discusses the similarities and differences between two subjects. This shows a deep understanding of both subjects.
Sometimes, instructors ask students to weigh the positives and negatives of both subjects, choose which subject is better, and defend their position. Read the essay prompt carefully!
Worried about your writing? Submit your paper for a Chegg Writing essay check , or for an Expert Check proofreading . Both can help you find and fix potential writing issues.
In some classes, your instructor will tell you which two subjects to focus on. They’ll usually pick topics discussed in lectures.
For example, in an American literature course, your instructor may ask you to compare and contrast two writers like Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac. Both were part of the same literary movement (the Beat Generation) but still had unique styles and priorities.
Your instructor may let you choose your subjects. Pick two people, things, or ideas discussed in class with clear differences but something in common, too.
Let’s say, for example, your class is talking about pizza (what a great class, right?). You’ll want to choose two subjects in that category that are comparable, such as New York-style pizza and Chicago deep-dish pizza. Both are types of pizza, and they both mean a lot to certain American cities.
You can also find ways to contrast these two pizzas. They both have a distinct shape and are eaten differently (try eating deep-dish pizza with your hands!).
Although your class probably isn’t talking about pizza, the point here is to pick two subjects that:
But how will you know if any given similarity or difference is important ? In the next section, you’ll brainstorm your essay’s main points and pick the ones that are most appropriate for your class.
By now, you’ve chosen (or were told) your two subjects. Next, it’s time to think about what differences and similarities your paper should focus on.
Since this brainstorming session is just for you, feel free to use whichever method you prefer. Some people like to use Venn diagrams to organize their thoughts. Others prefer a T-chart or just jotting ideas down.
Not all compare and contrast points are made equal. Think about what your instructor has talked about in class so far. Then, decide which points would sound the most appropriate for your course.
This is also a good time to revisit the prompt. Your instructor may have already hinted at what they’d like you to discuss in the instructions.
Here’s an example of a brainstorming session about New York- and Chicago-style pizza. Let’s figure out which of these compare and contrast points would be best for the paper:
Point #1: Because of the size, often sold by the slice, it is a quick fast-food option | Point #1: Mostly sold by the pie, making it more common for “sit-down” restaurants or at-home cooking |
Point #2: Hand-tossed crust | Point #2: Thick, deep crust |
Point #3: Important for NYC’s identity | Point #3: Important for Chicago’s identity |
Point #4: Many restaurants nearby make it | Point #4: Many restaurants nearby make it |
After brainstorming, you have four very different points for your pizza paper. Each could be helpful, depending on the class.
If the class is about local history, then the last point, “many restaurants nearby make it,” will be useful. If not, then that point is likely the least relevant.
Meanwhile, a class about United States history will care deeply about how these different foods helped shape the identity of Chicago and New York City, respectively (point #3).
Points #1 and #2 talk about the size and shape of the pizza. These would be great choices for a home economics class, where the preparation and presentation of the dish are important.
Whichever points you choose for your compare and contrast essay, make sure they make sense and seem relevant to your class. Never throw in an extra point just to reach the word count for the paper. Your instructor will be able to tell!
Once you have three or four relevant points for your compare and contrast essay, it’s time to write the thesis statement. This will tell your instructor why these similarities and differences are important and worth talking about in an essay.
The introduction is where you’ll tell your audience what your two subjects are. You’ll also discuss the main ways you plan to compare and contrast them.
One of the most important parts of your introduction (and the whole paper) is your thesis statement. The thesis is the main argument of your essay.
Why should someone care about the similarities and differences between these two subjects? That’s the question your thesis statement should answer.
Let’s think, for example, about the New York- and Chicago-style pizza essay. Why should your instructor care about comparing and contrasting these two pizza types?
Here’s an example thesis statement for that paper:
Both New York-style and Chicago deep-dish pizza are important to the identities of their respective cities. However, the fast, portable nature of by-the-slice New York-style pizza makes it easier for the average New Yorker to eat frequently than does the deep-dish pizza for Chicago residents.
This thesis statement not only points out differences and similarities between the pizzas but also begins to say why those differences matter. Remember that the rest of your paper should support the points made in your thesis statement and address important questions.
For example, in the pizza-paper thesis, common questions might include:
What makes New York-style pizza more portable? In what ways are these pizzas important to each city’s identity?
Now, you have a compelling thesis statement for your paper ready to go. Next, you’ll spend some time thinking about how you want to present the similarities and differences between your two subjects.
Would you like to talk about one subject at a time? Or would you prefer to switch between the two to better highlight their differences?
In the next section, you’ll learn the pros and cons of both of these styles. Then, you’ll decide which one is right for your paper.
Here’s what a well-outlined introduction looks like:
– Begin with a lighthearted discussion about the centuries-long debate over cats and dogs.
– Thesis statement: Cats and dogs have varying activity levels, maintenance needs, and ways of showing affection, which potential owners should keep in mind before deciding between the two.
There are many ways to format your compare and contrast paper. But to keep things simple, let’s focus on the two most popular strategies.
With the block method , you make all your points about subject #1 before switching to subject #2. You may dedicate one or even two full paragraphs to the first subject before comparing it with the second one.
Here’s an example outline for a block method essay:
Paragraph 1: Introduction
P2: Subject #1
P3: Subject #1 (continued)
P4: Subject #2
P5: Subject #2 (continued)
P6: Conclusion
There are pros and cons to each method. The main benefit of the block method is that it is easy to keep your paper organized. Because you’re only discussing one subject at a time, your instructor can easily tell what you’re talking about.
There are still cons to this structure, though. For example, it will be harder for your audience to remember the points you made about subject #1 when you finally get to subject #2.
If you want to more closely compare and contrast your two subjects, you’ll want to use the point-to-point approach.
With point-to-point, you’ll dedicate each of your body paragraphs to a similarity or difference between the two subjects. You’ll compare and contrast both subjects in each body paragraph.
Let’s take a look at an outline organized for the point-to-point method:
P2: Similarity #1
P3: Similarity #2
P4: Difference #1
P5: Difference #2
The main benefit of point-to-point is that the similarities and differences between your two subjects will be more clear. After all, you’re going back and forth between the two at all times.
Because you are switching so often, though, you’ll want to write very clearly. Be sure to use plenty of transition words, which you’ll learn more about in the next section. Otherwise, your instructor may lose track of what you’re discussing.
Both of these methods will work with most compare and contrast essays. You’ll have to decide for yourself if you feel your subjects would be better discussed one at a time (block method) or back and forth (point-to-point).
Transition words for a compare and contrast essay.
In a compare and contrast essay, you’ll be discussing at least two different subjects throughout the paper. That’s why it’s helpful to use transition words. These words will let your audience know when you’re moving on to a new topic or directly contrasting two ideas.
Here are some useful transition words for compare and contrast essays:
As you can guess, some of these words (ex: “similarly” and “likewise”) help you compare your two subjects. Here’s an example:
Pizza-by-the-slice places are an iconic image of New York City. Similarly , visitors to Chicago make it a point to find a deep-dish pizza restaurant.
Other transition words (ex: “in contrast” and “unlike”) point to an important difference. Let’s try one out:
Unlike New York-style pizza, which can be enjoyed on the go, Chicago deep-dish pizza is suited better for a traditional, sit-down restaurant.
Use these and other transition words to make your points more clear. Try using different transition words throughout your paper, such as using “similarly” once and then “likewise” the next time. That way, you can avoid monotonous sentences.
By the time you reach the conclusion of a compare and contrast paper, you’ve already done a lot of planning and writing. It’s completely understandable if you feel a bit burned out.
Like many other papers, you’ll want to use the conclusion of your compare and contrast essay to remind your instructor of your main points. But it’s also important not to copy and paste your introduction into the conclusion.
Try to find a new, eye-catching way to transition back into your main points and restate your thesis. Here’s an example for the New York- and Chicago-style pizzas:
In the season 2 episode of The Office (US), “Valentine’s Day,” Michael Scott visits downtown New York City and immediately runs into a Sbarro’s restaurant for a “New York slice.” The scene is a joke about Michael’s naïveté. But it also points to how second nature New York-style pizza is for experiencing the area. Both New York-style and Chicago deep-dish pizza hold a special place in their city’s identities…
As always, make sure whatever you write is appropriate for your class. With a topic as light-hearted as pizza, a quick The Office reference fits right in. But in other essays, a pop culture reference would be distracting.
Here’s an example of an outline for a conclusion:
– Talk about famous cats and dogs in pop culture and their personalities, like Chloe and Max from The Secret Life of Pets .
– Restate thesis: From the palaces of Ancient Egypt to the condos of modern-day New York City, both cats and dogs have long been revered for their companionship. Potential owners should consider cats and dogs’ varying activity levels, grooming needs, and ways of showing affection before deciding which pet is right for them.
Use your conclusion to reinforce the points made throughout the paper. Adding anecdotes like the one above can make your paper stand out and keep the attention of your instructor. It’s also a way to let them know that you took the assignment seriously from the beginning to the very end.
Before you turn in that paper, don’t forget to cite your sources in APA format , MLA format , or a style of your choice.
In many cases, your instructor assigns compare and contrast papers to test your comprehension of two subjects, as well as to see how well you understand authors, historical periods, or other concepts discussed in class.
Planning and writing these essays can be intimidating at first. In this guide, though, you’ll find helpful tips, from the first brainstorming session all the way to wrapping up the conclusion.
Published August 19, 2020.
By James Ardis. James is a writer who earned his MFA in Poetry from the University of Mississippi. He’s also taught English as a Second Language in South Korea, Thailand, and to refugees living in America.
Ai generator.
Compare and Contrast is a method to examine similarities and differences between subjects, ideas, or objects. By identifying commonalities and divergences, this approach deepens understanding and highlights unique qualities. It’s essential in literature, education, and science, fostering critical thinking and analysis. This technique is frequently used in Compare Contrast Essay , Comparison Contrast Essay , and Comparative Essay writing.
Compare and contrast is a method of analyzing similarities and differences between two or more subjects, ideas, events, or objects. This technique is commonly used in writing, particularly in essays and research papers, to help readers understand relationships between items being compared.
These topics can provide a solid foundation for discussing similarities and differences, allowing for a thorough analysis and exploration in your essays.
Here’s a comparison table outlining the differences between “Compare” and “Contrast”:
Highlighting similarities between two or more subjects. | Pointing out differences between two or more subjects. | |
Emphasizes commonalities. | Emphasizes differences. | |
To show how things are alike. | To show how things are different. | |
Often uses comparative phrases like “similarly,” “also,” etc. | Uses contrasting phrases like “however,” “on the other hand.” | |
Enhances understanding of shared traits. | Enhances understanding of distinctions. | |
Comparing the features of two smartphone models. | Contrasting the political ideologies of two leaders. | |
Venn diagrams are commonly used. | Tables or lists can be effective. |
Compare and contrast is an essential cognitive process and academic skill that serves several important purposes:
How do you structure a compare and contrast essay.
Start with an introduction, followed by body paragraphs comparing and contrasting, and end with a conclusion.
Examples include comparing two books, historical events, or different theories.
Words like “similarly,” “on the other hand,” and “however.”
It visually represents similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
Comparing focuses on similarities; contrasting focuses on differences.
Use point-by-point or subject-by-subject methods.
It aids in understanding complex topics and developing analytical skills.
It discusses similarities and differences between two or more subjects in a concise format.
Present facts objectively and consider multiple perspectives.
Overemphasizing similarities or differences without critical analysis.
Text prompt
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This essay explores the similarities and differences between constitutional republics and democracies through the lens of gourmet cuisine. It compares a constitutional republic to a meticulously crafted French pastry, emphasizing stability and adherence to a defined set of principles outlined in a constitution. In contrast, democracy is likened to a vibrant street food market, highlighting the responsiveness and adaptability of a system that reflects the will of the people. The essay examines how countries like the United Kingdom and India blend elements of both governance models, much like fusion cuisine combines different culinary traditions. By understanding these parallels, the essay provides insights into the complexities and dynamics of political systems.
How it works
Understanding constitutional republics and democracies can be as delightful and complex as exploring the world of gourmet cuisine. Just as different culinary traditions offer unique flavors and experiences, these forms of governance present distinct approaches to organizing and managing society. Let’s embark on a journey to compare these governance models through the lens of culinary arts.
Imagine a constitutional republic as a meticulously crafted French pastry. The process of creating a perfect croissant, for instance, requires a precise recipe, quality ingredients, and expert techniques.
Similarly, a constitutional republic is grounded in a carefully designed constitution that outlines the structure of government, delineates powers, and guarantees rights. This document is akin to a trusted recipe that ensures consistency, stability, and the protection of individual liberties. The United States serves as a prime example, where the Constitution acts as the guiding principle for all governmental actions, much like the detailed steps followed by a pastry chef.
In this system, the rule of law is paramount, ensuring that every action by the government adheres to the constitutional framework. This adherence provides stability and predictability, much like the reliable perfection of a well-made croissant. The separation of powers within a constitutional republic functions like the balanced ingredients in a recipe, each element—be it the executive, legislative, or judicial branch—playing a critical role in creating a harmonious whole. This balance prevents any single branch from overpowering the others, ensuring a well-rounded and stable governance structure.
On the other hand, democracy can be compared to a vibrant, bustling street food market. Imagine the lively atmosphere of a Thai street food market, where the air is filled with tantalizing aromas, and each vendor offers a unique and flavorful dish. In ancient Athens, direct democracy allowed citizens to participate directly in legislative and judicial decisions, much like the spontaneous and dynamic interactions at a street market. Modern representative democracies, where elected officials act on behalf of the people, resemble a collaborative kitchen where chefs work together to create a diverse menu, each bringing their own flair and expertise to the table.
Democracies prioritize the role of the people, ensuring that the will of the majority is reflected in government decisions. This responsiveness is akin to the adaptability of street food vendors who cater to the immediate tastes and preferences of their customers. However, without a guiding framework, democracies can risk majoritarianism, where the majority’s desires might overshadow the rights of minority groups. This potential for imbalance highlights the importance of blending democratic principles with constitutional safeguards, much like balancing bold flavors with underlying subtleties in a well-composed dish.
Consider the United Kingdom, a nation that masterfully blends elements of both governance models, much like a fusion restaurant combining different culinary traditions. Operating as a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy, the UK offers the stability of a constitutional framework with the flexibility of democratic responsiveness. The British Parliament, like a dynamic kitchen staff, debates and decides on laws, while the monarchy provides a sense of continuity and tradition, akin to a signature dish that anchors the menu. This hybrid system ensures governance that is both adaptable and grounded in established principles.
Similarly, India operates as a federal parliamentary democratic republic, with its Constitution serving as a comprehensive guide for governance. The Indian Constitution, much like a detailed cookbook, outlines the powers and responsibilities of government institutions and protects individual rights. Elected representatives, like chefs interpreting a recipe, bring their constituents’ diverse perspectives into the legislative process, creating a vibrant and multifaceted political landscape. This combination allows for both stability and responsiveness, much like a well-curated menu that offers both classic and innovative dishes.
In essence, the distinctions between constitutional republics and democracies can be likened to the differences between a meticulously crafted pastry and the dynamic variety of street food. A constitutional republic, with its emphasis on the rule of law and protection of individual rights, offers stability and predictability. Democracy, with its focus on the will of the people, provides flexibility and responsiveness. The interplay between these two models can be seen in various countries around the world, where elements of both systems are combined to create a balanced and effective form of governance.
Think of the art of Japanese kaiseki, where a multi-course meal balances taste, texture, and presentation with meticulous precision. A constitutional republic is similar, with laws and institutions shaping the direction of governance within a structured framework. In contrast, the spontaneous creation of a food festival, responding to seasonal ingredients and current trends, mirrors the fluid and responsive nature of a democracy. Both culinary traditions require skill and intuition, and both governance models require a balance of principles and adaptability.
Understanding these nuances requires a keen appreciation for the interplay between structure and flexibility, whether in the context of political systems or culinary arts. Just as a gourmand must understand different cuisines to fully appreciate a meal, citizens must understand the principles and dynamics of their government to engage effectively in civic life. The art of governance, much like the art of cuisine, is diverse and multifaceted, offering numerous ways to achieve a harmonious and prosperous society.
In conclusion, comparing constitutional republics and democracies through the lens of cuisine highlights their unique characteristics and the potential for blending elements to create a balanced governance system. Whether as a meticulously crafted pastry or a vibrant street food market, each model has its strengths and challenges. By appreciating these differences and recognizing the potential for hybrid systems, we can better understand the intricate dance of governance and the ongoing pursuit of a just and effective society, much like savoring the complexity and richness of a well-prepared meal.
Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies. (2024, Jun 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/
"Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies." PapersOwl.com , 28 Jun 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/
PapersOwl.com. (2024). Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/ [Accessed: 29 Jun. 2024]
"Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies." PapersOwl.com, Jun 28, 2024. Accessed June 29, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/
"Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies," PapersOwl.com , 28-Jun-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/. [Accessed: 29-Jun-2024]
PapersOwl.com. (2024). Governance and Cuisine: The Flavors of Constitutional Republics and Democracies . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/governance-and-cuisine-the-flavors-of-constitutional-republics-and-democracies/ [Accessed: 29-Jun-2024]
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Comparison of emission properties of sustainable aviation fuels and conventional aviation fuels: a review, 1. introduction, 2. aviation fuel emissions, 2.1. lca of co 2 emissions, 2.2. aviation no x emissions, 2.3. aviation co emissions, 2.4. aviation so 2 emissions, 2.5. aviation pm emissions, 2.6. aviation uhc emissions, 2.7. comprehensive comparison of emissions performance between safs and conventional aviation fuels, 3. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest, abbreviations.
IATA | International Air Transport Association |
SAFs | Sustainable aviation fuels |
FT-SPK | Fischer–Tropsch hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosine |
ATAG | Air Transport Action Group |
CAGR | Compound annual growth rate |
HEFA SPK | Synthesized paraffinic kerosene hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids |
SIP | Synthesized iso-paraffins |
ATJ-SPK | Alcohol-to-jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene |
HC-HEFAs | Hydroprocessed hydrocarbons, esters, and fatty acids |
APUs | Auxiliary power units |
LCA | Life cycle analysis |
RF | Radiative forcing |
ERF | Effective radiative forcing |
EI-CO | CO emission indices |
EI-NO | NO emission indices |
EI-CO | CO emission indices |
EI-SO | SO emission indices |
PM/EI-PM | Particulate matter/PM emission indices |
GHGs/EI-GHGs | Greenhouse gases/GHGs emission index |
UHC/EI-UHC | Unburnt hydrocarbons/UHC emission indices |
WTWa | Well-to-wake |
HRJ | Hydroprocessed renewable jet |
NG | Natural gas |
FER | Fossil energy ratio |
HDCJ | Hydroprocessed depolymerized cellulosic jet |
DSHC | Direct sugar to hydrocarbons |
O | Ozone |
CH | Methane |
SWV | Stratospheric water vapor |
RCP | Representative concentration pathways |
MBJ | Medium-chain fatty acids to biojet |
TTT | Turbine-inlet temperatures |
CLD | Chemiluminescence detector |
CDC | Colorless distributed combustion |
SMD | Sauter mean diameter |
FAME | Fatty acid methyl ester |
AAFX | Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment |
BC | Black carbon |
EGT | Exhaust gas temperature |
FAEE | Fatty acids ethyl esters |
LTO | Landing-take-off |
BD | Biodiesel |
nvPM | Non-volatile particulate matter |
vPM | Volatile particulate matter |
PM | Particulate matter with a dry diameter less than 2.5 µm |
aCAE | Aerosol cloud albedo effect |
FSC | Fuel sulfur content |
ULSJ | Ultra-low sulfur jet fuel |
RE | Radiative effect |
GMD | Geometric mean diameter |
GSD | Geometric standard deviation |
VOCs | Volatile organic compounds |
PAHs | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons |
MES | Main engine start |
ECS | Environmental control system |
NL | No load |
HCHJ | Hydrothermal-condensation-hydrotreating jet |
AFR | Air to fuel ratio |
PPBB | Premixed pre-evaporated Bunsen burner |
GTL | Gas to liquid |
JME | Jatropha methyl ester |
CTME | Cotton methyl ester |
CRME | Corn methyl ester |
Click here to enlarge figure
Ref. | Fuel | Sulfur Content (ppm) | Method/Burning Platform | SO Emissions |
---|---|---|---|---|
ASTM D7566 [ ] | FT-SPK | <15 | D5453/D2622 | - |
HEFA-SPK | <15 | |||
SIP | <2 | |||
FT-SPK/A | <15 | |||
ATJ-SPK | <15 | |||
CHJ | <15 | |||
HC-HEFA SPK | <15 | |||
ASTM D1655 [ ] | Jet A or Jet A-1 | <3000 | D3227/IP 342 | - |
Corporan et al. (2007) [ ] | JP-8 | 600 | T63 Engine | SO emissions of JP8, 25% synjet, 50% synjet and 75% synjet were approximately 34, 23, 15, and 7 ppm, respectively. |
25% synjet | 500 | |||
50% synjet | 400 | |||
75% synjet | 200 | |||
synjet | <100 | |||
Bulzan et al. (2010) [ ] | JP-8 | 1148 | CFM56-2C1 Engine Garrett GTC 85-98CK (APU) | 50:50, the emissions of SO from blended fuels are approximately half that of pure JP-8. |
FT1 | 19 | |||
FT1 Blend | 699 | |||
FT2 | 22 | |||
FT2 Blend | 658 | |||
Yakovlieva et al. (2019) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 250 | Calculating | 10% FAEE blend fuel reduced SO emissions by nearly 57%. |
FAEE of RO | 85 | |||
Cican et al. (2019) [ ] | Jet A | - | JETCAT P80 Microengine | With a 20% blend of BD, the EI-SO decreases to around 10 ppm. |
Biodiesel | ||||
Tran et al. (2020) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 500 | GE CF700-2D2 Engine | The increase in fuel sulfur content correlates with elevated emissions of volatile particulate matter. |
JP-5 | 200 | |||
ATJ-SPK Blend | 0 | |||
ATJ-SPK Neat | 0.96 | |||
Corporan et al. (2010) [ ] | JP-8a | 800 | F117-PW-100 engine | Percentage of engine max thrust = 4, 33, 45, 54, 63%, JP-8/HRJ and JP-8a/HRJ/FT exhibit a reduction in EI-SO exceeding 40%. |
JP-8b | 800 | |||
JP-8b/HRJ | 500 | |||
JP-8a/HRJ/FT | 500 |
Ref. | Fuel | Aromatics | Method/Burning Platform | PM Emissions |
---|---|---|---|---|
ASTM D7566 [ ] | FT-SPK | <0.5 m% | D2425 | - |
HEFA-SPK | <0.5 m% | |||
SIP | <0.5 m% | |||
FT-SPK/A | <20 m% | |||
ATJ-SPK | <0.5 m% | |||
CHJ | 8.4–21.2 m% | D2425 or D6379/IP 436 | ||
HC-HEFA SPK | <0.5 m% | D2425 | ||
ASTM D1655 [ ] | Jet A or Jet A-1 | <25/26.5 v% | D1319, etc. | - |
Durdina et al. (2021) [ ] | Jet A | 18.1 v% | CFM56-7B26 engine | nvPM number decreased by 60% and 10% during ground idle and take-off phases, respectively. nvPM mass and nvPM number decreased by 20% and 25% over a standardized LTO cycle, respectively. |
32% HEFA-SPK blend | 11.3 v% | |||
Schripp et al. (2019) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 15.6 v% | CFM56-5C4 engine | 70% reduction in particle mass for ATJ fuel compared with Jet A-1. |
ReadiJet | 20.9 v% | |||
ATJ | <1 v% | |||
Kurzawska et al. (2021) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 17.3 v% | GTM-120 engine | Total particle number and mass by approximately 18% and 53%, respectively |
50% ATJ-SPK blend | 8.8 v% | |||
Chan et al. (2016) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 18.3 v% | GE CF-700-2D-2 turbofan engine | 100% CH-SKA, 50% HEFA-SPK, and 100% FT-SPK respectively reduce EI-PM by 7–25%, 40–60%, and 70–95%. |
CH-SKA | 17 v% | |||
FT-SPK | 0.5 v% | |||
HEFA-SPK | 10.4 v% | |||
Tran et al. (2020) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 18.5 v% | GE CF700-2D2 Engine | ATJ-SPK blend reduced total particle number emissions by up to 97% compared with Jet A-1 |
JP-5 | 20.1 v% | |||
ATJ-SPK Blend | 8 v% | |||
ATJ-SPK Neat | 0 v% | |||
Voigt et al. (2021) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 18.8/17.2/18.6/ 16.5 v% | Airbus A320 equipped with two V2527-A5 engines | Semisynthetic jet fuels lead to a 50% to 70% reduction in both soot and ice number concentrations |
41% FT-SPK blend | 11.4 v% | |||
49% HEFA-SPK blend | 8.5 v% | |||
30% HEFA-SPK blend | 9.5 v% | |||
Lobo et al. (2015) [ ] | Jet A-1 | 15.55 wt% | Garrett GTCP85 (APU) | 50% UCO-HEFA blend fuel reduced nvPM number and mass emissions by approximately 35% and 60%, respectively. |
UCO-HEFA | 1.91 wt% | |||
Moore et al. (2017) [ ] | Medium-sulfur-content Jet A fuel | 21.1 ± 0.7 v% | DC-8 aircraft equipped with four CFM56-2-C1 engines | Compared with medium-sulfur-content Jet A fuel, the 50% HEFA blend fuel reduced the number of vPM and nvPM by 52% and 45%, respectively, while decreasing vPM volume, nvPM volume, and total PM volume by approximately 50%. |
Low-sulfur-content Jet A fuel | 21.4 ± 1.4 v% | |||
50:50 HEFA: Low-sulfur-content Jet A fuel | 12.9 ± 1.2 v% |
Ref. | Fuel | Method/Burning Platform | UHC Emissions |
---|---|---|---|
Undavalli et al. (2022) [ ] | Jet A-1 | GTCP85 aircraft APU | With the increase in HEFA proportion, there is no clear trend of change; the UHC emissions of HEFA-blended fuel slightly decrease. |
18 different ratios of HEFA and Jet A-1 blend fuels | |||
Liu et al. (2023) [ ] | RP-3 | ZF850 jet engine | The impact of HCHJ doping on the EI-UHC of RP-3 shows no clear trend. |
5% and 10% HCHJ blend fuels | |||
Badami et al. (2014) [ ] | Jet-A | SR-30 turbojet workbench | GTL fuel > Jet-A > 30% JME blend fuel (50,000–60,000 rpm). |
GTL fuel | |||
30% JME blend fuel | |||
Sundararaj et al. (2019) [ ] | Jet A-1 | High enthalpy rig with combustor | EI-UHC decreases with the increase of Camelina or the decrease of Jatropha in the fuel mixture. |
Biofuel (Camelina) | |||
Biofuel (Jatropha) | |||
Ali et al. (2017) [ ] | Jet A-1 | Olympus E-start HP turbojet engine | 50% CTME blend fuel and 50% CRME blend fuel respectively reduced EI-UHC by 36.5% and 30.8%. |
50% CTME blend fuel | |||
50% CRME blend fuel | |||
Rehman et al. (2011) [ ] | Diesel | IS/60 Rovers gas turbine | Diesel > 15% Jatropha biodiesel > 25% Jatropha biodiesel |
15% Jatropha biodiesel | |||
25% Jatropha biodiesel | |||
GE [ ] | Conventional aviation fuel | GE engine | The emissions of UHC increase by 20–45%. |
Bio-SPK | |||
Rolls Royce [ ] | JP-8 | Annular rig | Not much difference. |
FT fuel | |||
Pratt and Whitney [ ] | Jet A-1 | a Pratt and Whitney Canada small turbofan engine | Not much difference. |
Neste oil | |||
50% Neste oil blend fuel |
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Song, Z.; Li, Z.; Liu, Z. Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484
Song Z, Li Z, Liu Z. Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(13):5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484
Song, Zehua, Zekai Li, and Ziyu Liu. 2024. "Comparison of Emission Properties of Sustainable Aviation Fuels and Conventional Aviation Fuels: A Review" Applied Sciences 14, no. 13: 5484. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135484
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4. Provide evidence: Support your comparisons with evidence from the subjects you are analyzing. This could include quotes, statistics, or examples. 5. Use transitions: Transition words and phrases help to guide the reader through your essay and make it easier to follow your arguments. 6. Revise and edit: After you have written your essay, be ...
Make sure they have enough similarities and differences to make a meaningful comparison. 2. Brainstorm key points: Once you have chosen the subjects, brainstorm the key points you want to compare and contrast. These could include characteristics, features, themes, or arguments related to each subject. 3.
1. Choose a Strong Topic. Choose two subjects that have some similarities and differences to make your essay more interesting and engaging. 2. Create a Clear Structure. Organize your essay into sections for introduction, body paragraphs discussing similarities and differences, and a conclusion. 3.
When comparing and contrasting in an essay, there are two main ways to structure your comparisons: the alternating method and the block method. The alternating method. In the alternating method, you structure your text according to what aspect you're comparing. You cover both your subjects side by side in terms of a specific point of comparison.
The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide ...
A compare and contrast essay therefore looks at the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences. This essay type is common at university, where lecturers frequently test your understanding by asking you to compare and contrast two theories, two methods, two historical periods, two characters in a novel, etc.
Compare and contrast essays examine topics from multiple viewpoints. This kind of essay, often assigned in middle school and high school, teaches students about the analytical writing process and prepares them for more advanced forms of academic writing. Compare and contrast essays are relatively easy to write if you follow a simple step-by-step approach.
Choose a structure for your essay and plan how you will write it. Write up your comparison and use evidence to support your argument. Revise and proofread your essay to make sure it is perfect. For more advice on each stage, check out our guide below. 1. Pick Two Subjects to Compare and Contrast. A compare and contrast assignment will ask you ...
Summarize the main similarities and differences you have identified. Make a point regarding the relationship between your subjects. 4. Things to Remember. Here are some important tips to keep in mind when writing your compare and contrast essay: Ensure you are comparing or contrasting the same criteria between each subject.
This handout will help you first to determine whether a particular assignment is asking for comparison/contrast and then to generate a list of similarities and differences, decide which similarities and differences to focus on, and organize your paper so that it will be clear and effective. It will also explain how you can (and why you should ...
Use Clear Transitions. Transitions are important in compare and contrast essays, where you will be moving frequently between different topics or perspectives. Examples of transitions and phrases for comparisons: as well, similar to, consistent with, likewise, too. Examples of transitions and phrases for contrasts: on the other hand, however ...
4.1: Introduction to Comparison and Contrast Essay. The key to a good compare-and-contrast essay is to choose two or more subjects that connect in a meaningful way. Comparison and contrast is simply telling how two things are alike or different. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to ...
Compare and Contrast Essay Structure and Outline. So, how do you structure this compare and contrast paper? Well, since compare and contrast essay examples rely heavily on factual analysis, there are two outline methods that can help you organize your facts. You can use the block method, or point-by-point method, to write a compare and contrast ...
Compare and Contrast Essay Outline. The point-by-point method uses a standard five-paragraph essay structure: Introduction (contains the attention-getter, preview of main points, and thesis) Body ...
Sample Comparison-and-Contrast Essays. A South African Storm. By Allison Howard - Peace Corps Volunteer: South Africa (2003-2005) It's a Saturday afternoon in January in South Africa. When I begin the 45-minute walk to the shops for groceries, I can hear thunder cracking in the distance up the mountain in Mageobaskloof.
The Structure of a Compare/Contrast Essay. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide useful ...
A compare-contrast assignment or essay shows the similarities and differences between two topics or ideas. Comparing: ... If you are asked to write a compare-contrast essay, use the following structure: Compare-Contrast Essay Structure Introduction: Your first paragraph should introduce both topics to your reader, briefly summarizing each, and ...
Compare and contrast structures. This structure of essay writing is ideally used when two or more key subjects require a comparison of ideas, theories, or phenomena. The three crucial elements, introduction, body, and conclusion, remain the same. ... The conclusion is used to summarize the key points of comparison and contrast, offering ...
Follow these essential steps to write an effective compare and contrast essay: Choose what two subjects to compare and contrast. Brainstorm similarities and differences between the two subjects. Develop a thesis statement and write an introduction. Write an analysis, using the block method or the point-by-point method.
The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide ...
Importance of Compare and Contrast. Compare and contrast is an essential cognitive process and academic skill that serves several important purposes: Critical Thinking Development: Engaging in comparison and contrast requires students to analyze information, identify similarities and differences, and make reasoned judgments. This process ...
Recognizing comparison/contrast in assignments Some assignments use words—like compare, contrast, similarities, and differences—that make it easy for you to see that they are asking you to compare and/or contrast. Here are a few hypothetical examples: Compare and contrast Frye's and Bartky's accounts of oppression.
In contrast, democracy is likened to a vibrant street food market, highlighting the responsiveness and adaptability of a system that reflects the will of the people. The essay examines how countries like the United Kingdom and India blend elements of both governance models, much like fusion cuisine combines different culinary traditions.
In order to achieve the International Air Transport Association's (IATA) goal of achieving net-zero emissions in the aviation industry by 2050, there has been a growing emphasis globally on the technological development and practical application of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). Discrepancies in feedstock and production processes result in differences in composition between SAFs and ...
THE STRUCTURE OF A COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to provide ...
10.2: The Structure of a Comparison and Contrast Essay. The compare-and-contrast essay starts with a thesis that clearly states the two subjects that are to be compared, contrasted, or both and the reason for doing so. The thesis could lean more toward comparing, contrasting, or both. Remember, the point of comparing and contrasting is to ...