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108 Social Issues Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Social issues are complex and multifaceted problems that affect individuals, communities, and societies as a whole. These issues can range from poverty and inequality to discrimination and environmental degradation. Writing an essay on a social issue can be a daunting task, but it can also be a rewarding experience that allows you to explore and analyze important topics that impact the world around you.

To help you get started, here are 108 social issues essay topic ideas and examples that you can use as inspiration for your next writing assignment:

The impact of social media on mental health
Income inequality and its effects on society
Police brutality and the Black Lives Matter movement
The rise of fake news and its impact on democracy
Gender inequality in the workplace
Climate change and its effects on vulnerable communities
The opioid crisis and its impact on communities
The criminal justice system and racial disparities
Homelessness and poverty in America
The refugee crisis and global migration patterns
LGBTQ+ rights and discrimination
The rise of nationalism and its impact on global politics
Gun control and mass shootings in America
Environmental racism and its effects on marginalized communities
The impact of globalization on developing countries
Mental health stigma and access to treatment
Cyberbullying and online harassment
The #MeToo movement and sexual harassment in the workplace
Access to healthcare and the rising cost of medical care
The impact of technology on social relationships
Food insecurity and hunger in America
The effects of gentrification on low-income communities
Disability rights and accessibility
The criminalization of poverty and homelessness
Human trafficking and modern-day slavery
The impact of colonialism on indigenous communities
The rise of authoritarianism and threats to democracy
The education achievement gap and disparities in schools
Mental health challenges facing college students
The impact of social isolation on mental health
The influence of religion on social norms and values
The effects of gentrification on cultural identity
The impact of social media on political discourse
The role of activism in social change
Access to clean water and sanitation in developing countries
The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem
The effects of income inequality on public health
The criminalization of drug addiction and mental illness
The impact of climate change on indigenous communities

These are just a few examples of social issues that you can explore in your essay. Remember to choose a topic that you are passionate about and that you feel strongly about. Researching and writing about social issues can be a powerful way to raise awareness and advocate for change in the world. Good luck with your essay!

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Superb 2021 Model Essays for SPM by Penerbitan Pelangi Sdn Bhd

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Superb 2021 Model Essays for SPM

SuFpEMeOSrObRSDASEYPLSMNEWSPM Assessment Format 2021 • Step-by-step guide for different 4 5Form essay types •• KSSM • Word Bank & Idioms for Vocab Enrichment Christine Tan Yong Fui Yin • Tips & Techniques for each section Ch’ng Teik Peng • Wide Scope of Model Essays Zeti Aqmar PREFACE Superb Model Essays for SPM English is targeted at students in Form 4 and Form 5 preparing for the Bahasa Inggeris Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia examination. It can also be used in class under the teacher’s guidance or by students studying and writing on their own. Students at other levels are welcome and encouraged to use this book. The book is divided into three main parts: Part 1 focuses on Short Communicative Message, Part 2 focuses on Guided Writing and Part 3 focuses on Extended Writing Task. Time given for the whole paper (1119/2) is 90 minutes. Part 1: Short Communicative Message (20 marks) Students are advised to spend about 10 – 15 minutes for Part 1. The number of words should be about 80 words. The task is writing a short communicative message through emails. Part 2: Guided Writing (20 marks) Students are advised to spend about 20 – 25 minutes for Part 2. The number of words should be between 125 and 150 words. The task is writing an essay or elaboration of points for or against an idea, plan or arrangement based on a guided stimulus. Part 3: Extended Writing (20 marks) Students are advised to spend about 50 – 60 minutes for Part 3. The number of words should be between 200 and 250 words. The task is writing a composition based on a choice of three questions: article, review, report or story. The best way to use this book: It is recommended that pupils use this book for the practice of writing messages/emails and short or extended compositions. Interactive and active learning would help them apply the tips and techniques in order to improve their personal writing styles. Read the models. Connect the tips and techniques to the topics in short messages and longer compositions. Draw guidance factors from the composition outline. Memorise the phrases and parts that appeal to you. Substitute them with apt and suitable vocabulary of your own to personalise them. Write your message and composition from the model outline. Base your composition on your personal experiences, thoughts and feelings. Where there is genuineness, there is uniqueness. Happy writing! The Authors iii THE WRITING SECTION OF 1119 SPM ENGLISH 1119/2 Time: 90 minutes PAPER 1 Short Communicative Message Marks: 20 Message length: Stimulus provided: 80 words Email Marks: 20 PAPER 12 Types of Genre: Marks: 20 Guided Writing Idea, plan or arrangement Writing length: 125 – 150 words Types of Genre: Article / Report / PAPER 13 Extended Writing Task Review / Story Writing length: 200 – 250 words iv CONTENTS PART 1 Educational Pull-outs 44 Part 1: Short Communicative PART 2 Message Tips and Techniques 2 Part 2: Guided Writimh A Informal Emails Tips and Techniques 2 Introduction 3 Step by Step Step by Step 3 15 Pros and Cons of Studying Overseas 5 1 Advising a relative 5 16 Endangered Species 7 2 Reviving memories of childhood 17 Bullying in Schools 10 games 7 18 Online Games 12 3 Compliment and encourage 19 Welfare of the Aged 15 volunteerism 10 20 Social Networking Sites 17 4 Consolation and Advice 12 21 Scholarship Awards: Accept or Decline 19 5 Invitation to plan and participate in camping trip 15 22 Buying a Car 21 6 The Tragic Flood 17 23 Importance of Movement Control 23 Order (MCO) 7 Steps to Efficient Learning 19 24 Depression among Teenagers 26 8 For Tastier Green 21 25 Flash Flooding 5 9 Dining Together as a Family 23 26 Trend of Online Business in 10 Reading Maketh A Man 26 Malaysia 7 B Formal Emails 27 Computer Literacy among Malaysian Teenagers 10 Introduction 34 28 Effectiveness of Online Class 12 Step by Step 34 29 Issue of Student Couples 15 11 An Email to the Editor of a local tabloid: Community Field 36 30 Problem of Peer Pressure 17 12 Applying for a Scholarship 39 31 If You Were a Billionaire 19 13 A Formal Email to Readers Write 32 Plan to Start an Online Business 21 to the Editor : Demolition of Local 33 Mental Health 23 Library 42 34 Saving Money for the Future 26 14 An Email Requesting 35 Importance of Music 5 Complimentary Copies of 36 Playing Video Games 7 Newspapers in Education and 37 Showing Appreciation to Mothers 10 v English SPM Section A – Formal Emails Part 1 Short Communicative Message 1 English SPM Section A – Formal Emails When writing informal and formal emails, Use Grammatical Devices appropriately: think about: (a) how you begin and end emails to set (a) The grammar should reflect the tone you want to convey.Avoid using the tone of the message – there are contractions such as ‘don’t” or “won’t” two parts to begin the email : the in formal emails. Use the full word like greeting and the way you address the “do not” or “will not”. reader. (b) Contractions are acceptable in informal • Informal Emails emails when portraying a casual tone. – Convey a much more casual tone (c) While writing about specific terms, be – address reader as a friend on a aware of colloquial terms and slang first name basis. which might be appropriate for informal – More personal – relay a writing but not in formal emails. tone similar to face-to-face conversation (d) Regardless of the email’s style, do pay – Examples: Hey Johan / Hi / Hi, attention to using correct grammar and Hani punctuation and follow best practices for formatting • Formal Emails – To convey respect by politely (e) Ensure that the email is easy to read and convey a professional tone, addressing the reader regardless whether it is formal or – Examples: Dear Professor Yanni informal. Ismail / Dear Marketing Manager (f) To ensure readability, divide content / To whom it may concern into paragraphs (b) the same rules apply to the end of the (g) Organize information to ensure it is not email. muddled or confusing to reader. Ideally, a paragraph should not be longer than – Use the same tone you started the four lines in length. mail, whether casual or professional. – Thank the reader for their time and keep the context of the email in mind. 2 Short Communicative Message A Informal Emails Introduction Informal emails are friendly mails that we send or receive from friends and family members on a personal basis. The subject matter in informal emails is usually on matters of personal interest between the sender and the receiver or receivers. One can make and respond to simple requests and suggestions, explain simple processes, narrate factual or imagined events and experiences or express and respond to opinions and common feelings such as happiness, sadness, surprise and interest. SStteeppby ➢ How to write an informal email 1. Start your email with ‘Hi’ followed by name of receiver, 2. Use relevant expressions appropriate to the purpose of the email  • e.g. ‘Would you like to + verb ..’ when making an invitation  • ‘We could ..,’ when making a suggestion  • ‘Could you .. ‘ when making a request 3. Give details of your invitation, suggestion or request clearly. Leave out unnecessary details. 4. End with ‘See you soon. / Hope to hear from you soon. / Hope to get a favourable reply soon. 5. End with your name. Sample of an informal email You received an email from a friend who wants to study together for an upcoming exam. Hi, The mid-year exam is around the corner. Would you like to study together in preparation for this exam? We could do it in my house as my parents will be away for the fortnight before the mid-year exam. I don’t mind if you want to bring two of your friends.as long as they are serious about their studies. Looking forward to hearing from you. Bye for now. 3 English SPM Section A – Formal Emails Reply to the email from your friend. New Message To : Zahara Subject : Group study Hi, Zahara Thank you for the invitation to do group studying for the mid-year exam. Group studying is a good idea as the exam formats for three subjects have been changed. We need to put our heads together to fully understand the new formats and how to answer the questions. I would like to bring two friends from my neighbourhood. They are from another school and might be able to give us new ideas or approaches as taught by their teachers. Please forward the schedule soonest possible. Siew Hwa ➢ How to write a formal email 1. Begin with a greeting / salutation. Open with a greeting such as ‘Dear Sir/Madam/Ms/Mr/Mrs/Dr/Surname’. If you do not know the name of the person, use ‘To whom it may concern’ or ‘Dear Sir / Madam’. 2. Thank the recipient. If you are replying to an inquiry, begin with a line of thanks. - for question about your company, “Thank you for contacting ABC Company”; for a reply to one of your emails, ‘Thank you for your prompt reply’ or ‘Thanks for getting back to me’. 3. State your purpose. If you are starting the email communication, begin by stating your purpose, ‘I am writing to enquire about …’ Make your purpose and the main text clear. Keep your sentences short and clear. Pay careful attention to grammar, spelling and punctuation for a professional impression. 4. Add your closing remarks. Before you end your email, it’s polite to thank your reader one more time and add some polite closing remarks like ‘Thank you for your patience and cooperation’. Follow up with ‘If you have any questions or concerns, don’t hesitate to let me know” and ‘I look forward to hearing from you’. 5. End with a closing. The last step is to include an appropriate closing with your name. ‘Best regards’, ‘Sincerely’, and “Thank you” are all professional. Finally, review and spell check your email one more time to make sure it’s truly perfect! 4 English SPM Section A – Formal Emails Format of a formal email: From: (sender’s email – yours) Date: (date and time) Cc: (friends’ emails you want to include) Subject: (message topic) Sample of Formal Email: A Thank You Email From: To: [email protected] Date: Cc: Thank you – Assistant Account Executive Interview Cc: Bcc: Subject: Subject: 13 November 2021 Dear Encik Johan, It was very kind of you to grant me an interview. I enjoyed learning about the Assistant Account Executive position at the JK Company. The job seems to be an excellent match for my skills and interests. The creative approach to account management that you discussed confirmed my desire to work with you. I will bring to the position strong writing skills, assertiveness and the ability to encourage others to work co-operatively with the department. I appreciate the time you took to interview me. I look forward to hearing from you regarding this position. Thank you. Yours sincerely, Amar Iqbal [email protected] 5 English SPM Section A – Formal Emails 1Model Advising a Relative Model Question You receive an email from your aunt who is concerned about your cousin brother who looks depressed most of the time. She wants you to help her by talking to your cousin brother. Dear Alan, I’m sorry to disturb you at this time when you’re preparing for your finals. I’m worried about Ben who looks depressed most of the time. The two of you are very close so please talk to him. I’m sure he’ll tell you the reasons for his present behaviour. I suspect it is cyberbullying but he refuses to talk about it. I’m sure he will open up to you. Bye! Now write an email to your aunt in about 80 words. Write your answer below. Model Answer To : [email protected] Subject : Ben and his problem Dear Aunt Clara, Thank you for your faith in me. I met up with Ben. He opened up in no time – a victim of cyberbullying. The fact that he talked so openly means he needs support and help especially from his family. The problem is in the early stage. So, nip it in the bud and help Ben get over it. Talk to him gently. Don’t make him feel guilty. With encouragement, he can get his life back on track. Get back to me if you need further help. Bye. Love, Alan IDIOMS nip it in the bud – to stop something in the early stages before it becomes a serious problem opened up – talked willingly about one’s problem back on track – back to the original or normal a stitch in time saves nine – if you sort out a problem immediately it may save a lot of extra work later 6 WORD Bank English SPM Section A – Formal Emails faith – trust INFO CORNER victim – one who is acted on and usually adversely affected Cyber bullying – the use of technology to harass, threaten, embarrass, or target another person. Online threats and mean, aggressive, or rude texts, tweets, posts 2Model Reviving Memories of Childhood Games Model Question You received an email from a friend who wants to know about a childhood game you like very much. She wants to share some knowledge of Malaysian traditional games with an overseas friend. Hi, I have a request which you may think odd but I really need your help. An overseas friend is asking for information about our Malaysian traditional games. She has to present a paper to her class. She can get information from the Net but prefers to get it from people who have or are still playing the games. I used to play batu seremban and kunda kundi. You preferred congkak. Please give me the necessary details. Thanking you in advance. Now write an email to your friend in about 80 words. Write your answer below. Model Answer To : [email protected] Subject : Remembering a childhood game Hi Leena, Childhood games? Congkak was and still is my favourite. For your friend’s info, in the past, they dug holes in the ground and played with tamarind seeds. Nowadays, we play with marbles on a wooden board with two rows of five, seven or nine holes and two holes at both ends called home. The aim is to collect the tokens for our home. I used to shout and jump about whenever I won - to irritate my opponent, my grandmother. I would say, nenek I won fair and square! Love, Sara 7 English SPM Section A – Formal Emails INFO CORNER Malaysian traditional games are usually played during free time. Traditional games are very popular among people who live in rural area. They have been played by our ancestors. Nowadays, most of traditional games are not being played anymore by the children as they are more attracted to play computer games. Malay traditional games are one of the cultural heritages that are priceless and cannot be replaced because it symbolize our customs, culture, and identity of one nation. WORD Bank IDIOMS tamarind seeds – seeds of a fruit popularly used in Indian fair and square – honestly and cuisine to add a tangy flavour. straightforwardly – shiny black in colour and are said to be used for various medicinal purposes. tokens – marks irritate – to provoke impatience or anger 3Model Compliment and Encourage Volunteerism Model Question You received an email from a friend who is waiting to go oversea for further studies in about three months’ time. She wants to spend the time fruitfully like doing voluntary work with a worthwhile organisation. She hopes that you can help her out. Hi, As you know, I’ll be going for further studies in Australia in about three months’ time. I would like to spend the time fruitfully but I’m not sure what I can do or which direction to go. I could do a short course or get involved in voluntary work in a worthwhile organisation. I would be most obliged if you could help me out so that I can put my time to good use. Waiting for your good news. Nora Now write an email to your friend in about 80 words. Write your answer below. 8 English SPM Part 2 – Guided Writing Part 2 Guided Writing 1 English SPM Part 2 – Guided Writing 1. This part is aimed at teaching students 8. Use the correct format that is required. to write an essay or elaboration of points for or against an idea, plan 9. Be sure to include the information or arrangement based on a given provided. stimulus. 10. Students are required or encouraged 2. The question can be based on to provide relevant information to following genre: make the composition interesting.  • an idea, plan or arrangement 11. Remember to keep to the task stated in the question for example to discuss,  • the format of the essay can be explain etc. – argumentative – points for and 12. Use your general knowledge where against are tabled necessary. – letter writing – formal/informal 13. Make sure your composition has Letters a smooth flow with appropriate expressions. – expository – an account of a topic of general or current interest 14. Use the style that is suitable for the question – either formal or informal. – speeches/talks – pass on Different genres require different information on a certain occasion styles. – reflective – express personal 15. Plan and organise well for it to be well opinion perceived by the examiner.  • the themes are varied 16. Writing a good ending or conclusion gives your composition an edge over 3. The question and stimulus or others. information are provided in the question. 17. Check your composition before handing it in. 4. The stimulus or information may be in the form of short notes, a graphic 18. To recapitulate – RUPOWC presentation or a series of pictures. Read/Study – Understand – Plan – 5. Read the question and study the Organise – Write – Check stimulus/information carefully. 6. Break the stimulus or information into parts if necessary, to have better understanding. 7. The question and stimulus / information given are student friendly in that they provide adequate information and instruction to answer the question. 2 Guided Writing Introduction Guided Writing is writing a composition based on a given stimulus. It is tested in Part 2 of the SPM English paper. It is compulsory to answer this question and students are advised to spend about 20 – 25 minutes for Part 2. The number of words should be between 125 and 150 words. SStteeppby 1. After studying the question and stimulus, work out your points. 2. Prepare an essay layout. Study the expel provided below. 3. Make sure there are five paragraphs - introduction, paragraphs 2 – 4 and conclusion Essay Layout 5 Paragraphs Paragraph 1 Introduction Rephrasing Question Overview/Outline Stand Paragraph 2 Body 1 Opinion 1 Supporting fact/Explanation example Paragraph 3 Body 2 Opinion 2 Supporting fact/Explanation Example Paragraph 4 Body 3 Opinion 3 Supporting Fact/Explanation Example Paragraph 5 Conclusion Summary/Restatement 4. Now, you are ready to answer question for Part 2 for the SPM English 5. Remember – RUPOWC 3 English SPM Part 2 – Guided Writing 15Model Pors and Cons of Studying Overseas Model Question Write your answer in 125 – 150 words in an appropriate style. Your class has been discussing the pros and cons of studying overseas. Your English language teacher has asked you to write an essay about the advantages and disadvantages of studying abroad. In your essay, you should write about: PROS AND CONS OF STUDYING ABROAD Advantages Disadvantages • New Experiences • Alien Environment • Independence/Responsibility • Cultural Shock : Homesickness • More Courses • Expensive • Reputable Universities • Irrelevant Disciplines Write your essay using all the information and giving reasons for your point of view. Model Question Introduction Pros and Cons of Studying Overseas Re-phrase question There are pros and cons in studying overseas. This essay will look at both the advantages and disadvantages. Opinion 1 The first advantage is the student gains new First Advantage experiences, independence and responsibility. When he Supporting Fact learns time and financial management, he budgets and lives Example within his allowance. The second advantage is the numerous courses Opinion 2 available in many reputable universities. He could study Second Advantage in Ivy League institutions. If he graduates from Harvard or Supporting Fact Cambridge, he would be headhunted and offered a highly Example lucrative position. On the other hand, there are disadvantages. He is Disadvantages 1, 2,3 thrown into an alien environment, experiences cultural Supporting Facts shock and is homesick. Overseas courses are expensive. Examples Besides, he might enroll in an irrelevant degree course that has no value to his home country. 4 Conclusion English SPM Part 2 – Guided Writing Stand Suggestion In conclusion, I think that there are more advantages in studying overseas than studying locally at tertiary level. Should finances be an issue, study for the first degree locally then study abroad for postgraduate qualifications. 16Model Endangered Species I P Model Question S Write your answer in 125 – 150 words in an appropriate style. C You watched a television programme about animals and learnt about animal extinction. E Write an essay expressing your opinion and feelings in the increase in number of E endangered species. C Causes contributing to Animal Extinction E E • Poaching – illegal international trade, increase in demand for exotic animal parts [trophies, fashion accessories], sale of live C animals E • Loss of habitat – water, food sources E • Overharvesting marine life – environmental issues C O F Write the essay using all the notes and giving your opinion and feelings from your point of view. Model Answer Introduction Endangered Species Problem Man is in danger of destroying his own species and Stand that of Mother Nature. A prevalent problem is the growing extinction of animal species. Animal lovers are unhappy that Cause 1 certain animal species are becoming extinct. Explanation & The illegal international animal trade has prompted Examples poaching and sale of exotic animal parts to make trophies and fashion accessories like crocodile skin bags, rhino talismans and medicinal concoctions. Even captured live animals become exotic human pets. 5 English SPM Part 2 – Guided Writing Cause 2 Forests are cleared for economic development Explanation & resulting in loss of habitats and tree cover. Wild animals Examples are bereft of food and water sources. Marine life is also threatened by overharvesting Cause 3 marine resources. The oceans and seas are environmentally Explanation & polluted by both industrial and human waste. Examples I am afraid the global eco-system and the drastic climate change would be unable to meet the food and Conclusion water demands for both human and animal survival. I fear Opinion for the end of the human race. Feeling WORD Bank INFO CORNER prevalent – existing, current Seven Animal Species Going Extinct in Malaysia : The extinction – disappearance Malayan Tiger, Black Shrew, Malayan Tapir, Orangutan, bereft – loss Borneo Pygmy Elephant, Proboscis Monkey and Sunda Pangolin. The loss of a single species can alter the biodiversity of the eco-landscape it inhabits. 6 English SPM Section A – Articles Part 3 Extended Writing 1 English SPM Section A – Articles Extended Writing A Articles Introduction Articles are formal and informative accounts of specific topics. They give information about current or social issues. In Part 3 SPM English, writing an article is one of the choices for the extended writing. Marks allocated are 20 and students are advised to complete the answer in 50 – 60 minutes. The number of words should be between 200 and 250 words. 1. Articles can be in the following genre:  • Name of writer  • School magazine  • Write in paragraphs to emphasise the facts or points.  • Newspapers 8. Articles are exercises in formal writing  • Health magazine so avoid using colloquial and slang expressions.  • Nature magazine 9. Use simple clear and formal language.  • Food magazine 10. In your article:  • Travel magazine  • include details to make your article  • Social digest interesting 2. A stimulus in the form of an  • details should be based on the advertisement, notes, itinerary or notes provided brochure may be provided. 11. Give actual or reasonable and 3. Read the question and notes carefully. acceptable facts. Do not exaggerate. Study the stimulus – advertisement / brochure / itinerary - provided in detail. 12. Make sure the ideas flow into one another. 4. Identify the format required in the question before you start writing. 13. There must be a smooth flow 5. The question may be a report, an 14. Check through your article for article or a review. grammatical and spelling errors. 6. Be clear about the purpose of the 15. Give your personal reaction or opinion article. only if necessary. 7. Format for Articles:  • Heading or title for article 2 English SPM Section A – Articles 43Model Good Parenting Model Question Write your answer in 200 – 250 words in an appropriate style. You come across the idiom, ‘blood is thicker than water’, and you mull over the meaning of the idiom and decide to write an article on ‘Good Parenting’. In your article, include the following: • Introduction – parents and child – special bond • Parenthood follows marriage – prospective parents – role – make sacrifices • Parental love- not pampering – instil good qualities for future • Love and understanding – wholesome not blind - strong familial bond • Be themselves – love wisely Write your article. Introduction – Good Parenting parents and child by special bond Zaidi Zain Parenthood Parents and children have a special bond of love and follows marriage affection. This bond can never be replaced by any other – parent accept form of relationship. As the saying goes, ‘blood is thicker responsibilities than water’ - family relationships and loyalties are the strongest and most important ties. Parenthood requires Parental love – not dedication and sacrifice. So, what qualities should parents synonymous with impart that would considered good parenting? pampering – set Parenthood is a natural consequence of marriage and good example – prospective parents should recognise their responsibilities. right atmosphere The father might resent the children as rivals for the mother’s attention. The mother finds her time is not her own anymore as household routine changes. Both parents should be willing to make sacrifices, including their career and accept their responsibilities. It is a universal truth that parents love their children. The children are the apple of the parents’ eyes and without doubt their pride and joy. But, love should in no way or at any time be considered as synonymous with pampering or spoiling the child. They should instead, instil qualities that can help the children face life with integrity and courage. Parents should set good examples and provide the right 3 English SPM Section A – Articles Good parenthood atmosphere conducive to growth of good character traits. – love and A child learns good virtue or otherwise from the parents understanding – not as like father like son. blind In general, good parenthood requires love and understanding. These two qualities can build a strong Conclusion familial bond. Love must be wholesome but not blind and Be themselves – ignore discipline and moral values. Understanding means love wisely giving the child the opportunity to know what he wants and support when needed. Parents should be themselves and allow the children to be themselves, too - good parenting, love wisely. WORD Bank IDIOMS impart – convey, give or grant blood is thicker than water – family ties are the strongest universal truth – a statement apple of the parents’ eyes – favourite or most cherished that relates to reality person regardless of time and space pride and joy – that makes one proud and happy synonymous – equivalent to like father like son – a child’s character or behaviour can conducive – helpful be expected to be similar to that of the father 44Model Study Well and Do Well Model Question Write your answer in 200 – 250 words in an appropriate style. You are a student counsellor and have attended a seminar on how to be an A-Star student. Write an article on what you learnt for the school magazine. In your article, include the following: • exams – internal and public – school life – tedious and stressful • study smart – positive attitude – understand exam format • attentive and focussed – punctual and review • study techniques: • read aloud • short notes • schedules – short bouts of study • during exams: • choose – understand question • focus – thorough answers – keep tabs on time Write your article. 4 Title English SPM Section A – Articles Writer Study Well and Do Well by Introduction exams – internal Anne Lee and public – How to prepare and do well for examinations, an schooling years best integral part of school life, haunt us throughout our times – learning schooling life. There are examination, internal and external enjoyable or public to contend with. They are the bugs that make school days tedious and stressful. Yet, we are always told study smart the best times of our lives are our schooling years. This can be true provided we make learning enjoyable. be attentive and Study smart. To be able to do this, stay healthy and stay focussed - positive. Eat well, exercise and rest enough to stay healthy. study techniques – This helps to keep the mind alert. A positive attitude is read aloud – short always important – say positive things like ‘I can do it…’ notes and revision Read through used textbooks, past year exam papers and cards – study notes to give you an insight into the exam format. schedule Pay attention in class and stay focussed rather than attend tuition classes. Try not to miss the first and last few exam time minutes of class as important tips and announcements are - practise self- usually made at these times. Immediately after a lesson, discipline – organise review the notes even if it is only for a few minutes. Follow time - thoughts a few study techniques – read aloud and use short notes Conclusion and revision cards. Reading aloud helps to keep the sleep Go forward with away. Short notes and revision cards help the facts to be determination transferred from short memory to long-term learning. so, you are learning and not cramming facts. Also, plan a schedule and study in short bouts rather than long hours of cramming. During exams, practise self-discipline – choose questions carefully, understand essence of question and keep tabs on the time. Organise your time and thoughts quickly and decisively. Get a grip on yourself and go forward with determination. Faint hearts never win fair ladies. 5 English SPM Section A – Articles IDIOMS WORD Bank keep tabs – keep track faint hearts never win fair ladies – timidity integral – important and necessary will prevent you from achieving your bugs – burdens objective keep the mind alert – keep the brain working insight – idea review – go over and read through not cramming – not pushing everything into a small space short bouts – short periods of time 6 SupMerbODEL ESSAYS FOR JC108221 SPM 4 5Form • Superb MODEL ESSAYS FOR SPM This book is designed to help students improve their writing skills. From the interpretation of the question to the planning and writing process, the reader is guided step by step in three main parts called Short Communicative Message, Guided Writing and Extended Writing. Each Model Essay illustrates the process of developing ideas into an essay by putting into practice simple yet invaluable principles of essay writing. Though aimed at SPM students, this book is also suitable for anyone who wants to write well. www.PelangiBooks.com • Online Bookstore • Online Library • WM:RM0.00 / EM:RM0.00 JC108221 ISBN 978-967-2930-59-4

Dennis G. Zill

Travel, Money, Pets Et Cetera

Example Article Essay SPM: The Impact of Social Media on Society

In the age of information, where technology is an integral part of our daily lives, social media has emerged as a powerful force shaping our society. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok have revolutionized the way we communicate, connect, and consume information. While social media offers numerous benefits, it also raises critical questions about its impact on individuals and society as a whole.

First and foremost, social media has redefined the way we communicate. It allows us to stay connected with friends and family around the world, bridging geographical gaps and enabling instant communication. However, the convenience of these platforms comes with a downside – the erosion of face-to-face communication skills. Excessive reliance on online interaction can hinder our ability to engage in meaningful conversations in real life.

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Furthermore, social media has become a powerful tool for information dissemination. It provides a platform for news agencies, individuals, and organizations to share information and raise awareness about various issues. However, the spread of fake news and misinformation has become a pressing concern. The ease with which false information can be disseminated on social media platforms can lead to public confusion and even social unrest.

Social media also plays a pivotal role in influencing opinions and behaviors. With the rise of influencers and viral trends, individuals are often swayed by the content they encounter on these platforms. While this can be positive for promoting social causes, it can also lead to conformity and the erosion of critical thinking skills.

Additionally, the impact of social media on mental health cannot be ignored. The constant exposure to curated and idealized versions of people’s lives can lead to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem. Cyberbullying and online harassment are other serious issues that can have detrimental effects on the mental well-being of individuals, especially teenagers.

On the positive side, social media has created new opportunities for businesses and entrepreneurs. It serves as a marketing tool, allowing businesses to reach a wider audience and engage with customers directly. Social media influencers have become a powerful marketing force, driving sales and brand recognition.

In conclusion, the impact of social media on society is multifaceted. While it offers numerous benefits, it also presents challenges that must be addressed. It is crucial for individuals to use social media mindfully, critically assess the information they encounter, and strike a balance between online and offline communication. Moreover, efforts to combat misinformation and cyberbullying should be a collective endeavor. Ultimately, social media’s impact on society will continue to evolve as technology advances, and it is our responsibility to shape it in a way that benefits us all.

Example Article Essay SPM: The Impact of Social Media on Society Example Article Essay SPM: The Impact of Social Media on Society

What do the examiners look for?

Accurate and detailed knowledge
Clear, coherent, and focused answers
Effective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)

In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.

If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.

Difference between AS and A level answers

The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.

Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.

Gender and Culture in Psychology

Gender bias.

Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favorably than the other, often referred to as sexism, and it has a range of consequences, including:

Scientifically misleading
Upholding stereotypical assumptions
Validating sex discrimination

Avoiding gender bias does not mean pretending that men and women are the same.

There are three main types of gender bias:

Alpha bias – this occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypically male and female characteristics may be emphasized.

Beta bias -this occurs when the differences between men and women are minimized. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.

Androcentrism – taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ when it is different.

Positive Consequences of Gender Bias

Alpha Bias :

This has led some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation of ‘feminine qualities.’
This has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain ‘male’ qualities, such as aggression and individualism, as desirable, adaptive, and universal.

Beta Bias :

Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, for example, education and employment.

Negative Consequences of Gender Bias

Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of similarity WITHIN genders. Thus, this ignores the many ways women differ from each other.
Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
Draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women.
Is considered an egalitarian approach, but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.

Consequences of Gender Bias

Kitzinger (1998) argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (women have the same rights as men). So gender differences are distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.

Women were kept out of male-dominant universities.
Women were oppressed.
Women stereotypes (Bowlby).

Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power.

Judgments about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).

Examples of Gender Bias in Research AO3

Kohlberg & moral development.

Kohlberg based his stages of moral development around male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women ( beta bias ) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development ( androcentrism ).

Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).

However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.

Freud & Psychosexual Development

Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased, but it must be remembered that he was a product of his time. He saw ‘Biology as destiny’ and women’s roles as prescribed & predetermined.

All his theories are androcentric , most obviously: -‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men.

But Freud’s ideas had serious consequences/implications. They reinforced stereotypes, e.g., of women’s moral Inferiority, treated deviations from traditional sex-role behavior as pathological (career ambition = penis envy), and are clearly androcentric (phallocentric).

Biomedical Theories of Abnormality

In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).

The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!

Gender Bias in the Research Process AO1

Although female psychology students outnumber males, at a senior teaching and research level in universities, men dominate. Men predominate at the senior researcher level.
The research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalized or ignored.
Most experimental methodologies are based on the standardized treatment of participants. This assumes that men and women respond in the same ways to the experimental situation.
Women and men might respond differently to the research situation.
Women and men might be treated differently by researchers.
Could create artificial differences or mask real ones.
Publishing bias towards positive results.
Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.
Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.

Reducing Gender Bias in Psychology (AO3)

Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalized gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working, and prostitution.

The Feminist perspective

Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender.
View women as normal humans, not deficient men.
Skepticism towards biological determinism.
Research agenda focusing on women’s concerns.
A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women.

Learning Check AO2

This activity will help you to:

Identify gender biases in psychological theories
Discuss the impact of biased research on society
Critically assess gender-biased theories

Below are two examples of research that could be considered gender biased. Working in pairs or small groups, you need to do the following:

1. Identify aspects of the research that could be considered gender biased

2. Identify and explain the type of gender bias that is present

3. Suggest the impact that these research examples could have on society

You could look, for example, at how the research might uphold or reinforce gender stereotypes or be used to disempower women in society.

The Psychodynamic View of Personality and Moral Development

Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development. In their view, ‘biology is destiny.’

Freud believed that gender divergence begins at the onset of the phallic stage, where the girl realizes that she has no penis, and starts to feel inferiour to boys (penis envy).

Penis envy becomes a major driving force in the girl’s mental life and needs to be successfully sublimated into a desire for a husband and children if it is not to become pathological.

This view of gender divergence in personality development has implications for other aspects of development. For example, Freud’s view of morality was that it was regulated by the superego, which is an internalization of the same-sex parent that regulates behavior through the threat of punishment.

In boys, immoral behavior is regulated through the mechanism of castration anxiety – men obey the rules because of an unconscious fear that their father will take away their penis.

In the Freudian view, the girl has already had to accept her castration as a fait accompli, which raises important questions about the relative moral strength of men and women.

The Biological View of Mental Illness

The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.

In the biomedical view , illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.

When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.

Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.

Culture Bias

Culture can be described as all the knowledge and values shared by a society.

Cultures may differ from one another in many ways, so the findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.

General Background

In order to fulfill its aspiration of explaining human thinking and behavior, psychology must address the huge diversity in people around the globe. Each individual’s behavior is shaped by a huge number of factors, including their genes, upbringing, and individual experiences.

At the same time, people are affected by a range of factors that are specific to the cultural group in which they developed and within which they live. Psychologists should always attempt to account for the ways in which culture affects thinking and behavior.

However, this has not always been the case. Psychology is a discipline that evolved within a very specific cultural context.

Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise: – (i) 64% of psychological researchers are from the US; (ii) in some texts, 90% of studies have US Participants; (iii) samples are predominantly white middle class.

Consequently, it has incorporated a particular worldview (that of the industrialized West) into the ways it tries to understand people. This can have consequences. For example:

Psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in understanding human behavior, resulting in theories that are scientifically inadequate.
They may also privilege their own worldview over those that emerge from other cultures, leading to research that either intentionally or unintentionally supports racist and discriminatory practices in the real world.

We will be looking at how cultural bias can affect psychological theories and research studies and the sorts of things psychologists can do to avoid the worst effects of cultural bias.

Types of Theoretical Constructions for Understanding Cultural Bias AO1

An emic construct is one that is applied only to one cultural group, so they vary from place to place (differences between cultures).

An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself. This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic, and African society by African researchers in Africa is also emic. An emic approach is more likely to have ecological validity as the findings are less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researchers and the culture being investigated.

Cultural bias can occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually etic (behavior universal to all cultures).

For example, emic constructs are likely to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from another culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance.

An etic construct is a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).

Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.

Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead to imposed etics , where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.

Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.

The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’

When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.

This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.

The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.

The principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias in research, as well as to avoid judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. For this reason, cultural relativism has been considered an attempt to avoid ethnocentrism.

Culturally Biased Research AO3

Ainsworth’s strange situation for attachment.

The strange situation procedure is not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).

The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.

Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.

Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.

This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.

IQ testing and Research (e.g., Eysenck)

An example of an etic approach that produces bias might be the imposition of IQ tests designed within one culture on another culture. If a test is designed to measure a European person’s understanding of what intelligence is , it may not be a valid measurement of the intelligence of people from other continents.

IQ tests developed in the West contain embedded assumptions about intelligence, but what counts as ‘intelligent’ behavior varies from culture to culture.

Non-Westerners may be disadvantaged by such tests – and then viewed as ‘inferior’ when they don’t perform as Westerners do.

Task: Try the Chittling IQ Test

Consequences of Culture Bias AO3

Nobles (1976) argues that western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behavior they have observed from the context in which they observed it.

Reducing Culture Bias AO3

Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware that merely swapping old, overt racism for new, more subtle forms of racism (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994).

Free Will & Determinism

The free will/determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behavior is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.

Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behavior. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology.

By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach is quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity and devalues human behavior.

To a lesser degree, Cognitive Psychology also supports the idea of free will and choice. In reality, although we do have free will, it is constrained by our circumstances and other people. For example, when you go shopping, your choices are constrained by how much money you have.

It emphasizes the importance of the individual and studying individual differences.
It fits society’s view of personal responsibility, e.g., if you break the law, you should be punished.
The idea of self-efficacy is useful in therapies as it makes them more effective.
Free will is subjective, and some argue it doesn’t exist.
It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will.
Few people would agree that behavior is always completely under the control of the individual.

Determinism

The determinist approach proposes that all behavior is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as being outside the individual, a position known as environmental determinism.

Others see it from coming inside, i.e., in the form of unconscious motivation or genetic determinism – biological determinism.

• Environmental (External) Determinism : This is the idea that our behavior is caused by some sort of outside influence, e.g., parental influence.

Skinner (1971) argued that freedom is an illusion. We may think we have free will, but the probability of any behavior occurring is determined by past experiences.

Skinner claimed that free will was an illusion – we think we are free, but this is because we are not aware of how our behavior is determined by reinforcement.

• Biological (Internal) Determinism : Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior.

For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998).

• Psychic (Internal) Determinism : Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior.

Freud thought that free will was an illusion because he felt that the causes of our behavior are unconscious and still predictable.

There are different levels of determinism.

Hard Determinism

Hard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.

Soft Determinism

Soft Determinism represents a middle ground. People do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external factors, e.g., Being poor doesn’t make you steal, but it may make you more likely to take that route through desperation.

Determinism is scientific and allows cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
It gives plausible explanations for behavior backed up by evidence.
Determinism is reductionist.
Does not account for individual differences. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.
Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions. Deterministic explanations for behavior reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack, for example, might plead that they were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their behavior was determined.

Essay Question : – Discuss free will & determinism in psychology (16 marks)

Nature & Nurture

The central question is the extent to which our behavior is determined by our biology (nature) and the genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors (nurture) such as home school and friends.

Nature is the view that all our behavior is determined by our biology and our genes. This is not the same as the characteristics you are born with because these may have been determined by your prenatal environment.

In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development as a result of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’

Evolutionary explanations of human behavior exemplify the nature approach in psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behavior has evolved because of its survival value.

E.g., Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviors are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation, which will ultimately promote successful reproduction.

Evolutionary psychologists assume that behavior is a product of natural selection. Interpersonal attraction can, for example, be explained as a consequence of sexual selection.

Men and women select partners who enhance their productive success, judging this in terms of traits that ‘advertise’ reproductive fitness, such as signs of healthiness (white teeth) or resources.

Physiological psychology is also based on the assumption that behavior can be explained in terms of genetically programmed systems.

Bowlby’s explanation of attachment does not ignore environmental influences, as is generally true for evolutionary explanations. In the case of attachment theory, Bowlby proposed that infants become most strongly attached to the caregiver who responds most sensitively to the infant’s needs.
The experience of sensitive caregiving leads a child to develop expectations that others will be equally sensitive so that they tend to form adult relationships that are enduring and trusting.
The problem of the transgenerational effect. Behavior that appears to be determined by nature (and therefore is used to support this nativist view) may, in fact, be determined by nurture! e.g., if a woman has a poor diet during her pregnancy, her unborn child will suffer.
This means that the eggs with which each female child is born will also have these negative effects. This can then affect the development of her children a whole generation later.
This means that a child’s development may, in fact, be determined by their grandmother’s environment (transgenerational effect). This suggests that what may appear to be inherited and inborn is, in fact, caused by the environment and nurture.

Nurture is the opposite view that all behavior is learned and influenced by external factors such as the environment etc. Supports of the nurture view are ‘empiricists’ holding the view that all knowledge is gained through experience.

The behaviorist approach is the clearest example of the nurture position in psychology, which assumes that all behavior is learned through the environment. The best-known example is the social learning explanation of aggression using the Bobo doll.

SLT proposes that much of what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement. E.g., Bandura demonstrated this in his Bobo doll experiments. He found that children who watched an adult role model being rewarded for aggression toward an inflatable doll tended to imitate that behavior when later on their own with a Bobo doll.

This supports the idea that personality is determined by nurture rather than nature. This provides us with a model of how to behave. However, such behavior becomes part of an individual’s behavioral repertoire through direct reinforcement – when behavior is imitated, it receives direct reinforcement (or not).

Another assumption of the nurture approach is that there is a double bind hypothesis that explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents.

Empirical evidence shows that behavior is learned and can be modified through conditioning.
Behaviorist accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning itself has a genetic basis. For example, research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned (Quinn et al., 1979).

Conclusion (AO3)

Instead of defending extreme nature or nurture views , most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior.

For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.

The Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia, some sort of environmental stressor is required in order to develop the disease.

This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood, times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives, e.g., leaving home, starting work, forging new relationships, etc.

Essay Question : – Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks)

Reductionism & Holism

Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology . It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’

Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental, and social factors.

Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social, and Gestalt psychology and make use of the case study method. Jahoda’s six elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.

Imagine you were asked to make a cake .

If I simply told you that you needed 3 eggs, 75 grams of sugar, and 75 grams of self-raising. Would that be enough information for you to make a sponge cake? What else would you need to know?

In this way, a cake is more than the sum of its parts. Simply putting all the ingredients into a tin and sticking them in the oven would not result in a sponge cake!

Looks at everything that may impact behavior.
Does not ignore the complexity of behavior.
Integrates different components of behavior in order to understand the person as a whole.
It can be higher in ecological validity.
Over-complicate behaviors that may have simpler explanations (Occam’s Razor).
Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing.
Makes it hard to determine cause and effect.
Neglects the importance of biological explanations.
Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex human behaviors

Reductionism

Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.

In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviors such as schizophrenia, gender, and aggression.

Such reductionist explanations can be legitimately criticized as ignoring psychological, social, and cultural factors.

Cognitive psychology, with its use of the computer analogy, reduces behavior to the level of a machine, mechanistic reductionism.

Behaviorist psychology sees behavior in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships. And finally, the psychodynamic perspective reduces behavior to unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences.

The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. The scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it possible to identify the causes of behavior.
For example, research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. This way, a reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of behavior to be identified and advances the possibility of scientific study.
A reductionist approach to studying mental disorders has led to the development of effective chemical treatments
The disadvantage is that it can be over-simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behavior. Thus, it lacks ecological validity
Does not address larger societal issues e.g., poverty.

Reductionism in psychology is useful, as sometimes the simplest explanation is the best. Physiological approaches do tend to be reductionist, but as long as we bare these limitations in mind.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to take a completely holistic approach to psychology, as human behavior is so complex. Case studies come closest to taking a holistic approach.

Explaining behavior in a reductionist manner is seen as a low-level explanation, whereas more holistic explanations are high-level explanations.

Essay Question : – Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16 marks)

Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

Nomothetic approach.

The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviors are similar to each other as human beings. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos,” meaning “law.”

Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say, in establishing laws or generalizations. Tend to use quantitative methods.

Personality: – A Nomothetic Approach

The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.

The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.

The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence-based, objective approach to formulate causal laws.
This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful, e.g., Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.
Predictions can be made about groups, but these may not apply to individuals.
The approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person.’

Idiographic Approach

The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviors are different from each other. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private.” Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique. Tend to use qualitative methods.

Personality: – An Idiographic Approach

At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.

He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.

Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.

The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.

In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.

That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.

A major strength of the idiographic approach is its focus on the individual. Gordon Allport argues that it is only by knowing the person as a person that we can predict what the person will do in any given situation.
The idiographic approach is very time-consuming. It takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach, once a questionnaire, psychometric test, or experiment has been designed, data can be collected relatively quickly.

From these examples, we can see that the difference between a nomothetic and an idiographic approach is not just a question of what the psychologist wants to discover but also of the methods used.

Experiments, correlation, psychometric testing, and other quantitative methods are favored from a nomothetic point of view. Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation, and other qualitative methods are idiographic.

There are also broad differences between theoretical perspectives. Behaviorist, cognitive and biological psychologists tend to focus on discovering laws or establishing generalizations: – Nomothetic. The humanists are interested in the individual: – Idiographic.

As always, it is best to take a combined approach. Millon & Davis (1996) suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general ‘laws’ have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach. Thus, getting the best of both worlds!

Essay Question : – Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation (16 marks)

Ethical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research

There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.

But consider the following examples :

a) Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children put in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.

Assuming all guidelines were followed, neither the parents nor the children that participated would have been unduly affected by this research. Nobody would have been deceived, consent would have been obtained, and no harm would have been caused.

However, think of the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young charges in daycare or those who recently have!

b) IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.

When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) (the main names for Socially Sensitive Research (SSR) outline 4 groups that may be affected by psychological research: It is the first group of people that we are most concerned with!

1) Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.

2) Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.

3) The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.

4) The institution in which the research is conducted.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) also suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:

The research question or hypothesis.
The treatment of individual participants.
The institutional context.
The way in which the findings of the research are interpreted and applied.

Ethical Guidelines For Carrying Out SSR

Sieber and Stanley suggest the following ethical guidelines for carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.

Privacy : This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.

Confidentiality: This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.

Sound & valid methodology : This is even more vital when the research topic is socially sensitive. Academics are able to detect flaws in methods, but the lay public and the media often don’t. When research findings are publicized, people are likely to take them as fact, and policies may be based on them. Examples are Bowlby’s maternal deprivation studies and intelligence testing.

Deception : Causing the wider public to believe something, which isn’t true by the findings, you report (e.g., that parents are totally responsible for how their children turn out).

Informed consent : Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them.

Justice & equitable treatment : Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls. E.g., The Tuskergee Study which withheld treatment for STIs from black men to investigate the effects of syphilis on the body.

Scientific freedom : Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.

Ownership of data : When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their own interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).

Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.

The values of social scientists : Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).

The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.

Cost/benefit analysis : If the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical. However, it is difficult to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.

Sieber & Stanley advise: Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.

They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc. when the issue is sensitive.
They should be aware of how their findings may be interpreted & used by others.
They should make explicit the assumptions underlying their research so that the public can consider whether they agree with these.
They should make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g., ‘the study was only carried out on white middle-class American male students,’ ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate,’ etc.
They should be careful how they communicate with the media and policymakers.
They should be aware of the balance between their obligations to participants and those to society (e.g. if the participant tells them something which they feel they should tell the police/social services).
They should be aware of their own values and biases and those of the participants.
Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.
SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.
By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.
SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.
Most research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.
Flawed research has been used to dictate social policy and put certain groups at a disadvantage.
Research has been used to discriminate against groups in society, such as the sterilization of people in the USA between 1910 and 1920 because they were of low intelligence, criminal, or suffered from psychological illness.
The guidelines used by psychologists to control SSR lack power and, as a result, are unable to prevent indefensible research from being carried out.

A-Level Psychology Revision Notes

A-Level Psychology Attachment

Psychology Memory Revision Notes

Social Influence Revision Notes

Psychopathology Revision Notes

Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level

Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples

A-Level Psychology

A-level Psychology AQA Revision Notes

Aggression Psychology Revision Notes

Relationship Theories Revision Notes

Addiction in Psychology: Revision Notes for A-level Psychology

Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level

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Emphasis on English

Sunday, 09 Jun 2024

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Former education minister Musa Mohamad laid to rest in Petaling Jaya

Former education minister musa mohamad passes away at 81, thousands turn up on last day of star education fair 2024.

English to the fore: Fadhlina giving her speech at the prize-giving ceremony.

Fadhlina: But BM equally important

Having a strong command of the English language is a critical asset, whether to access knowledge, pursue higher education, or thrive in the competitive workplace, said Education Minister Fadhlina Sidek.

“English is not just a subject to be studied, but a valuable tool that opens doors to a world of possibilities.

“That is why we are firmly committed to equipping our students with this vital skill so that they can navigate the challenges of the 21st century with confidence, competence and success,” she said at the ELS English Language Ambassador Award prize-giving ceremony in Kuala Lumpur on May 9.

During the event, Fadhlina also stressed that Bahasa Malaysia (BM) must be upheld even as we strengthen English as a second language.

“Meeting future demands requires us to be proficient in both BM and English.

“It is crucial now to look at the Upholding the Malay Language and Strengthening the English Language (MBMMBI) agenda to prevent marginalisation,” she said, adding that competitions and activities such as the ELS English Language Ambassador Award are an essential part of the ministry’s strategy to emphasise the importance of English proficiency, which is also in line with the ministry’s agenda to bolster the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) curriculum, advance digital education, strengthen technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programmes, and refine the school curriculum, early childhood education, as well as the MBMMBI initiative.

“I am truly heartened and inspired to see that more private sector organisations like ELS are coming forward to partner with us in these vital efforts, recognising the immense potential of our young people and the importance of nurturing their linguistic abilities,” she said.

Held annually with the support of the ministry, the ceremony honoured the top 10 winners of the essay writing competition, which saw the participation of 30,987 Forms Four and Five students from 516 schools nationwide.

The competition also included an online English language writing programme that prepared students for their Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) English exams.

In 2022, ELS introduced the competition as part of its corporate social responsibility efforts to contribute to the government’s drive for enhanced English language proficiency among secondary school students.

A strong command of English is essential for students to thrive in an increasingly globalised world, said ELS board of governors chair Puan Sri Aisha Shamsuddin, adding that the ELS English Language Ambassador Award aimed to inspire and empower students to become confident communicators.

Expressing her excitement, the competition’s grand champion Nur Maisara Ahmad Joha said she was thrilled at the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to visit Australia, a country she has never been to before.

The SMK Dato’ Sheikh Ahmad, Perlis, student was awarded a one-week study tour to the University of Adelaide, inclusive of return flight tickets and accommodation, and a cash award of RM2,000.

She also took home a trophy, a certificate of achievement, and a one-year subscription to the JustRead online programme and Digital English Skills Grammar and Vocabulary.

“Winning this competition was both shocking and exciting. I’m over the moon.

“I’ll video call my parents from Adelaide. I was at boarding school when I got the call about my win. My parents are very proud of me for winning the award,” said Nur Maisara, whose parents are soldiers in the Malaysian army.

She shared that she aspires to study language and become a lecturer to help others appreciate the beauty of language.

“My obsession with J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series as a child sparked my interest in writing. I wanted to create stories that people would enjoy just as much,” she said.

Her winning essay, entitled “Young and Beautiful”, is about a woman who becomes overly materialistic and fears ageing. As she grows older, she becomes frantic before finally understanding the true meaning of life.

“True beauty means being authentic to your inner self, not just focusing on what’s on the surface,” Nur Maisara said.

She will be joining the University of Adelaide’s orientation week in July, experiencing studying abroad through social events, cultural programmes and excursions around the city of Adelaide.

Tags / Keywords: english , language , proficiency , education ministry , Fadhlina , competition , essay , writing , ELS Language Centres , ELS , schools

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