how does social media affect body image negatively essay

• Open access
• Published: 27 June 2022

“Why don’t I look like her?” How adolescent girls view social media and its connection to body image

• Alana Papageorgiou 1 , 2 ,
• Colleen Fisher 2 &
• Donna Cross 1 , 3  

BMC Women's Health volume  22 , Article number:  261 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Adolescent girls appear more vulnerable to experiencing mental health difficulties from social media use than boys. The presence of sexualized images online is thought to contribute, through increasing body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls. Sexual objectification through images may reinforce to adolescent girls that their value is based on their appearance. This study explored how sexualized images typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls’ mental health, in positive and/or negative ways.

In-depth interviews were conducted with girls aged 14–17 years (n = 24) in Perth, Western Australia. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis.

Participants identified body image as a major concern, reporting negative appearance comparisons when viewing images on social media. Appearance comparisons were perceived to exacerbate adolescent girls’ appearance-based concerns. Comparisons also influenced adolescent girls’ efforts to change their appearance and seek validation on social media. The importance of awareness and education from a younger age about social media and its influence on body image was emphasized, as was the need for strategies to promote positive body image and counteract negative body image.

The findings of this study have important implications for professionals working with adolescent girls and for the development of health promotion programs addressing social media use and body image concerns.

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Adolescence is an important period of development, with major physical, social, cognitive and emotional changes, and identity formation occurring [ 1 ]. Adolescence is also a time when young people begin to use social media, online platforms enabling social interaction through the creation of individualized online profiles and sharing of photos, videos and other media on sites or apps such as Instagram, Snapchat and Facebook [ 2 , 3 ]. Social media has been found to have both positive and negative impacts on the lives of adolescents. Positive aspects of social media use include increased peer connection and support, and opportunities to learn [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. However, research has largely reported adverse influences from adolescents’ social media use, contributing to mental health difficulties including increased depression, anxiety, and self-harm behaviors, decreased socio-emotional wellbeing, low self-esteem and negative body image [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. For girls, the combination of reaching puberty, their body changing, and the importance of approval from peers and romantic relationship formation can increase vulnerability to negative body image and research suggests social media may have a greater influence on their body dissatisfaction compared to boys’ [ 2 , 11 , 12 ].

Body image encompasses the thoughts, feelings, beliefs and attitudes one has about their body and appearance [ 13 ]. Body dissatisfaction is an important element of body image and can range in severity from having a preference for different body characteristics to the uptake of extreme action to change one’s body [ 14 ]. Body dissatisfaction has been linked to low self-esteem, decreased mental health and wellbeing, and the development of eating disorders among adolescent girls [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. The potential harms associated with body dissatisfaction highlight negative body image as an important public health concern [ 18 ].

Time spent on the Internet has been associated with increased body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls, with the interaction allowed by social media and appearance-focused content influencing body image concerns through negative social comparisons and peer normative processes [ 11 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Images of attractive thin females, often photo-shopped with filters, feature frequently on social media platforms such as Instagram, promoting stereotyped beauty ideals subsequently affecting viewers’ body image and dissatisfaction [ 9 , 23 ]. The females in images on social media are more commonly peers rather than celebrities like those included in mass media, which may influence body image related attitudes and concerns more significantly, given peers’ relatability and relevance to girls’ daily lives [ 19 , 24 , 25 ]. A study investigating the effect of manipulated Instagram selfies on adolescent girls’ body image found such images resulted in poorer body image perception, especially among those with high levels of social comparison [ 24 ]. Given the increasing prevalence of image-sharing online, young people may need support to improve their self-esteem and become more informed consumers of digital images (e.g. being able to identify enhanced or photo-shopped images as unrealistic and unattainable).

While social media can also counteract negative body image messages with positive body image accounts, even these accounts have been identified as commonly featuring appearance focused content [ 26 , 27 ]. It seems the overwhelming message to adolescent girls is that their value is largely derived from their appearance [ 28 , 29 ]. Girls can now easily and frequently compare themselves to those they follow on Instagram, whether they are peers or celebrities. The role of social media on body image is also an important issue for consideration among adolescent boys; however, existing research suggests girls are more likely to report negative body image [ 29 , 30 ].

An increased level of female sexual objectification has been identified through images on social media, where gender inequality is reinforced through the depiction of girls and women as sexually available and objectified [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Sexual objectification through social media may then lead to adolescent girls’ internalization of conventional ideas of femininity, with subsequent effects on their mental health and wellbeing [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. For body image development, sexually objectified images on social media provide ample opportunity for girls to evaluate themselves against such images which emphasize appearing ‘sexy’ as critical to identity and that their worth is based on constant observation and evaluation of their appearance [ 36 , 39 ]. Additionally, while masculinity ideals are featuring more frequently in the media, including social media, the sexualization of females remains pervasive compared to males [ 40 ].

Previous research conducted on the influence of sexualized media on females’ body image as an indicator of mental health has largely focused on the impact of conventional mass media [ 41 , 42 ], employed quantitative research methods [ 21 , 34 , 43 , 44 , 45 ], analyzed sexualized content in various forms of media [ 46 ], focused on pre/early adolescent girls [ 29 , 47 , 48 ] or young women [ 32 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]. There are few qualitative studies exploring the influence of sexualized images on social media or the role of social media use in body image development from the perspective of adolescent girls themselves. Of these, the focus has either been on sexualized content only [ 53 , 54 ], image-sharing practices on social media [ 31 , 33 , 55 ], or the influence of social media use broadly (without a focus on sexualized images) on body image [ 11 , 56 , 57 ]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no qualitative studies exploring adolescent girls’ perceptions of the influence of sexualized images on social media on their mental health, or body image, as referred to in the present study. Nonetheless, these studies illuminate the ubiquity of appearance-focused and objectified images girls encounter when using social media and the challenges they experience navigating sexualized ideals of femininity [ 31 , 53 , 54 ]. Focus groups with girls and boys found the importance of appearing attractive on social media [ 33 , 55 , 56 ] and the perception that social media negatively impacted one’s body image [ 57 ] were more prominent for girls. Additionally, focus groups with only girls reported they frequently use social media to engage in appearance-focused social comparisons and some girls in the study indicated they were dissatisfied with their appearance [ 11 ]. These findings, in combination with their limitations related to focus group methodology whereby participants may have provided socially desirable responses, warrant further in-depth exploration with adolescent girls. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore how sexualized images of females’ bodies typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls’ mental health, in positive and/or negative ways. A generic qualitative approach [ 58 ] utilizing in-depth interviews with adolescent girls was used for this study. The findings reported here are part of a broader study that included interviews with parents of adolescent girls, secondary school staff in a support service role such as school psychologists and those on pastoral care teams, and youth mental health service providers. Only the findings from girls are reported in this paper.

A generic qualitative research design was used for this study, an approach which is not informed by any one known qualitative methodology and its explicit or established set of philosophical assumptions [ 58 ]. A constructivist epistemology [ 59 , 60 ] guided the study to explore the unique perspectives of adolescent girls using one-on-one in-depth interviews to elicit their thoughts, knowledge and experiences [ 61 , 62 ].

Theoretical framework

Objectification Theory has been used to better understand the impacts of being female in a culture that sexually objectifies the female body [ 34 ] and suggests this leads to self-objectification whereby females internalize an observer’s perspective as a primary view of themselves and their bodies [ 63 ]. Adolescent girls may be particularly susceptible to self-objectification as adolescence is a developmental period of increased self-awareness, self-consciousness, and preoccupation with image and a time when identity is established [ 64 ]. When girls encounter sexualized images while using social media, they may self-objectify as they observe and view such content [ 65 ]. Additionally, the dual pathway model [ 66 , 67 ] provides a framework for understanding the mechanisms in which adolescent girls’ social media use can influence their body image. The dual pathway model suggests sociocultural appearance pressures and the internalization of appearance ideals lead to body dissatisfaction and subsequent risk factors for eating disorder development such as disordered eating behaviors [ 68 ]. Pressure to conform to appearance ideals through adolescent girls’ social media use and the extent to which they internalize these ideals may contribute to body dissatisfaction [ 9 ] and consequently, their likelihood of engaging in disordered eating behaviors with impacts on their mental health [ 68 ].

Participants

A purposive sample of twenty-four adolescent girls aged 14–17 years (Grades 9–11) was recruited for the study from the Student Edge (an Australian student membership organization) youth research panel (n = 13, 54.17%), non-government schools (n = 6, 25%) and through snowball sampling techniques (n = 5, 20.83%) in Perth, Western Australia between 2016 and 2018. Inclusion criteria to participate in the study included active use (i.e., one hour or more per day) of at least one social media platform (i.e., Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook). Most participants were 16–17 years of age (n = 14), spoke English as their first language, and attended a non-government school. One of the participants spoke English as a second language and seven of the participants attended two different all girls’ schools.

Full ethical approval to conduct this research was obtained from the University of Western Australia Human Research Ethics Committee. Student Edge emailed the relevant target audience from their membership base (girls aged 14–17 years in the Perth metropolitan area) and provided a link on their website to a screening survey. The screening survey explained the research project and what participation involved, asked students their age and gender, and if they would like to participate. Those who responded ‘yes’ and met the inclusion criteria for participation (n = 45) had their name, phone number and email address captured based on their Student Edge membership details. These details were then sent to the first author who made contact via phone and/or email to arrange an interview.

To recruit students from non-government schools, approval was first sought from the Catholic Education Office of Western Australia and the Association of Independent Schools of Western Australia then school principals, who were contacted by phone and email seeking their approval for project information to be distributed within their schools via email, newsletter items and flyers. Parents and students were provided with an information sheet describing the research and asked to contact the research team via phone or email if they were interested in participating. School principals were asked to nominate a school-coordinator to assist in arranging student interviews. Additionally, girls were recruited through snowball sampling methods, with those who participated in the study asked to distribute project information to other girls aged between 14 and 17 years.

Prior to participation in the study, written informed consent was obtained from both parents or guardians and adolescent girls. For those recruited from the Student Edge youth research panel, parent or guardian consent was required for students under 15 years to be eligible to become a member.

Adolescent girls participated in one-on-one semi-structured interviews with open-ended questioning undertaken by the first author between October 2016 and February 2018. During the interviews, girls were asked questions in relation to publicly available images of celebrities from Instagram using third person disclosures. These methods were used to enable discussion without participants having to reveal personal experiences which may have caused discomfort, and as a requirement of the study’s ethical approvals. The images were selected from celebrities with some of the largest numbers of female followers on Instagram at the time of data collection (Selena Gomez, Gigi Hadid, Kylie Jenner and Kendall Jenner), and for variation in parts of the body that were emphasized, and the presence of a sexually suggestive pose as used in previous studies [ 24 , 46 ]. Participants were shown each image and asked what girls their age looking at Instagram might think about the images and why, how the images might make them feel about themselves and why, and how the images might influence mental health (in both positive and negative ways). Participants were also asked for their opinions about the sexualization of girls through images on social media, and in what ways this could be positive or negative. Interviews concluded with asking girls what they thought might help or prevent any of the negative influences on body image they identified. Participants were also asked demographic questions, how often they used social media, and what types of social media they used.

Prior to data collection, the interview protocol was pilot tested with a convenience sample of two adolescent girls aged between 16 and 17 years to provide feedback on question development and types of responses received, as well as the skills of the interviewer. No changes were made to the protocol as a result of the pilot testing.

Ten of the interviews were conducted in person (at their school or a public location) and the remaining fourteen interviews via phone (by participant request). Interviews lasted between thirty minutes and one hour.

Data analysis

All interviews were audio recorded and professionally transcribed verbatim and imported into qualitative data management software NVivo 11 (QSR International Pty Ltd, 2018) for management, retrieval, and interrogation. Data were analyzed by the first author using thematic analysis as described by Braun and Clarke [ 69 ]. This involved immersion in the data through reading and re-reading interview transcripts, followed by the generation of initial codes from features of the data, with some of these forming repeated patterns across the data set. During the initial coding phase, full and equal attention was given to each data item. These codes were then collated into potential themes. Themes were reviewed at the level of the coded extracts to ensure they were coherent, with a candidate thematic ‘map’ created. These themes were then refined to ensure they accurately reflected the data set as a whole, with recoding occurring as required. The thematic ‘map’ of the analysis was then further refined to formulate clear definitions and names for each theme. Throughout analysis the first author discussed the generated codes and themes with the co-authors to ensure accuracy of meaning and interpretation.

The coding frame for thematic analysis included both inductive codes generated from the data itself and deductive codes present in the existing research literature [ 59 ]. Codes that did not reflect the data were amended to fit the data. Data were not molded to fit predetermined codes or discarded. To maintain confidentiality, each participant and other entity or institution was allocated a pseudonym during data analysis.

Data collection and analysis procedures were recorded in an audit trail by the first author to document comments, decisions and observations, and to demonstrate and clarify decision-making to ensure any interpretations made accurately reflected the data. This documentation maintains rigor in qualitative research by strengthening the dependability and confirmability of the study [ 62 , 70 ]. To increase credibility of the research, responses were checked during and on completion of interviews to ensure the representations of participants’ viewpoints were accurate [ 62 ].

As an introduction to participant interviews, adolescent girls were asked about their social media use. These questions related to the different types of social media they used most often, how many hours a day they spent using these (on both a weekday and weekend day), and the device used to access social media.

The most used social media among participants were Instagram, Facebook and Snapchat. An equal number of participants reported they either spent less than two hours, or more than three hours, using social media on a weekday. On a weekend day, most participants spent more than four hours using social media. Delineation between passive use such as scrolling social media app feeds or viewing stories, and active use involving liking, commenting, and sharing posts was not collected as part of this study. Mobile phones were the most commonly used device to access social media. Daily use of social media reported by participants in this study was greater than has been previously reported among Australian females aged between 14 and 24 years, who on average in 2018 spent close to fourteen hours each week, or about two hours per day, on social media [ 71 ]. Additionally, time spent on social media by girls in this study is outside of the Australian 24-h movement guidelines for children and young people aged 5–17 years which recommend limiting sedentary recreational screen time to no more than two hours per day [ 72 ].

Participants identified body image as a major concern in relation to adolescent girls’ social media use and its influence on mental health, reporting girls felt insecure and self-conscious about their appearance when using Instagram specifically. This was not necessarily related to content participants considered as sexualized. Images were identified as sexualized depending on the amount of skin exposed rather than a females’ pose in an image. Four overarching themes emerged from the data and provided an in-depth understanding of the ways in which the girls in the study described how social media use influences body image: ‘expectation’, ‘comparison’, ‘striving’, and ‘validation’. Participants also referred to ‘counteracting negative body image and influence of social media’. Additional quotes to support each theme described below are included as a supplementary file (see Additional file 1 ).

Expectation

Images of other females were perceived to add an expectation for adolescent girls to look a certain way in their own social media posts to obtain what they deem an acceptable number of ‘likes’ and positive commentary. Although this is often influenced by images of celebrities, girls interpreted these as less realistic and attainable, with sexualized images posted by peers and other girls their age having a greater influence on their likelihood to make negative appearance comparisons;

I guess, you know they’re celebrities, so something must have gone into it [a photo]. It’s not just a photo, but I think if it’s someone you know or someone your age, it’s like, “Wow, that really could be me,” or “People my age are looking like this or doing this kind of stuff.” So, I think it would have a worse effect. (Sana, 17 years)

This expectation was perceived to make girls feel pressured to look attractive in their social media posts, even if it meant not being themselves as described in the participant quote below;

Some girls try to look like that [the images shown] and then they’re probably not being themselves, but they’re being what they think they’re expected to be kind of, which is not very good. (Candice, 15 years)

Girls also talked about how expectations experienced from viewing sexualized images on social media would vary between girls, depending on how they already felt about their appearance;

I guess it depends on how the girls feel about themselves first because depending on how they feel about themselves will depend on how they view the photo. (Daisy, 16 years) I think in general it depends on the mood that you're in when you open your phone. If you're already in a vulnerable mindset or if you've been out all day at the beach or something and you'd come home, you'd probably take more notice of that and be like, "Oh, I wish I looked like that." (Charlotte, 17 years)

While asked about both potential positive and negative influences of sexualized images of females featured within social media, girls could not identify any positives and continually spoke of the negative influences;

I think it would definitely have a negative impact on their mental health because they’d probably really be upset if they can’t achieve those unrealistic body expectations. (Sophie, 17 years)

Expectations related to social media use and body image were also discussed in relation to the normalization of following certain types of Instagram accounts, such as those that are appearance-focused and of attractive females with many followers, and how this could then lead to appearance-based expectations;

I think it [following appearance-focused and popular attractive female Instagram accounts] becomes more accepted and it becomes okay. It’s almost like a visual effect I guess if one particular group of teenage girls follow celebrities or whatever, begin to follow those sort of things [appearance-focused and popular attractive female Instagram accounts] and all people follow them, their friends, it [trying to look like the females in those accounts] becomes more of an expectation. (Brooke, 16 years)

While encouraged to use third person disclosures during interviews, participants reported they made negative appearance comparisons when viewing images on social media. Negative appearance comparisons were made irrespective of whether images were considered sexualized. As in the discussions among girls related to expectation, both images of celebrities and peers influenced comparisons, however, the influence of peers was considered more prolific;

When I see girls my age [on Instagram], I just compare myself to them ‘cause I know it’s kind of reality, if that makes sense, to know that someone my age can look like that and then why don’t I look like that? I think that’s what a lot of girls would see. (Olivia, 16 years)

While images of peers were considered to have a greater influence on negative appearance comparisons among the majority of girls, not all shared this viewpoint;

I think they [girls] would still to a certain extent be like, “Oh, I still want to be them,” but I feel it would be less, because if they see, “Oh, they're just like a regular person, they’re not a celebrity,” then they’re not really worth looking up to. But some people might say, “Oh, I want that kind of life,” for a regular person, like, “Why can she have just such a great life but I don’t?” (Amelia, 16 years)

All four images shown in interviews were perceived by participants to influence girls their age in making negative appearance-based comparisons. Reasons included the celebrities’ current popularity among their age group and the perception that all were attractive. For some participants, the number of likes was considered to play a role in comparisons, with a higher number equating to level of attractiveness. For others, the negative comparison was considered irrespective of the number of ‘likes’. All but one of the images was considered sexualized (where the least amount of skin was exposed), but it was noted that when using Instagram, girls would be unlikely to pause and make this distinction while scrolling through images.

All participants acknowledged the editing behind photos on social media but this did not counteract them making negative appearance comparisons;

A lot of them [photos] are edited and things like that but you don't really think about that when you look at someone's profile, you just compare that to yourself and then, that just makes you feel really bad about yourself. (Emma, 17 years)

Similarly, an awareness of images on social media usually featuring someone at their best did not ameliorate negative comparisons;

‘Cause if they constantly see it – and especially if you’re scrolling, some people might be in bed or on the couch, kind of not looking their best, they compared themselves at maybe their worst, compared to them at their very best and immediately, they go, “Oh, wow, okay.” And they see themselves as so much lower because of the comparison. (Candice, 15 years)

Even when prompted, girls struggled to identify any potential positive comparisons with the images to which they are exposed on social media. Females on social media who post photos of themselves were considered confident and empowered by their appearance, but girls did not agree on whether this would make girls their age feel good about their own appearance.

The expectation perceived by participants and the comparisons made from viewing images on social media was seen to influence girls’ striving to look a certain way, portray an enviable lifestyle and obtain many followers, ‘likes’ and comments;

You’re constantly thinking about aspiring to be something that I know 90% of girls aren’t going to be that way. It’s not possible and people need to realize that you’ve got to be happy with who you are and that you're beautiful in your own way. (Matilda, 16 years)

Participants particularly spoke about the influence of images on girls wanting to change their bodies;

You just think, “Oh, that's possible” and then you try and shape your body to be like that, so you eat less and eating disorders occur. (Zoe, 16 years) Just seeing [images on social media] all the time and it can get you down and girls could think, “Oh, I need to have my body like that.” People are always saying, “Oh, I want to get a summer body,” all the time. (Madeleine, 14 years)

For some girls, fitness accounts on Instagram, in addition to celebrities and peers, were also perceived as influential in girls’ striving to change their bodies;

I think it [images of females on fitness accounts] just puts this really unrealistic vision of what you should look like, and what you should do with your body to girls my age. (Abbey, 17 years)

When discussing the images shown of two popular and attractive models, it was well known among girls that both had been, and were currently, Victoria’s Secret models. This led to considering the type of influence such images have on adolescent girls’ body image;

I do know that a lot of my friends follow [on Instagram] a lot of models and celebrities, especially like Victoria Secret models for instance. I mean I’ve never been into that and that’s just never been my thing but I think that a lot of girls my age are following models. I guess it [is] sort of a way for them to almost, like to see what they aspire to be, which is really sad. (Matilda, 16 years)

Intersecting with the themes of expectation, comparison and striving, participants frequently spoke about validation when discussing the influence of social media on body image. A currency of ‘likes’, comments and followers where girls are validated on their Instagram posts and accounts was evident throughout discussions with participants;

I feel that when people post photos of them in their bikini, they want that positive feedback and say, “Oh, you look so amazing.” And that's why they do it because they want the compliments. It's kind of a false representation of themselves because they're just doing it for the likes and the compliments. (Tahlia, 16 years)

This validation was perceived to reinforce to girls that their value is largely placed on their appearance and influenced the types of images they would consider posting of themselves.

Although not frequently identified by participants, some discussed behaviors of possible concern among girls regarding the influence of social media likes, as described by Charlotte (17 years):

If you went to a birthday or something and everyone is eating cake and heaps of food, I think you probably would restrict yourself a little bit more than you would have otherwise. And think, "Oh, they got these many likes and this, maybe I should stop eating a little bit.”

Counteracting negative body image and influence of social media

Participants discussed the importance of awareness and education from a younger age among girls about social media and its influence on body image. Year six (11–12 years of age) was identified by the girls as an optimal range for this to occur, when girls are starting to use social media and many are experiencing pubertal changes and becoming more aware of their bodies and appearance. Schools, parents, peers and online sources including apps were all perceived by girls as having the potential to play a helpful role in counteracting negative body image messages, particularly when awareness and education can be delivered by all of these sources.

A form of awareness and education commonly identified by girls included critiquing images on social media within the school curriculum, to improve ‘social media literacy’;

Just to be reminded that these things aren’t what they look like. Maybe videos or something that show how edited these photos get. Like, I've seen one and it was about magazine covers, and it was just the beginning of a woman, and then two hours of makeup and things like that later, the end of her. And then she got put on the magazine cover. So, maybe similar things for social media. (Sana, 17 years)

Although it was apparent throughout the interviews with the girls that they were already aware of the editing and enhancement of images on social media, as well as the tendency for images to portray females at their best, they struggled to apply this knowledge. This was especially the case when viewing images of their peers.

It was highlighted that messages to counteract negative body image were needed, including focusing on girls’ strengths rather than their appearance, diversity of physical appearance and that idolized physiques, such as those of celebrities are not the norm;

I think for me the thing that I would like to see is saying yes, this person might be really pretty and this person might not be, but that intelligence and sort of physical [ability] is just as important. I mean, trying to say, “Oh, don’t worry [not] everyone looks good all [the] time.” That’s not helpful ‘cause nobody really believes it. (Brooke, 16 years)

Participants discussed the use of social media to counteract negative body image and promote positive body image, with body positive and acceptance messages including imagery and quotes considered helpful;

There’re a lot of body positive pages, so they post photos of normal people, not like Kendall [Jenner] but people with stretch marks and not like that at all. And then you get quotes and all these amazing things, like people's stories. So you just have to balance it out, I think, which took me awhile to do because, at first, I was just following people like her [Kendall Jenner], which didn't make me feel too good, and then now, I just go half and half. (Ava, 14 years)

While identified by the majority of girls as helpful to counteract negative body image, only a few said they followed such profiles or accounts and some were not aware of any these.

Girl-focused support and programs were discussed as needed to help girls counteract negative body image and the influence of social media, as exemplified by Grace (15 years):

I would just say there needs to be more support directly aimed at girls. I mean just bringing awareness to the fact that social media isn’t the point of your value and your worth, and that people might think that’s stupid but it is really such a big thing and I noticed it with so many people. It’s not the epitome of who you are. There’s way more substance to your person than how many followers you have and just raising awareness and bringing a lot of support and teaching girls self-love and self-worth is important so that you don’t have to have a boy validate that or you don’t have to have ‘likes’ to validate that.

The role of apps in providing girl-focused support was also discussed by participants, although some expressed concern that girls may not seek out such an app;

If it was just like [a] ‘girls only’ app. Like little ways to de-stress. Where you like breathe and stuff like that, I think that it needs to be something like that, but the thing is I don’t know if many girls would use it, I guess. They’d be like, “Why do I need this? This isn’t a necessity for me.” I don’t think many girls know that it’s harmful for them to be comparing themselves to these girls. (Amelia, 16 years)

Both school and other sources such as online environments were identified as settings where such support could be provided. However, girls also stressed the importance of schools not just providing talks about body image or advising them to simply stop engaging with social media that is influencing them negatively, as described in detail by Rachel (17 years):

We have heaps of body image talks, but it’s like, okay, they’re good for the first one, and then they’re sort of repeating themselves and it’s not going in anymore. It’s just your natural instinct to look at someone [and compare yourself]. They’ve told us to go unfollow anyone on Instagram who’s making you upset or whatever. [Its] a lot easier said than done. ‘Cause you don’t really know what’s making you upset. You can be following lots of supermodels and them as a collective are making you upset, but you’re so intrigued on where they’ve got to in their life that you don’t wanna unfollow them.

The current study utilized in-depth interviews to better understand how sexualized images typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls’ mental health, in positive and/or negative ways. Body image was the only aspect of mental health highlighted by participants in this study, attesting to its importance in the minds of participants.

While studies have found sexualized images to influence body image among females [ 34 , 43 , 49 ], participants in this study did not highlight sexualization as a specific concern in relation to body image. The pervasiveness and normalization of sexualized images within social media may help explain why girls participating in this study did not consider such images as distinct from others [ 34 , 52 ]. However, the four overarching themes of expectation, comparison, striving and validation reported in this study highlighted that adolescent girls largely view their body in relation to their appearance, and suggests self-objectification is a prominent issue when exploring the relationship between social media use and body image. Previous studies have also found a connection between self-objectification on girls’ appearance concerns [ 40 , 51 , 52 ]. Consequently, preventing appearance concerns and negative body image among girls may be facilitated by the development of strategies from a young age to counteract self-objectification, appearance concerns and comparisons in relation to social media use [ 11 , 21 , 73 ].

Consistent with previous research, the influence of social media on adolescent girls’ body image was perceived as negative by the participants in this study [ 12 , 24 , 29 , 57 , 74 ]. Girls found it difficult to identify positive influences of social media on body image, with little to no discussion among participants, even when prompted during interviews. Participants perceived girls who posted photos of themselves on social media as confident and empowered by their appearance and were unsure whether this would have a positive influence on the body image of other girls their age or those who posted the images. While some existing literature suggests adolescents are unaware and naïve to negative influences associated with social media [ 2 , 23 , 75 ], this study found girls were well aware of how the experiences of expectation, comparison, striving and validation led to negative thoughts and feelings related to their body image. Girls were also able to suggest strategies to counteract negative body image and were able to apply critical thinking when viewing images of celebrities. These findings align with previous research that found adolescents to be critical users and generators of social media, with high media literacy and the ability to identify strategies that may help mitigate social media’s negative effects on body image [ 11 , 76 , 77 ].

Adolescent girls in this study identified the importance of peers in relation to making appearance-based comparisons, with differences in the comparisons made to peers or celebrities, suggesting body image may be more negatively influenced by viewing images of peers on social media. This finding aligns with previous studies identifying peers as having a significant influence on body image concerns among girls [ 11 , 24 , 73 ]. Participants perceived peers as more relatable than celebrities, who they considered as less realistic and attainable. With images on social media more frequently featuring girls’ peers (although images of celebrities are also prominent), this finding adds to existing research highlighting peer appearance comparisons as an important component to address when developing programs aimed at the prevention and early intervention of body dissatisfaction and appearance-based concerns among girls [ 21 , 73 , 78 ]. Additionally, this study found girls were not able to apply critical thinking skills when viewing images of peers, suggesting girls need support to apply these cognitive skills to prevent or minimize peer appearance-related comparisons.

Participants also suggested that some adolescent girls may be more at risk than others of making negative appearance comparisons. This was discussed in relation to how girls already felt about their own appearance and their mood when using social media and viewing images. In relation to how girls already feel about their own appearance, positive body image could play a protective role in influencing the likelihood of making negative appearance comparisons while using social media. Positive body image refers to love and respect of one’s body and emphasizes acceptance and appreciation of its functions irrespective of whether it meets dominant societal appearance ideals [ 79 ]. An important characteristic of positive body image pertinent to the influence of girls’ social media use on their body image is protective filtering, whereby positive-body related information is accepted while negative information is rejected, maintaining positive body image [ 79 , 80 ]. Among a sample of adolescents with positive body image, expressing strong criticism against appearance ideals was found to foster protective filtering and thus helped to uphold positive body image [ 81 ], whilst in another study of adolescent girls, protective filtering also suggested benefits to body image [ 11 ]. Conversely, a recent qualitative study exploring adolescents’ processing and protective filtering of social media content and perceived protective benefits of these strategies for body image found that although girls in the study displayed aspects of engaging in protective filtering, this did not necessarily translate to protective effects to their body image and they experienced difficulty internalizing positive body-related messages and accepting and appreciating their own bodies [ 57 ]. While the present study did not collect data about participants’ own body image, findings support the importance of girls’ varying levels of body image when developing interventions aimed at reducing negative appearance comparisons when using social media.

Participants in this study also considered that a girls’ mood when using social media and viewing images may place some girls at greater risk of making negative appearance comparisons. This finding suggests that body dissatisfaction could be state-based and mediate the influence of viewing images on social media and body image, with the immediate impact of exposure to such images influencing body dissatisfaction. Research conducted with women who had trait-level appearance ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction found appearance comparisons, and in particular upward comparisons (to those deemed more attractive) predicted increased state body dissatisfaction [ 82 ]. Adolescent girls who internalize appearance ideals and those with elevated trait body dissatisfaction may be at greater risk of making negative appearance comparisons when using social media and thus may be an important sub-group to consider for intervention. Previous research has also found that girls with higher social comparison tendencies [ 24 ] and those focused on gaining approval from others about their appearance, experience more negative effects on their body image as a result of using social media [ 29 ]. Gaining approval from others when using social media through ‘likes’ and comments was mentioned frequently among girls in this study and was perceived to provide validation of one’s appearance and thus, reinforcing a focus on appearance. At the time of this study, Instagram had not yet begun its trial of no longer displaying the amount of ‘likes’ on posts. Further research with adolescent girls could explore their views on this change and its influence on appearance-based comparisons and social media activity among this group.

The role of schools, parents, peers and online sources in counteracting negative body image was highlighted by participants in this study, with emphasis placed on body image awareness, education and support being delivered by each of these sources. This finding supports existing research recommending an ecological approach to adolescent body image development, where all interactions in a girls’ environment can be influenced to prevent body dissatisfaction related to social media use [ 83 ]. Parents are a key influence on girls’ body image [ 84 , 85 ], and research has found they can play a protective role in preadolescent and adolescent social media appearance comparisons and body dissatisfaction [ 86 , 87 ]. Schools provide a setting in which content can be delivered in the classroom and whereby families, peers, teachers and other school staff can be engaged and involved in the implementation of health promotion interventions with a focus on body image [ 88 ]. When planning such interventions, it is important to consider girls’ age and developmental stage, as well as the influence and interaction of individual, family, peer, online, community, and school environments on their body image to counteract negative body image.

Congruent with research investigating social media literacy interventions as an emerging approach to address specific challenges to body image posed by social media [ 89 ], participants in this study perceived improved social media literacy among adolescent girls from a younger age, taught within the school curriculum, as important to counteracting negative body image. Social media literacy focuses on the interactions among users of social media, whether friends, other peers or celebrities, as well as developing the skills to examine the messages underlying commercial media advertising, including health and fitness, seen on social media [ 78 ]. This finding aligns with previous research which has observed favorable effects on body dissatisfaction, internalization of the thin ideal, appearance comparison, and self-esteem among girls following a pilot social media literacy intervention adapted from the ‘Happy Being Me’ program [ 90 ]. However, a recent randomized controlled trial found less effectiveness as a stand-alone intervention, with the appearance-comparison component found to be more effective [ 78 ]. Participants in the present study also identified appearance-based comparisons as a topic of concern to them, suggesting the need to include both social media literacy and appearance-comparison content in body dissatisfaction prevention interventions.

When discussing strategies for counteracting negative body image and the influence of social media, participants also referred to the importance of promoting positive body image through messaging focused on girls’ strengths rather than their appearance, body acceptance and ways to challenge unrealistic societal appearance ideals. This finding aligns with sociocultural theories such as the dual pathway model [ 68 ] suggesting the pressure among girls to conform to appearance ideals and the extent to which they internalize such ideals are important factors to target in interventions aimed at this group. To this effect, cognitive dissonance intervention the Body Project has a strong body of evidence supporting its effectiveness in increasing body appreciation and reducing thin-ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls when implemented in schools [ 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 ]. The theoretical premise of the Body Project is that when there is a discrepancy between an individual’s beliefs and actions, they experience discomfort i.e. cognitive dissonance, which they then try to avoid, becoming motivated to re-assess their beliefs to align with their actions [ 96 ]. In the intervention, this is facilitated by group discussions and activities with adolescent girls where girls actively challenge appearance ideals with subsequent decreases in thin-ideal internalization and body dissatisfaction [ 91 ]. Additionally, research indicates acceptability of the intervention among adolescent girls, with the group setting contributing to their sense of belonging, particularly when facilitators are considered relatable, such as undergraduate female university students [ 95 , 97 ].

The finding that any negative influence of social media on body image was not necessarily in relation to sexualized content highlights the importance of undertaking research with girls to better understand the mechanisms of social media’s influence on their body image. In this study, participants made negative comparisons with images of females on social media regardless of whether they were considered sexualized, with the influence of peer appearance comparisons more prominent. Research with adolescent girls will also enable them to inform and co-develop interventions to support their body image development and prevent or reduce harms experienced from their social media use in relation to body image, targeted to the needs and interests of their age group.

The current study contributes new knowledge from the perspective of adolescent girls to the existing literature on adolescent girls’ social media use and its influence on their body image. The findings of this study suggest that social media can have a negative influence on girls’ body image through negative appearance comparisons when viewing images on social media, exacerbating appearance-based concerns and body dissatisfaction. While negative comparisons were made irrespective of whether images were considered sexualized, findings suggested a level of self-objectification among adolescent girls whereby they viewed themselves in relation to their appearance. The important role of peers in appearance comparisons was also evident in this study. Participants also identified strategies to prevent and counteract negative body image, which have important implications for the development of health promotion programs addressing social media use and body image concerns among adolescent girls for prevention and early intervention that can minimize potential harms. For parents and professionals working with adolescent girls, particularly in the school setting, the findings can be applied in their work by providing education about social media and its influence on body image and strategies to prevent and counteract negative body image to support girls.

Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting its findings. This study was exploratory and limited by a small number of self-selected participants (n = 24). Therefore, its findings cannot be used to make assumptions about the population of girls aged between 14 and 17 years in Perth, Western Australia and does not claim to be representative of the broader population of girls. Findings may vary in other areas of Western Australia, Australia and internationally. However, qualitative research often uses smaller samples enabling the collection of in-depth information and providing direction for further research.

Additionally, participants’ own body image concerns/body dissatisfaction were not assessed as part of this study. The participating girls’ feelings about their body image may have influenced their perceptions of how social media influences body image among other girls.

The interpretation of this study’s findings may also be influenced by the characteristics of the participating girls. There were slightly more participants in this study aged between 16–17 years old, and these girls may have been using social media for longer compared to younger participants. Age and more years of experience using social media may have influenced participants’ interest in issues related to social media and thus their interest in participating in the study. In addition, all but one of the girls were from an English-speaking background and findings may differ among girls from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, as they may not feel they meet Western appearance ideals and may also experience different perceived sociocultural appearance-related pressures depending on their cultural background. Another limitation of this study was that most participants attended non-government and co-educational schools. It is possible that findings may be different among samples where girls largely attend government or all girls’ schools. As most participants attended non-government schools and were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds, they may have had increased access to digital technology and therefore use of social media. Additionally, girls from high socioeconomic backgrounds may experience differences in perceived appearance ideals compared to girls from different backgrounds. It would be useful for future research to explore further the perceptions of girls in government schools and all girls’ schools to allow for comparisons, especially in relation to peers and sexualized images with those in non-government and co-educational schools.

This study provides some insight into the influence of social media on adolescent girls’ body image from the perspective of girls in Perth, Western Australia. Further research should engage with adolescent girls to identify and investigate the impact of strategies to prevent and counteract negative body image related to social media utilizing an ecological approach to encompass all aspects of girls’ lives.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available to protect the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants. Requests to obtain datasets can be made to the corresponding author.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Student Edge and the schools and students involved in this research.

Alana Papageorgiou was supported by a Western Australian Health Promotion Foundation (Healthway) Scholarship (file number: 24235) and an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship at the University of Western Australia. Donna Cross’ contribution to this paper was supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Research Fellowship (GNT1119339). The funders had no role in the design of the study, the collection, analysis or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

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All authors designed the study and AP undertook the data collection. AP conducted data analyses with assistance from CF. AP was responsible for writing the manuscript and DC and CF were responsible for reviewing and contributing to the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Additional file 1.

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The Filter Effect: What Does Comparing Our Bodies on Social Media Do to Our Health?

By Sarah Gabriele

Filters on social media apps such as Instagram and TikTok are great to take silly pictures alone and with friends, and they often give us a good laugh. However, as Dr. Christine Stabler from Penn Medicine writes , they also create an illusion, a perfection that we struggle to live up to every day. This is the case even if almost everyone is well aware that pictures are filtered and carefully selected, and that pictures do not always represent reality.

The use of social media does appear to be correlated to body image concerns and low-self esteem . A systematic review published in 2016 highlighted that photo-based activity on social media was linked to negative body image. In analyzing the roots of negative thoughts, studies have further shown that the activity of comparing ourselves is really what is detrimental to our own mental health. For example, researchers have found  a positive relationship between Facebook usage and body image concerns , and, in particular, young women who spent more time on Facebook felt more concerned about their bodies. This study showed that these negative effects occur mostly because of the social comparison that users make to others. This problem is particularly amplified when it comes to women, highlighting that the danger of social media and the standard of beauty are gender-specific, as women are subjected to physical ideals more than men, and feel pressured to look a certain way.

Lately, I have been reading My Body by Emily Ratajkowski, where she does a beautiful job of describing what constantly comparing her body did to herself. In one essay, she describes what it means to be raised by a mother who is fixated on her beauty and who is constantly comparing her daughter to herself or to others. The book talks about much more as the author writes about how her own appearance has shaped her relationships, career, and psyche.

Comparing one’s body is also a constant problem in eating disorders. A recent study demonstrated  that participants were less satisfied with their bodies following upward comparison — a term used to describe a comparison to a person perceived by the subject as better-looking than theirself. However, the mere act of comparing seems detrimental — both upward and downward comparisons were associated with lower body satisfaction and increased anxiety.

Going back to social media, these platforms are especially well-suited to make users compare themselves, by constantly showing pictures of others, in almost perfect form. This is not something new: studies in the early 2000s had already shown how mass media transmits sociocultural symbols that are unrealistic and unachievable for most users, especially women. This, however, has become even more true as the ability to change our body has become as easy as using a filter. Another, more recent study has further suggested that greater intensity of social media use was associated with a greater likelihood of engaging in social media comparison. This scenario is even more frightening if we consider the business model of social media companies, which often monetize the anxiety of their users .

This leaves me with the question of what we can do to free ourselves from the negative health effects of social comparison. One solution could be to transform this comparison into a positive stimulus. In this respect, we could use the comparison as a positive driver as we feel inspired by someone’s life and attitude. For example, in sports, it has been shown that moderate comparison could lead to greater motivation (though extreme upward comparison resulted in reduced motivation). However, the comparison of physical traits and body features might not be as easy, especially as we often have subconsciously interiorized society’s beauty standards, making the comparison unhealthy from the beginning.

Users of social media should be aware of the negative health effects of internalized beauty standards. In this sense, it is important to highlight how our internalized beauty standards often lead us to compare ourselves in everyday life, and to learn how to control the impact on our own mental health and behavior. At the same time, influencers on social media should become aware that followers do not merely follow them, they also compare themselves to them. Finally, we should hold social media companies responsible and require structural changes in the ways that content is displayed and beauty standards are portrayed.

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Sarah Gabriele

Sarah Gabriele is a second-year Master of Bioethics candidate at Harvard Medical School. She obtained her law degree from the University of Trento (Italy) and an LL.M. from the Washington University in St. Louis. After graduating from law school, she worked at Hogan Lovells in their Milan office, specializing in pharmaceutical patent litigation. Currently, she is a student fellow with the Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics at Harvard Law School and a research specialist at PORTAL, in the Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics of Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital.

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What Students Are Saying About How Social Media Affects Their Body Image

A recent article put a spotlight on how social media can fuel body dysmorphia in boys. We asked teenagers how these apps make them feel about the way they look.

By The Learning Network

Please note: This post is part of The Learning Network’s ongoing Current Events Conversation feature in which we invite students to react to the news via our daily writing prompts and publish a selection of their comments each week.

In “ What Is ‘Bigorexia’? ” Alex Hawgood reports on a social media landscape dominated by muscle-building content and fitness influencers, and how it affects the way increasing numbers of teenage boys feel about their own bodies.

As we regularly do when The Times writes about an issue that touches the lives of young people, we used our daily Student Opinion forum to ask teenagers to share their perspectives on social media and body image.

Many students said that social media has been “detrimental” to the way they feel about their looks, and that even though they are aware it doesn’t show the full picture, they still struggle not to compare themselves to the people they see online. They grappled, too, with the heart of the article: male body image issues and why boys and men might have a harder time talking about them. And others shared that sometimes social media can be a positive influence on their health, motivating them to make changes or just accept their bodies the way they are.

Thank you to all those from around the world who joined the conversation this week, including teenagers from Great Neck, N.Y.; Lake Travis High School in Austin, Texas; and Taiwan .

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Social media effects on body image and eating disorders

• Author By Bella Fleps
• April 21, 2021

The rise of social media usage in today’s society can have many different effects on body image and the later development of eating disorders in many individuals. Research clearly shows that media exposure contributes to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Social media is unfortunately shaping our concept of beauty. With constant exposure to images posted online, it is evident that there is a link to how individuals compare themselves and perceive their own body. There are an estimated 3.6 billion users worldwide on social media, therefore there must be negative and positive effects linked with social media users.

A negative body image can cause unrealistic expectations of how your body should look and can lead to unhealthy eating behaviors and disordered eating. Studies have found a correlation between the time spent on social media and a negative body image. The correlation is especially true when participants were scrolling through appearance-related content, like accounts of a fitness instructor or model on Instagram. Social media images are filled with people presenting the best version of themselves. Social media can then hurt your body image by constantly exposing yourself to the ideal body type, leading to constant comparison of yourself to unrealistic standards. Additionally, photoshop and filters are readily available to users playing into the unrealistic body image.

However, social media can also have positive effects on body image and can promote body positivity. Viewing body-positive content on social media platforms can help individuals become more accepting and appreciative of their bodies. Additionally, social media can connect you with others to build a body-accepting community.

It is important to examine ways to use social media in a positive way to avoid a negative body image. It is important to take a break from social media if you feel worse after using it. Additionally, examine who you are following on social media and unfollow accounts if they do not make you feel good. Instead, pay attention to accounts, people, and images that lift you up. Follow accounts that promote body positivity that does not agree with the beauty standards set by society. (A great account to follow to begin your search for body positivity accounts is @realistic.body.therapist on Instagram.)  Finding body-positive accounts and joining support groups can help shift your mindset about the ideal body image set by society. Furthermore, you can use your own social media to be an advocate for positive body talk. Shout out to media outlets, retailers, advertisers, and celebrity product endorsers who celebrate and promote natural looks, healthy body size, and diverse body shapes. You can take a stand and refuse to read, view, or listen to media or buy advertised products that do not promote a healthy and diverse body image.

Students should also consider participating in The Body Project or More Than Muscles programs offered through Student Counseling Services. These workshops help students develop and maintain a positive body image and are scientifically supported eating disorder prevention programs. Students will get a chance to dive deeper in conversations about the body image ideal set by society and promoted to us by the media.

For more information on how media effects body image visit https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/media-eating-disorders .

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Impact of Media on Body Image

Media is everywhere. It is on our phones, our computers and laptops, on television, on public transport, at shopping centers, everywhere. Whether we like it or not, we encounter media on a regular basis and will inevitably be influenced by it. Moreover, one does not have to be an expert to recognize that, subconsciously, media is forming the way in which people look at themselves and the world around them. Body image is especially relevant in the context of media because beautiful bodies are often used for advertisement purposes. From gluten-free cereal to a car rental service, adverts often show retouched images of female or male models or celebrities who constantly work on their appearance. Looking at such ads, it is hard not to get self-conscious about one’s appearance, whether it is the body, skin, or hair. Therefore, the influence of media, regardless of its form and method of transfer, is detrimental in establishing a negative perception of the population’s body image.

Researchers have extensively studied the connections between the active engagement of people with different forms of media and their perceptions of their bodies. A recent study by Hogue and Mills (2019) found that engagement with attractive peers on social media increased negative perceptions of body image. The research included 143 young women from York University and concluded that people’s comparisons with individuals of “better” appearance on social media could lower females’ body image concerns. Such findings allow with the previous recommendation that body image gets lower when individuals view images of women who are considered attractive by the social standard. This points to the need to establish body image media literacy programs to highlight the adverse effects of media use. In this context, media literacy refers to the ability of a person to understand when information is needed, as well as recognize how to evaluate, locate, and use it (McLean, Paxton, & Wertheim, 2016). This points to the need to educate the public about a healthy relationship with the media and how it can be managed.

As the world relies heavily on media, the population is bombarded by the images of successful people who have worked on their image for years and even decades. The main issue within this is not the fact that famous people have invested time, effort and money into themselves. Rather, the key problem is that the standard for beauty that is being set is unobtainable for the general public. The way in which many media personalities look is not realistic not only because of heavy makeup or years of exercising but also due to heavy retouching of their images. There are multiple instances in which companies have been caught retouching their advertisements that should have shown realistic images. For example, a skincare brand Dove has admitted to retouching their advertisements the message of which was ‘real beauty.’ Dove faced significant backlash when it turned out that the images were photoshopped to make them more appealing to the target audience. Turns out, even real beauty is being modified on media, with people expected to believe corporations, which, in turn, harms their personal self-perception.

While expecting that TV, advertisements, and posts on social media would become 100% truthful is unrealistic expectations, it is important to voice the concerns about their impact. The airbrushed images of models or actors cause unhealthy habits in vulnerable individuals, especially younger people. Some of the pressing concerns regarding the adverse impact of media have been associated with eating disorders that develop as a result of unrealistic expectations about one’s body. For instance, anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by a perceptual issue called body dysmorphia. It refers to a misalignment between the way a person looks and the way they think they look (Richards, 2017). Despite being quite slim, people with anorexia feel that they are overweight and try to lose more weight by refusing to eat or over-exercising. Bulimia nervosa is a disorder during which individuals control their weight through fasting or purging, although the condition is harder to spot compared to anorexia. Therefore, apart from general emotional distress, the unrealistic images on media exacerbate the psychological condition to such a degree that a serious intervention could be needed.

Media is here to stay. People will continue being exposed to unrealistic images because the latter are the driving force for advertising and making money. However, there is a high need to educate the population, especially younger people, that they are not expected to look the same as the retouched and airbrushed celebrities. It is imperative for young people to understand that media is only a part of society and will never represent it to the fullest extent. However, one of the main goals is to foster an environment of acceptance that celebrates the diversity of appearance, thought, life choices, and perspectives. In the wake of the recent global turmoil, we should all aim our strength at creating something positive rather than focusing on the negative.

Hogue, J., & Mills, J. (2019). The effects of active social media engagement with peers on body image in young women. Body Image, 28 , 1-5.

McLean, S., Paxton, S., & Wertheim, E. (2016). The role of media in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: A systematic review. Body Image, 19 , 9-23.

Richards, P. (2017). How does media impact body image and eating disorder rates?  Web.

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Home > Books > Beauty - Cosmetic Science, Cultural Issues and Creative Developments

Social Media and Its Effects on Beauty

Submitted: 16 March 2020 Reviewed: 06 July 2020 Published: 21 September 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.93322

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Beauty is concerned with physical and mental health as both are intimately related. Short-term decisions to alter one’s body structure irrespective of genetic, environmental, occupational and nutritional needs can leave medium- and long-term effects. This chapter analyzes the role of social media and its effects on the standards of beauty. The researchers have summarized the literature on how social media plays a role in affecting beauty trends, body image and self-esteem concerns. There is support that social media affects individuals negatively, in pushing them to engage in life threatening beauty trends due to social compliance and acceptance in society. The aim was to review social networking sites’ impact on perception of standards of beauty and newer unrealistic trends gaining popularity that could alter opinions and also cause harm to individuals in the long run. This is an emerging area of research that is of high importance to the physical and mental health in the beauty, health and hospitality industry with the latter being manifested in depression, anxiety and fear of non-acceptability and being seen as a social gauche.

• social media
• self-esteem
• body modification
• body dissatisfaction

Author Information

Mavis henriques *.

• Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Goa Campus, India

Debasis Patnaik

• Department of Economics, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Goa Campus, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Social media refers to the use of websites and applications to create and share content or to participate in social networking [ 1 ]. Technological developments have given rise to various gadgets including smart-phones, tablets, and laptops to robots too. Living in a digitized era, communication has now become easier and faster with the emergence of various social applications available at the click of a button. While many may agree that social media has connected individuals globally, it has also been used to set standards of beauty for males, females as well as the third gender. This in turn has been known to affect the self-esteem of individuals with regards to body image, body modification and how they view themselves in society. In order to be accepted in society females have to battle body image issues from a very young age, where thin is considered to be the ideal body type [ 2 ].

This chapter focuses on the effects of social media on standards of beauty. We review the literature on the role of social media and how they affect the physical and psychological beauty of individuals in society.

2. Effects of social media on the aspects of body image

Today, Social Media is one of the most important factors contributing to the mental, emotional, physical and spiritual health of an individual. With the media constantly portraying ideal beauty and body image comparisons, the decisions of men and women’s beauty choices are globally affected.

“Body image refers to a person’s perception of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings, positive, negative or both, which result from that perception” [ 3 ]. Social media has had a major impact on the perceptual, affective, cognitive and behavioral aspects of body image [ 3 ] by encouraging lean body patterns and delivering anti-obesity messages [ 4 ]. Eating disorders determine a distorted relationship between the individual, their eating behavior and body shape [ 5 ]. Adolescence being a crucial age for positive and negative development of body image, the self-esteem and body dissatisfaction adolescents feel are known predictors of eating disorders [ 6 ]. Continuous pursuit for the perfect slender lean body may generate negative feelings which can result in a change in eating behavior, thereby increasing the chances of weight issues and eating disorders [ 4 , 7 ]. Social media portrays women who are slim as being more beautiful and successful compared to overweight women [ 8 ]. Body image misperception and dissatisfaction with body weight highlight an association between body dissatisfaction and psychological wellbeing [ 9 ].

3. Self-esteem issues in response to social media effects

Body image concerns are common in women and men globally, but social media has now increased these concerns through advertising, videos and the use of social media. Milkie [ 10 ] conducted in-depth interviews on 60 white and minority girls to examine the effect of media on self-esteem. Results indicated that most girls felt that the images shown in media were unrealistic and not real. White girls felt that boys evaluated them on the basis of the images found on media platforms whereas the minority girls felt that the images portrayed on media did not meet the expectations of the reference group they oriented themselves with. The evolution from adolescence to adulthood has seen 12–16 teenage girls experience emotional changes in interpersonal and intrapersonal development as well as bodily changes such as sudden weight gain and transition from a young girl to a fully grown woman [ 11 , 12 ]. In today’s world, the self-presentation of beauty and perceptions of others plays an important role in developing identities in girls [ 13 , 14 ]. New interactive platforms present in social media demonstrate how self-presentations and peer influences are interrelated with the standards of beauty [ 15 ]. Many women may imitate their ideal media personality due to the social, psychological and practical rewards associated with this ideal and the belief that their life would change for the better [ 16 ].

4. Social media: trends in behavioral outcomes

Social media comprises of social networking sites, image sharing sites, video hosting sites, community blogs, bookmarking sites and gaming sites. Fellow comparisons about self-image and appearances in teenagers have resulted due to social networking sites (SNSs) such as Instagram and Facebook [ 17 ]. Teenage girls engage in online self-presentation of posting selfies and sharing the outfit of the day pictures to differentiate themselves with their peers [ 18 ]. Media images of ideal beauty standards influence the content and sharing of pictures teenage girls’ post [ 19 ]. Individuals are constantly seeking feedback on SNSs through likes, followers and comments to uphold a perfect and stable image of themselves [ 20 ]. Teenage girls are vulnerable to the upward comparison as it means that they need to improve their beauty standards, thereby leaving them dissatisfied with their physical bodies, having doubts about their self-worth and also driving them to self-harm behavior [ 20 , 21 ].

Taking selfies and sharing them on popular social platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Snapchat has increased at an alarming rate during the recent years. A recent study compared selfie takers and non selfie takers and their perceptions of their selfies versus photographs clicked by others. Results indicated that selfie takers perceived themselves as more attractive and likable in their selfies as opposed to pictures taken by others leading to positive distortions of the self [ 22 ]. Biases in self-face recognition were seen in men and women in selecting the most attractive modified pictures of themselves [ 23 ]. Selfies are no harm per se. But obsession with physical features reveals a lack of holistic perception of self-generated sub-consciously, following an “outside” standard of beauty not defined by the “inner self” of the receiver.

Popular socialites Kim and Khloe Kardashian have been slammed with media reports of them using photoshop to edit Instagram selfies by making unrealistic alterations to look thinner and more toned. Emily Bryngelson, an associate designer struggling with an eating disorder, admitted to deleting pictures if they did not receive enough “likes.” The time spent on Facebook photos was linked to self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction, thin idealization and pursuit of thinness [ 15 ].

5. Social media and unrealistic beauty standards

There are multiple factors that affect the beauty standards in the world today, which involve women and men and the third gender individuals trying new trends to be socially accepted. The purchasing decisions of millennials are influenced majorly by social media [ 24 ]. 72% of millennials procure beauty products based on Instagram posts and other social networks [ 25 ]. Makeup consists of the application of cosmetic products to beautify or change the way one looks either artistically or to conceal flaws. Jang-Soon and Hye-Jin [ 26 ] investigated 240 teenage males’ preferences for makeup use. Results indicated that their appearance was one of the major reasons for their social success. The male respondents who were young, unmarried and city residents had an overall positive perception about cosmetics [ 26 ]. With bloggers constantly advertising on social media, cosmetic products, have gained popularity.

The images on social media sites are idealized and unreal, due to digital alteration thereby setting high expectations from individuals in society. Imperfections are removed by airbrushing and using other digitized apps to whiten teeth, slim waists and reduce sizes in order to be accepted as beauty ideals [ 27 ]. These techniques may further lead to negative consequences of increased body dissatisfaction, body modification and low self-esteem issues. Unrealistic images of feminity, beauty, success and body shape promoted through social media images are associated with development of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction disorders [ 28 , 29 ].

Filters and beauty apps represent another area in which social media has a major influence. Beauty apps encourage women to see and surveil themselves within a “pedagogy of defect” [ 30 ]. They include filters and modification apps, surgery try out apps, and esthetic benchmarking apps which help individuals visualize how they will look after certain changes such as teeth whitening, eye bag removal and also whether the individual looks old or young [ 31 ].

“Body modification refers to the deliberate or permanent altering of an individual’s human anatomy or appearance” [ 32 ]. They involve two aspects: the processes that modify form or contours of the body such as metabolic manipulation (weight lifting, extreme dieting, use of drugs/steroids, hormones), cosmetic surgeries and procedures (liposuction, face-lifts, rhinoplasty, botox, eye lash extensions), genital surgery and sex reassignment surgery, restriction or compression (waist training, foot binding), abrasion (teeth filing, scourging, flagellation), elongation (neck, lips, earlobes), partial or full removal of body parts (breasts, penis, ribs, nose etc.), implantation of foreign objects (silicone implants, decorative items under the skin), and prosthetics (false limbs, finger nails, lenses) and processes that mark the surface of the body such as tattooing, piercing, tanning/bleaching, scarification, branding and hair removal [ 32 ].

Young women and teenage girls following fitness boards on Pinterest were likely to have intensions to engage in extreme crash dieting or extreme exercising as a result of social comparison leading them to feelings of inadequacy and body dissatisfaction [ 33 , 34 ].

6. Body modification trends in society

From professional athletes to celebrities, contouring, tattooing and body piercings has gained popularity in today’s society [ 35 ]. Individuals who get tattooed refer to it as a piece of art and piercing as fashion accessories, for the purpose of embellishment or as a self-healing effect after having being abused [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. A survey conducted at an American University found body piercings in 42% of men and 60% of women with piercings involving tongue, lips, nose, navel, genitals, nipple and eyebrow besides the earlobe piercing. Bacterial infections, bleeding and local trauma were common complications faced. “Tattoos were present in 22% of male students and 26% of female students” [ 40 ].

Another reason why individuals engage in body modifications is to maintain self-identities and be distinctive from others [ 41 , 42 ]. Physical endurance, lust for pain, spirituality and cultural traditions, addictions, resistance, sexual motives, group commitments are reasons why individuals adopt modification procedures [ 43 ]. Social Media has had a tremendous effect on how individuals perceive and endure painful tattooing and body modifications after viewing popular Instagram and Pinterest handles. Brief exposure to body modifications on popular social networking sites has seen an increase in tattoo searches and body modification procedures in young as well as older individuals, proving the impact of Social Media on Beauty trends in society.

7. Adopting to ever changing social media trends: Is it right?

Social media has a robust influence on the beauty, health and hospitality industry with women and men engaging in weight loss and diets to avoid gaining fat identities that impacted their wellbeing in the long run [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. Women and men have turned to waxing, shaving and removal of unwanted facial and body hair in order to meet the beauty standards of societal acceptance [ 47 , 48 ]. Women who did not engage in hair removal were negatively evaluated as being dirty or gross [ 49 , 50 ]. In 2010, a concept of living dolls emerged online with women practicing the art of appearing “doll like.” These women would engage in usage of wide rimmed contact lenses, hair extensions, corsets, photo editing and surgery including, eye widening, breast implants, liposuction and rib removal to enhance their beauty [ 31 ]. Even though women knew the risks in false eyelashes and acrylic nails, they still reported to be continuing to engage in it to feel socially accepted [ 31 ].

8. Using social media for body positivity

Social networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and other networking sites have the potential to influence positive beliefs and attitudes in individuals [ 51 ]. The online platform has given many individuals a feeling of a “sense of belonging.” Men and women are obsessed with images on social media portals and often search for esthetic body types which are not similar to their own body. Instagram and Facebook often have stories of individuals who have fought hard to change beauty standards through sheer dedication and hard work, be it exercising, eating healthy or building self-esteem and body acceptance through support groups and communities found online. Blocking body shamers can help reinforce confidence in men and women globally. Promoting videos on life struggles with weight motivate others to believe in never giving up and taking charge of their lives. Today social media includes individuals of different race, gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation, thereby focusing more on breaking stereotypes and building communities to support each other.

9. Conclusion

With technology advancing by the minute and newer apps surfacing online, social media has an immediate effect on beauty. Due to the ever changing body images depicted online, individuals are turning to social media handles for acceptance and support. The selfie culture has brought about a positive and negative change in how individuals perceive themselves. While most research today focuses on the negative impacts of social media on beauty, more interest should be laid on body positivity and using social media as a medium for self-acceptance whether beautified or not.

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Social Media and Body Image Essay

How it works

Have you ever looked in the mirror and said something negative about yourself?

According to the Merriam Webster dictionary body image is, “”a subjective picture of one’s own physical appearance established both by self-observation and by noting the reactions of other. Negative body image and low self-esteem are real problems and I want to discover the causes, how much of a factor social media is, and ways that people can get help to move past it.

Many people see things they do not like about their body that others do not even notice.

Negative body image is on the rise and some believe that it could be due to mass media. There is a high quantity of research being done because negative body image does not need to happen. Most researchers are focusing on the main causes of low self-esteem and body image, the effects mass media has created, and how someone can overcome their problems.

Researchers are identifying what in the first-place causes someone to one day love their body to all of the sudden hating it. Negative body-image and low self-esteem are very similar things. Low self-esteem is when someone lacks confidence in themselves often. According to the “”Department of Health & Human Services, (Department of Health & Human Services May 2014), some of the causes for low self-esteem are an unhappy childhood, poor academic performance, a stressful life, poor treatment from a partner or parent, ongoing medical issues, and also mental illness. In another article the Department of Health & Human Services, (Department of Health & Human Services August 2014) states that things such as, being teased about the way one looked in their childhood, having dieting parents, and the medias tendency to promote thinner people, are all causes of negative body image. All of these things that are listed above are things that could lead to low self-esteem and create a negative body image. Through exploration one can discover that there are many things that are said to cause negative body image and low self-esteem. Another cause of negative body image is fat talk.

Some researchers are also discovering what fat talk is and why it happens. Fat talk is as simple as its name suggests. It is talking about someone’s body in a negative way while emphasizing on weight and shape. In the journal, “”Body Image, (Chow, Hart, Tan 2018) it states that 93% of young women had fat talked while only 11% of men had been in this situation. Fat talk could be talking about oneself or it could also be talking about someone else’s body. No matter how it is being done such as about oneself, someone else’s body, or even their appearance it could affect them more than people realize. In the article, “”Fat Talk, written by Sarah Royal for “”The National Eating Disorder Information Centre (Fat Talk 2012) she states that fat talk often happens, and it is not realized that it is being done. These fat talk conversations also happen very often in the dressing room while people are trying on clothing. Social media is said to have caused a raise in the amount of fat talk online.

Researchers are discovering what amount of negative body image and low self-esteem that mass media is blamed for. Social media can be used for very good things, but it can also cause some not so good things. There have been studies that show that when someone looks at a picture of a skinny model they then compare themselves to that model. In the journal “”#SocialMedia, (Santarossa & Woodruff 2017), it explains that the online environment is full of pictures of celebrity and models for someone to compare themselves to other people. Social media is also used as a platform for influencers to help others with things that they themselves have gone through in the past. Richard Perloff says that the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia have all conducted experiments and research that have evidence that social media has effects on body image problems (Perloff 2014). With the rise of users on social media there are a lot of opportunities for people to see others and compare their body to the fit model on social media. Fat talk and social media may cause negative body image and low self-esteem but how does someone who has these things get over it?

Once someone has low self-esteem and see their body negatively, it is very important that they seek help or work on gaining confidence themselves. According to “”The Department of Health and Human Services a few ways to build one’s self-esteem are talking to oneself positively, do not compare yourself to others, do not worry, and there are also many more small things someone can do. People should always talk positively about themselves but if someone is going through low self-esteem it is very important that they find something positive to talk about. One way that would be very simple is to find something positive that they like about themselves every day and this will eventually be a habit. Comparing to others is a very easy thing to do especially because with every advertisement if there is someone on the ad then it is normally a skinny, beautiful girl or a fit, muscular guy. If someone worries often then it is very easy to worry about their body and what everyone else thinks about them but that should not matter. What other people say about you should not bother you at all, but this is easier to say then to actually do. As Bob Marley said, “”Don’t worry be happy.

According to the BYU Counseling Center, at any one point in time 50% of women are on a diet. BYU also reports that 14% of five-year-old girls say that they go on diets. It also stated in the article that 98% of people who diet gain their weight back in five years (Ways to Overcome a Negative Body Image, BYU). Another thing to take in to account when someone is trying to get over their negative body image is their genetics. Everyone is made a different way and not one person looks exactly the same as another. According to “”Building Self-esteem: A Self-Help Guide (Building Self-esteem: A Self-Help Guide), a few other things someone can do to help themself are things such as, wear outfits that make someone feel good about themselves, do things nice to other people and it will make them feel good, and they could also reward themselves for little things that they have accomplished. In conclusion there are many ways for someone to get over their negative body image and low self-esteem problems.

As you can see, negative body image and low self-esteem are major problems in our society today. This can be caused by things such as social media, family problems, academic problems, fat talk, and many other things. People are constantly researching to find what specific things trigger negative body image and low self-esteem. As often as they are researching what causes it, they are also researching what can be done to help people who have already been affected to get over this. There are many more things to be discovered about negative body image and its causes.

In the future I plan on arguing that women are more effected with body image and self-esteem problems than men. Everyone needs to be informed about the causes of negative body images and also how to recover from negative body images and self-esteem, but I want to look at the research on who is affected more and I believe it is young women.

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Social Media, Thin-Ideal, Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating Attitudes: An Exploratory Analysis

Pilar aparicio-martinez.

1 Departamento de Enfermería, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Menéndez Pidal, 1470 Córdoba, Spain

2 Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK

3 Grupo Investigación epidemiológica en Atención primaria (GC-12) del Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; se.ocu@oreuqavm

Alberto-Jesus Perea-Moreno

4 Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidad de Córdoba, ceiA3, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; se.ocu@aerepa (A.-J.P.-M.); se.ocu@pijam1af (M.P.M.-J.)

María Pilar Martinez-Jimenez

María dolores redel-macías.

5 Departamento Ingeniería Rural, Ed Leonardo da Vinci, Campus de Rabanales, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, 1470 Cordoba, Spain; se.ocu@lederdm

Claudia Pagliari

6 eHealth Research Group, Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK; [email protected]

Manuel Vaquero-Abellan

Disordered eating attitudes are rapidly increasing, especially among young women in their twenties. These disordered behaviours result from the interaction of several factors, including beauty ideals. A significant factor is social media, by which the unrealistic beauty ideals are popularized and may lead to these behaviours. The objectives of this study were, first, to determine the relationship between disordered eating behaviours among female university students and sociocultural factors, such as the use of social network sites, beauty ideals, body satisfaction, body image and the body image desired to achieve and, second, to determine whether there is a sensitive relationship between disordered eating attitudes, addiction to social networks, and testosterone levels as a biological factor. The data ( N = 168) was obtained using validated surveys (EAT-26, BSQ, CIPE-a, SNSA) and indirect measures of prenatal testosterone. The data was analysed using chi-square, Student’s t-test, correlation tests and logistic regression tests. The results showed that disordered eating attitudes were linked to self-esteem ( p < 0.001), body image ( p < 0.001), body desired to achieve ( p < 0.001), the use of social media ( p < 0.001) and prenatal testosterone ( p < 0.01). The findings presented in this study suggest a relationship between body image, body concerns, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating attitudes among college women.

1. Introduction

Mental health problems have increased, especially among young people, over the last decade [ 1 ]. The most common mental problems are behavioural, emotional, and hyperkinetic disorders. Among these illnesses, disordered eating behaviours are rapidly increasing in a short time, especially among young women [ 2 , 3 ]. These disordered attitudes are defined as afflictions in which people suffer severe disruption in their eating behaviours, thoughts and emotions. The people who suffer from these complaints are usually preoccupied with food and weight. In this sense, disordered eating is used to describe a range of irregular eating behaviours that may or may not warrant a diagnosis of a specific disordered eating attitude [ 4 ].

These disorders usually occur in women in their twenties or during adolescence [ 3 ]. People who suffer these disorders usually present altered attitudes, behaviours, weight perception and physical appearance [ 5 ]. Moreover, disordered eating behaviours or attitudes are defined as unhealthy or maladaptive eating behaviours, such as restricting or binging and/or purging [ 6 ]. These behaviours are not categorized as an eating disorder, though they are considered a phase of diagnosed eating disorders [ 7 ].

The concern from health care systems is based on the fact that these severe mental disorders usually puts in danger the well-being and health of the people who suffer them [ 5 ]. One-third of the women in the world have suffered from these mental problems at some point in their life [ 6 ]. If they are inadequately treated, they may develop severe clinical disorders [ 8 ]. Moreover, around 1% of the people with these disordered eating attitudes struggle with unhealthy and emotional problems through all their lives [ 6 ].

Out of the population with disordered eating attitudes, 16% of them present overeating, 20% purged by vomiting, and 61% food restraining [ 9 ]. These frequencies changed as people aged, with food restriction being more common in older women and vomiting during adolescence [ 10 ]. Moreover, recent data have discussed the increase of how the minimum age of the people with disorders is around 12 years of age and decreasing. Meanwhile, the prevalence of disordered eating attitudes appears to increase as young adults or adolescents grow older [ 10 ].

Although these diseases have a crucial psychobiological component, social and cultural factors have a significant influence. Among these factors, advertising has been described as an internalizing or normalizing means to spread unrealistic beauty ideals. Therefore, a higher incidence of these diseases is presented in advanced and modern societies and people with the best living conditions, mostly caused by the popularization of thin and muscular ideals [ 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Several biological factors have been linked to disordered eating attitudes, with up to 50% of disordered eating being described as familiarly transmitted [ 5 , 14 ]. Researchers have also suggested that neurotransmitters in the brain are involved in disordered eating attitudes and, therefore, eating disorders [ 15 , 16 ]. Additionally, the hormones have been linked as factors to puberty, body perception and body concerns [ 17 , 18 ]. Testosterone is included among those hormones highly studied, with blood samples providing a more precise method of examination. Nevertheless, different researchers pointed out the possibility of using indirect markers to avoid taking biological samples and creating risks for the participants. In this sense, most studies have linked testosterone and estrogenic levels via the 2D:4D digital ratio as an indirect indicator [ 19 ], which heavily dictates attractiveness [ 17 ]. This ratio, which is based on the difference in length of the phalanges of the hands (2D:4D ratio) having a lower ratio as an indicator of the existence of a higher level of testosterone, is used for the determination of intrauterine testosterone levels during gestation [ 20 ]. This ratio has reflected the relationship with self-perception, body image, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviours [ 20 , 21 ]. Based on these studies, the hormone levels, and the indirect marker, might appear to have essential roles in disordered eating attitudes [ 22 ]. Nevertheless, other authors have described how biological or genetic factors are essential, but may not determine, these disordered eating attitudes [ 23 ].

Other factors, such as ethical or familiar factors, contribute to the development of this disordered eating behaviours [ 24 ]. In this sense, previous studies have established that the probability of developing a disordered eating attitude or a diagnosis of eating disorders is higher if the mother had a disordered eating or self-esteem problems [ 25 , 26 ]. Moreover, ethnicity has been linked to the perception of beauty ideals, self-esteem and body perception [ 27 , 28 ].

Another critical factor is the media by which beauty ideals have been promoted. The media plays a vital role in formulating what is attractive in society, increasing the thin beauty ideal among females being unattainable [ 29 , 30 ]. These ideals confirmed the way young people perceived themselves and, therefore, how they value themselves [ 10 , 31 ]. This contradiction between what society portrays as a role model and the real body that many young women have has resulted in body concerns. Body concerns usually maintain over time and increase body dissatisfaction. This body dissatisfaction emerges because of the distortion on the body image, its perception and, therefore, body concern [ 32 , 33 ]. This dissatisfaction also plays an essential role in disordered eating attitudes since it provokes emotional and psychological distress [ 34 ].

In this sense, the theory of social comparison and numerous studies have studied the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes to better understand the causes of these illnesses. These previous works showed that real comparisons with other people leads to a distortion of body image and may favour disorderly feeding [ 11 , 29 , 35 ]. Additionally, Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) suggested that sexualization and self-objectification promoted via media should be considered as a risk factor for disordered eating attitudes [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Based on previous and recent studies it seems that the role of the media in disordered eating attitudes is noteworthy [ 1 , 11 , 39 ].

This paper presents a research study in which these objectives have been pursued: first, to determine the relationship between disordered eating attitudes in female university students and sociocultural factors, such as the use of social network sites, beauty ideals, body satisfaction, the body image and the body image desired to achieve. Second, to determine whether there is a sensitive relationship between disordered eating attitudes, addiction to social networks, and other biological factors, such as testosterone levels.

2. Background

College-aged women may be at particular risk for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating practices due to the unhealthy weight gain that often occurs during this life stage [ 3 , 31 ]. The promotion of beauty ideals in the media disseminates disordered eating [ 40 , 41 ], drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction among female college students [ 42 ]. Furthermore, the growth of social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook or Instagram, has also increased the exposure to thin and fit ideals [ 2 , 43 , 44 ]. The social media are more used than any other media as a mean of communication. These internet-based sites pulled the users to create personal profiles and share, view, comment and ‘like’ peer-generated content [ 20 ].

Importantly, young people, almost 90% of them (ages 18–29), reported being active users and being continuously exposed to different content and images in this medium [ 14 , 45 ]. Among the most active users of these media stands out the influencers. These new media role models have a significant impact in the last tendencies, the news and the trends that young people are following [ 46 ]. In this sense, researchers have also pointed out how social media and influencers may have the key to decrease body dissatisfaction and body concerns. Nevertheless, substantial studies have shown that economic interests are linked with the promotion of dieting in social media, or even surgery [ 47 ].

The last publications concluded that the most dangerous social media was Instagram, followed by Facebook and Twitter. These conclusions were based on the instant satisfaction of reviewing and having peer views in the images posted by the users [ 48 ]. Especially on Instagram, the message is accommodated according to the image uploaded [ 47 ].

These studies concluded that the influence of the advertising and the promotion of the thin and muscular ideals might more be connected with the perception that young people has regarding body, dieting and social media [ 49 ]. Additionally, the objectification suggests that the media’s sexual objectification of women modifies their body appearance. Due to this, it could be concluded that self-perception slowly shapes attractiveness resulting in a modification in the body-image, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitude. That being said, the proposed hypotheses are as follows:

Among young women, self-image will be linked to body dissatisfaction, the thin-ideal and the desire to change one’s body shape.

The level of body dissatisfaction among female college students will be high and be linked to self-esteem.

The young women’s eating behaviours will be linked to the degree of body dissatisfaction and the frequency of using social media.

The young women’s body image and body description will be slightly connected to prenatal testosterone levels.

3. Methodology

3.1. design and sample.

In the first phase, a cross-sectional study was carried out focused on female college students, aged from 18 to 25 years. The sample was recruited to participate in an in-person survey from April to May 2018 from the University of Cordoba. The selection of the sample was based on non-probability convenience sampling. This method of sampling was selected based on the accessibility of the students and previous scheduling with the professors.

The final sample was constituted by 168 subjects, from biological, education, informatics and nursing degrees who agreed to participate in the study voluntarily. The initial sample was 224, though the final sample was 168 after applying the exclusion terms. The mean age of the sample was 20 ± 0.76.

3.2. Measures

All the surveys used in the study are validated in different languages, including Spanish. Moreover, these surveys are used globally among health professionals and researchers in the health field [ 50 ].

The demographic and anthropometric data were not included in this study since the objective focused on the socio-cultural and individual factors. In this sense, the perception of young people was focused on social media, self-appearance, specific social network sites and distorted eating behaviours.

The EAT-26 with the reduced version of 26 items, was used to assess the frequency of disordered eating attitudes [ 51 , 52 ]. This test measures the low, medium and high risk of having a disordered eating attitude. Moreover, three different disordered eating behaviours can be reflected depending on the answers to each item. In this sense, these three subscales are dieting (focused on questions 1, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 26), bulimia and food preoccupation (focused on questions 3, 4, 9, 18, 21, 25) and food oral control (2, 5, 8, 13, 15, 8, 20). Total scores were calculated by taking the sum of the 26 items, based on the value from 0 to 3, where higher scores, over 20 points, indicated higher levels of disordered eating behaviours. This validated survey based on screening disorder eating attitudes when the score is over 20 points [ 52 ]. Nevertheless, this survey does not provide a definite diagnosis of eating disorders; therefore, a clinical evaluation is needed. This evaluation can be carried out via individual interviews.

The body satisfaction questionnaire (BSQ) [ 53 ], whose Spanish adaptation was completed by Raich [ 54 ], was used. The stereotypes perception survey from the University of Granada was also used [ 55 ].

The questions referring to body image included illustrations of women’s bodies. These illustrations comprise seven body images that vary from underweight to obese, numbered from 1 to 7. Additionally, a specific section focused on body satisfaction, examining their satisfaction on a scale from 1 to 7, with lower scores relating to higher levels of body dissatisfaction. In this section, one of the questions examined the steps each young person would take to attain a body type that corresponded to the ideal.

The body image concerns were observed by using the BSQ, a self-report instrument evaluating weight and shape preoccupations [ 54 ]. Sample items include: “Have you been so worried about your shape that you have felt you ought to diet?”; “Have you noticed the shape of others and felt that your shape compared unfavourably?” The questions were answered on a six-point Likert scale (1 = never, five = always).

The Appearance Evaluation (AE) subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ) was used to measure self-perception and stereotypes [ 56 ]. Participants rate the extent to which they agree with seven statements (e.g., “Most people would consider me good-looking”) on a five-point scale (1 = disagree, 5 = agree) with lower scores indicating lower self-perception and stereotypes.

Finally, self-esteem was evaluated by the Rosenberg survey (CIPE-a) composed of ten questions, which provided us with high, medium or low levels of self-esteem. The questions were given a scale on a four-point scale (1 = disagree, 4 = agree), with lower scores indicating lower self-esteem [ 57 ].

On the other hand, the survey that focused on social networks had preliminary yes/no items about having social network accounts on Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, YouTube or Snapchat. Participants indicated how often they access/check their respective accounts daily on a five-point scale: hardly ever, sometimes, usually, all most all the time and always. Additionally, the participants’ daily use (hours per day in social networks and highly visual social media, i.e., Instagram, Snapchat), number of accounts and importance given to these was rated on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale.

Meanwhile, addiction to social networks was evaluated by a validated survey called the Social Networks Addiction Questionnaire (SNSA) [ 50 ]. The survey is based on the DSM-IV-TR [ 27 ], a diagnostic instrument that does not recognize psychological addictions as disorders but as a prior stage that can lead to addiction. The survey is formed by 24 items applying a five-point rating system (from 0 to 4), taking into account the frequency from “never” to “always” [ 56 ].

The study has focused on the indirect determination of intrauterine testosterone levels during the gestation, determined experimentally from the difference in length of the phalanges of the hands (2D:4D ratio). This measure was selected to determine the possible relation with sociocultural factors indirectly. The selection of this method was based on reducing the risks, vulnerability and protecting biological or genetic material from the participants. When the ratio is higher, i.e., the difference between the second and fourth finger, lower levels of testosterone are implied [ 21 ]. 2D:4D is an indicator of testosterone and oestrogen levels [ 58 ], which heavily dictate attractiveness [ 17 ]. Therefore, this digit ratio may be related to self-perception, body image, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes.

3.3. Instruments

The instruments used to obtain the image of the hands were a Canon Camera EOS700D (produced by Canon Inc., which is a Japanese company founded in Ota, Tokyo) and a Manfrotto Compact Advance tripod (produced by Manfrotto, which is an Italian company founded in, produced and distributed form the USA). Additionally, free access software GeoGebra ( https://www.geogebra.org ), which is a free access software founded in Austria and later updated and mass produced in USA, was used to analyse the indirect marker of testosterone levels (2D:4D ratio).

3.4. Procedure

Participants approved a participant information statement, consent form and questionnaires, followed by the approval of the Research Ethics Committee of Public Health System in Cordoba (Ethical Approval number 273, reference 3773).

The participants were undergraduate students with health, education, life and engineering studies. The recruitment took place in different classrooms of the University, the objective of the study, ethical indications, risks for the participants and voluntary participation in the study being previously explained. During the recruitment a teacher and a researcher were present in the classroom the entire time.

The inclusion of the participants was based on an initial survey, which was provided previously in the same classroom. In this survey, the students were asked about the previous diagnosis of conduct or emotional disorders, addiction to technologies, abuse of substances and having a social network account. Those students that had a previous diagnosis of conduct, emotional disorders, or addiction were eliminated from the sample and were not given the survey of the study. Those students that did not have an account on any social network were also excluded from the study ( Figure 1 ).

Flow chart of the recruitment and selection of the sample.

3.5. Statistical Analysis

Mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for the quantitative variables and frequencies in the case of qualitative variables. Firstly, we studied the normalization of the data using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test ( p < 0.05). Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha test was used for determining the consistency among the scales and subscales and, especially, the SNS test showed acceptable value (0.77) and the EAT-26 (0.83) was excellent. In order to assess the first objective, the χ 2 test was used for the qualitative variables, such as gender and body image, and the Student’s t -test was applied to compare quantitative variables, such as the EAT-26 score and age. Additionally, correlational analyses were used to examine relations between all variables.

Moreover, the second set of analyses examined the impact of the relationship between disordered eating attitudes and the rest the factors measured. For this purpose, the crude and adjusted odds ratio (OR) values were calculated for the logistic regression. In the end, the ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curves and the validity indices were used for the diagnostic accuracy of disordered eating attitudes having body dissatisfaction and social networks addiction.

First Phase

The initial analysis of the data showed that women ( N = 168) had a range of age between 21 and 22, 96.7% of them being Caucasian ethnicity. Moreover, the body image that they had was in range between 3 and 4, which may imply a normal weight. The perception that they had of themselves was fatter (3.56 ± 1.2) when compared to the desired body image (2.99 ± 0.83) ( Table 1 ). Additionally, the most common description of body satisfaction showed low and medium-high levels of body satisfaction (48.7%). In this sense, the difference among the group with lower and higher levels of body satisfaction was related to the body image given by the women (χ 2 = 113.64, p < 0.001).

Mean, standard deviation and confidence intervals.

Moreover, the results from the data showed that almost 93% of the women desired to change at least three zones of their body using at least two different methods (1.98 ± 0.82). The methods most used were physical activity (92%), diet (48%), surgery (24%) and beauty or alimentary products (23%). Among the zones to be modified by a surgical procedure 68% of the women indicated breast implants.

The analysis of the results from the EAT-26 test showed that most of the women had a medium probability of having disordered eating attitudes (18.34 ± 10.7). Figure 2 reflects the frequency of the scores from the EAT-26 related to body satisfaction.

Results from the EAT-26 related to body satisfaction.

The figure displays a higher frequency of scores over 20 points in disordered eating behaviours in the lower points of the body satisfaction scale. This figure implies that there were more values over 20 points when women suffered higher levels of body dissatisfaction. Additionally, the analysis between the score in the disordered eating behaviour test and level of body satisfaction showed significant differences among individuals with low and high levels of body satisfaction and scores over 20 points in the EAT-26 (χ 2 = 375.34, p < 0.001). Moreover, a more in-depth analysis of the data, based on women with more than 20 points in the EAT-26, 48 out of 168 women showed that 40.81% had food oral control, 38.77% presented bulimia and food preoccupation and 20.5% dieting.

Further study of the data was carried out in order to address the possible correlations between the body image that women perceived of themselves and the other variables analysed. In Table 2 , the correlations between the body image and the different variables have shown significant value with numerous factors, including disordered eating attitudes, self-esteem, desired body image or number of methods. These correlations were positive for a fatter body image in higher scores in the EAT-26 and more methods used to modify the body image and the current body image. Moreover, negative correlations were found for a curvier description that the women gave about their body and higher desires for a thinner body image, higher body dissatisfaction and lower levels of self-esteem.

Correlations with body image that women perceived of themselves.

Another variable that determines a “fatter” body image is the level of prenatal testosterone, measured by the 2D:4D ratio. This result displayed a positive relationship implying that a higher 2D:4D ratio, lower levels of intrauterine testosterone, may lead to a fatter body image.

On the other hand, Table 3 exposed the analysis of correlations between the score obtained in EAT-26 for disordered eating attitudes and the other factors analysed. This test displayed a negative correlation between having a higher score in the test and having lower levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, the desired of having a thinner body image and worse perception of their own body.

Correlations with having higher scores in the disordered eating attitudes test.

Moreover, the positive correlations were obtained for numerous factors studied. The most highlighting positive correlations were reflected for a higher score in the SNS addiction test, a fatter body image and a higher difference in the 2D:4D ratio. These results implied that a higher 2D:4D ratio or fatter body image may lead to a higher score in the EAT-26.

The logistic regression model was used to define a disordered eating behaviour related to having lower levels of body satisfaction, the desired to achieve a thinner body image, lower levels of self-esteem, higher score in the SNS addiction test, higher duration of connection to this media and higher difference between the second and fourth finger ( Table 4 ).

Logistic regression for disordered eating attitudes.

From the analysis based on levels of self-esteem and social networks, the results showed that most women have high levels of self-esteem (31.1 ± 4.7) and low levels of addictive behaviour to social network sites (14.69 ± 10.37). Furthermore, the results of the social network sites presented a high dispersion of the results. In this sense, the confidence intervals (95%) were focused on medium levels regarding addictive behaviour to SNS (13.11–16.26).

Based on this, the correlations for the score in the SNS addition test were studied. The results indicated positive significance for the number of methods used to change their body image (<0.001), higher desired of a thinner body ( p < 0.001), lower levels of self-esteem ( p < 0.001), greater number of social media accounts ( p < 0.001), longer duration of the connections ( p < 0.001) and the importance given to the social networks ( p < 0.001). Nevertheless, the difference between the second and fourth phalange (2D:4D ratio) showed no significance with scores in the social network addiction test.

Finally, based on the results from the logistic regression, a probabilistic model was obtained. This model could diagnose 42.9% of the population with disordered eating attitudes (R 2 Cox and Snell 0.429) by knowing if the person had scored high in the SNS addiction test, body image, body dissatisfaction and high desire of having a thinner body. The specificity (90.3), sensibility (68.9) and valid index (84.6) results were optimal. Finally, the curve of the model was analysed ( Figure 3 ) obtaining an acceptable probabilistic high risk of a disordered eating attitudes (area = 0.94, p < 0.001, CI 0.88–0.97).

ROC curve from the logistic model for disordered eating.

5. Discussion

This study has reflected how different factors, such as the level of self-esteem ( Table 1 ), might play a significant role in disordered eating behaviours. Among these factors the body image that women perceived over themselves stood out as a significant element. In this sense, according to previous researchers, body image is multidimensional, being made of perceptual, behavioural and cognitive-affective domains created by the individual [ 46 ]. This perception is dependent on a variety of elements, including social media and beauty ideals. In the case of social media, the results from this study showed a relationship between the body image, body ideals and the use of social media ( Table 2 and Table 3 ). Furthermore, previous publications explained that the desire to achieve the beauty ideal emerges as the internalization of the portrayed image exposed by the media [ 59 , 60 ]. Homan (2010) discussed how, among female college students, two principal beauty ideals coexist: the athletic-ideal and thin-ideal [ 61 ]. The internalization of the athletic-ideal predicts compulsive exercise [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. Meanwhile, the thin-ideal internalization predicts food restriction and body dissatisfaction, both leading to disordered eating attitudes and possible origins for eating disorders [ 64 , 65 , 66 ]. These results confirm the association obtained between the desire of having a thinner body image and the use of the media since this media is the primary source to promote such ideals ( Table 3 ).

The issue resides on the fact that the thin-ideal produces a worse body image with a tendency toward frustration based on a fatter body image than desired. This concern among young women results in making different choices to obtain the desired image, such as surgery [ 67 , 68 ]. In this sense, the results from this paper also showed a high frequency of women determined to undergo plastic surgery to improve their image, being focused on breast surgery.

Notwithstanding, internalization of the fit-ideal has been studied as a predictor of the use of social media content related to health and fitness [ 69 , 70 ]. In this case, the fit ideal or athletic ideal may become a replacement for the other ideals, leading to healthier behaviour [ 71 ].

The results ( Table 2 ) have established that body dissatisfaction might be a potential agent in body image and desire to change this body image. These publications also accord with our earlier observations, which showed that levels of body dissatisfaction were associated with the desire of changing the body image in order to achieve a thinner body, especially using dieting [ 72 ]. Based on this, the results appear to match with previous works about how body dissatisfaction and body concerns in young women and teenagers may be related to disordered eating attitudes [ 27 , 73 ].

Another significant outcome was the link between body concerns, body dissatisfaction and levels of self-esteem ( Table 2 ). These data are in accord with recent investigations which connected body dissatisfaction and self-esteem to mental illness and the role of emotional distress in behavioural disorders [ 48 ].

Another study found that body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes could be related to a high level of intrauterine testosterone, measured by the 2D:4D ratio. The prenatal masculinization has been established as a potential intermediate phenotype for the development of these disorders in their offspring [ 74 ]. Following these studies, the results obtained in this paper seem to initially match such conclusions ( Table 3 ) [ 75 ]. These results are partially consistent with the existing literature relating to dieting, alimentary products, such as supplements, negative affect, body dissatisfaction and the tendency to thinness [ 71 ]. Nevertheless, the results obtained regarding the hormonal levels may be related to the environmental conditions during the pregnancy more than the individual level of hormones [ 76 ].

The results of the study ( Table 4 ) have shown how social network sites might play an important role in disordered eating attitudes. In the study carried out by Cohen et al. (2018), the influence of the social networks was determined by the content and the selfies that the users upload to them more than by the assiduity of the connections [ 20 ]. This is partially contradictory to the present results in which the addiction to SNS and the duration of the connections were linked to weight loss and unhealthy dieting. These results match with previous studies in the sociocultural factors, not included among biological measures [ 77 , 78 ]. Withstanding, it is important to note that the regression model obtained in this study have shown the probable role of factors, such as the degree of body satisfaction, self-esteem, use of SNS and other measures, such as the 2D:4D ratio, related to disordered eating behaviours.

Additionally, SNS addiction, which has been related to other mental disorders [ 79 ], has shown correlation with stereotypes, self-esteem, method of change, thinner body image and the desired part of the body to change. In this sense, prior investigations proved the addiction to social media as cause–effect of disordered behaviours [ 80 , 81 ].

The present study raises the possibility that disordered eating attitudes in women might be conditioned by the influence of the ideals of beauty imposed by the social environment and to a lesser extent by the exposure to intrauterine levels of testosterone extracted from the 2D:4D ratio of the phalanges. It is possible, therefore, that disordered eating attitudes are multidimensional disorders produced by the media, hormones, and factors related to body concerns. Although this study has focused on Spanish college students, the results ( Table 2 and Figure 2 ) seem to match with previous works conducted in Caucasian women [ 82 , 83 ]. These studies seem to distant themselves from publications focused on Latina or African American young women or adolescents [ 84 , 85 ]. Nevertheless, it is possible, therefore, that because the study was carried out in Spanish college students, the results might not match university women from other countries.

Nevertheless, as with all research, the current findings need to be considered in light of possible limitations of the study. Therefore, biases and possibly incorrect data may have been included, and causal inferences cannot be drawn. Additionally, as with the majority of the body image literature, the current participants were university students, based on the sample and size of the sample caution is recommended in not generalizing these results to other samples or different samples. Nevertheless, these results seem to provide essential data regarding social media, disordered eating and the perception of the young people about themselves. Another limitation present in this study is the lack of inclusion of further cultural factors, such as the mother–child relationship, and anthropometric data, such as BMI.

All being said, the results from this manuscript and the comparison with previous works suggest how the initial hypothesis has been entirely or partially confirmed, showing how disordered eating behaviours are complex eating attitudes.

6. Conclusions

This paper has argued the relationship between body image, body concerns, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviours present in college women from the south of Spain. This study has identified that women reported moderate levels of body dissatisfaction and body concerns, which were consistently and strongly associated with disordered eating attitudes. In this sense, this work has established high levels of body dissatisfaction, and the link with the desire to achieve a thinner body image. Additionally, the study has shown how body dissatisfaction and desire to achieve the thin-ideal appear to be universal among college women.

Additionally, one of the more significant findings to emerge from this study was that the thin-ideal seems to be widespread in social media. This ideal can promote unhealthy measures, such as dieting, increase body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes. In this sense, the desire to change the body image and taking unhealthy measures was common, given the proliferation of the use of the social network sites where images and content encourage women to aspire to unrealistic and unattainable body ideals. In this sense, the study associated body dissatisfaction, body concerns, and general mental well-being, demonstrating that interventions to improve body perception and satisfaction are essential. Additionally, this research found that higher levels of prenatal testosterone might decrease the probability of having a disordered eating attitude among women. That said, the current study suggests a connection between disordered eating attitudes, negative impacts of exposure to thin-ideal content, addiction to social media and intrauterine testosterone levels.

Concerning practical implications, researchers have asserted that increasing body appreciation may be easier than attempting to decrease body dissatisfaction and for those disordered eating attitudes. Furthermore, the findings regarding the negative impact of exposure to social media related to women’s body satisfaction and body appreciation are notable. Despite the limitations present in this manuscript, the findings may help us to understand body concerns focused on the impact of exposure to social media.

In the end, future investigations should continue exploring differences in the levels of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, including the differences between various ethnic groups. Given the findings regarding differences between those with higher and lower score in EAT-26, the role of social media may be essential in levels of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes within specific gender/age groups. Longitudinal research is needed to determine the direction of the association between the frequency of connections to social media and body dissatisfaction/disordered eating behaviours. Researchers may also consider culturally-relevant factors that may differentially influence such behaviours.

Acknowledgments

We would also like to thank of UCO Social Innova Project Galileo IV from the institution of OTRI of the University of Cordoba, Spain and the funding provided from “IDEP/Escuela de Doctorado” of the University of Cordoba to one of the authors. The content is the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the OTRI.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: P.A.-M. and M.V.A.; methodology: P.A.-M. and M.P.M.-J.; validation: A.-J.P.-M.; formal analysis: P.A.-M. and A.-J.P.-M.; investigation: P.A.-M. and A.-J.P.-M.; resources: M.P.M.-J. and A.-J.P.-M.; data curation: M.D.R.-M.; writing—original draft preparation: P.A.-M., M.P.M.-J. and A.-J.P.-M.; writing—review and editing: M.V.A. and C.P.; visualization: C.P.; supervision: M.D.R.-M., C.P. and M.V.A.; project administration: M.V.A. and M.P.M.-J.; funding acquisition: M.V.A.

UCO Social Innova Project Galileo IV from the institution of OTRI of the University of Cordoba, Spain and the funding provided from “IDEP/Escuela de Doctorado” of the University of Cordoba.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Social Media

The dark side of social media, a new study finds spending less time on social media leads to greater well-being..

Posted June 21, 2024 | Reviewed by Ray Parker

• A new study finds social media use is linked to increased anxiety and depression in teens.
• Social media can make teens feel worse about themselves.
• Researchers find teens who cut their social media use in half experienced less anxiety, depression, and FOMO.

In a previous post , my team and I explored how social media use can negatively impact body image in youth. As young people are on their phones more and more, constant exposure to unrealistic beauty standards can leave them particularly vulnerable to low self-esteem and unfavorable social comparisons. However, evidence suggests that poor body image is not the only impact of social media on youth.

As rates of anxiety and depression in teens have been growing alongside an increase in social media usage, we have to wonder how closely the two are connected. In 2021, Statistics Canada reported that 36% of youth experience clinically concerning symptoms of depression, and 23% experience elevated levels of anxiety. At the same time, 81.3% of Canadian youth reported spending more than two hours on social media daily, and 96% reported regular use of at least one social media platform, rates that are similar or higher among teens in the US. Multiple studies have found a correlation between social media use and poor mental health, and it makes sense why.

We all know that people tend to share just the highlights of their lives on social media, rarely sharing the challenges or low points they may be experiencing. Scrolling through social media, it seems like everyone is going on a beach holiday, showing off their perfectly airbrushed bodies, or sharing the great news of their newest accomplishments. We can't help but compare ourselves to these seemingly “perfect” lives, even when we know they are fabricated. This constant comparison can make a young person feel inadequate or worthless, leading to feelings of depression and anxiety. On top of this, the more we scroll, the more we see all the things we are missing out on. Imagine going on Instagram and noticing pictures of all your friends at a party you weren’t invited to. It hurts, right? And yet, we keep wanting to check for updates. Who is at the party? Are they having fun without me? This unhealthy cycle of fear of missing out (FoMO) can impact your self-esteem, trigger your anxiety, and make you feel incredibly alone.

In addition to negative social comparisons, displacement theory provides another answer as to why screen time and social media have a negative impact on health and mental health. The theory posits that spending large amounts of time on social media allows an individual less time to spend on other mental-health-promoting activities like sleep, physical activity, recreational and social activities with friends, and pursuing pleasurable hobbies.

Although a correlational relationship has already been established, our study is the first to examine a causal relationship between social media use and mental health in youth experiencing emotional distress. Among 220 youth experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression, we found that reducing social media by half, to a maximum of one hour per day, led to greater reductions in anxiety, depression, the experience of FoMO, and increases in sleep compared to a placebo group that had unrestricted access. Our findings support the “displacement theory” of screen time, suggesting that spending less time on things that make people truly happy makes people more likely to experience poor mental health. Although our findings did not demonstrate that reduced social media improved mental health due to reduced negative social comparisons, it is too early to throw “the baby out with the bathwater,” as correlational studies have found this link.

While it makes sense to think that reducing social media usage would make people feel even more isolated or left out, our study indicated that the opposite was true. Although initial reduction time in social media may increase FoMO, this typically only lasts a few days, and our findings support that FoMO will go down with continued reduced use. In fact, reduced social media use may lead to increased social connection and positive mental health behaviors as people are forced to adapt and meet their social needs in healthier ways.

The study also indicated that reduced social media use led to earlier bedtimes and longer sleep. As the displacement theory suggests, less time on social media means more time to get some well-needed rest. On top of this, reduced feelings of anxiety and depression likely helped people fall asleep easier, or perhaps the increased sleep resulting from less social media use reduced anxiety and depression symptoms. Further research is needed to make the direction of these findings more clear.

The results of the study beg the question: why do we torture ourselves? Sure, social media has many benefits. It helps us connect with long-lost friends, plan our social lives, and share our successes with people we care about. But when our life becomes a constant competition , and we feel like we just don't measure up, and when we know social media takes time away from sleep and in-person social and recreational activities that make us feel good, why do we continue to use it so much?

Important takeaways from our study suggest reducing your usage of social media will help you get more sleep and boost your mood. Instead of scrolling on Instagram, try taking your dog for a walk, reading a book, or catching up with a friend. As parents, we suggest implementing rules to reduce screen time during meals or social activities to promote better attachment and connection with friends and family. We also recommend implementing a “no-phone” rule 30 minutes before bedtime and no-phones in children's and youth’s bedrooms overnight. Lastly, parents are the most important role models for their children, and there is a relationship between parent screen and social media use and their children’s mental health. This means parents should also try to reduce their own social media use and engage in non-screen health-promoting alternative activities, as well as support their children in doing the same. This will help your child promote better sleep, lead to more efficient learning at school, and improve their mental health.

Davis, C. G., & Goldfield, G. S. (2024). Limiting social media use decreases depression, anxiety, and fear of missing out in youth with emotional distress: A randomized controlled trial. Psychology of Popular Media . https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000536

Gary Goldfield, PhD., C. Psych., is a Senior Scientist with the Healthy Active Living & Obesity (HALO) Research Group at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute in Ottawa, Canada.

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