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introduction to a conflict resolution essay

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What is Conflict Resolution, and How Does It Work?

How to manage conflict at work through conflict resolution.

By Katie Shonk — on April 18th, 2024 / Conflict Resolution

If you work with others, sooner or later you will almost inevitably face the need for conflict resolution. You may need to mediate a dispute between two members of your department. Or you may find yourself angered by something a colleague reportedly said about you in a meeting. Or you may need to engage in conflict resolution with a client over a missed deadline. In organizations, conflict is inevitable, and good conflict management tools are essential.

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What is conflict resolution, and how can you use it to settle disputes in your workplace?

Conflict resolution can be defined as the informal or formal process that two or more parties use to find a peaceful solution to their dispute.

A number of common cognitive and emotional traps, many of them unconscious, can exacerbate conflict and contribute to the need for conflict resolution:

• Self-serving fairness interpretations. Rather than deciding what’s fair from a position of neutrality, we interpret what would be most fair to us, then justify this preference on the bases of fairness. For example, department heads are likely to each think they deserve the lion’s share of the annual budget. Disagreements about what’s fairlead to clashes.

• Overconfidence. We tend to be overconfident in our judgments, a tendency that leads us to unrealistic expectations. Disputants are likely to be overconfident about their odds of winning a lawsuit, for instance, an error that can lead them to shun a negotiated settlement that would save them time and money.

• Escalation of commitment. Whether negotiators are dealing with a labor strike, a merger, or an argument with a colleague, they are likely to irrationally escalate their commitment to their chosen course of action, long after it has proven useful. We desperately try to recoup our past investments in a dispute (such as money spent on legal fees), failing to recognize that such “sunk costs” should play no role in our decisions about the future.

• Conflict avoidance. Because negative emotions cause us discomfort and distress, we may try to tamp them down, hoping that our feelings will dissipate with time. In fact, conflict tends to become more entrenched, and parties have a greater need for conflict resolution when they avoid dealing with their strong emotions.

Given these and other pitfalls, how can you set up a constructive conflict resolution process when dealing with conflict at work and other realms? Conflicts can be resolved in a variety of ways, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and litigation.

• Negotiation. In conflict resolution, you can and should draw on the same principles of collaborative negotiation that you use in dealmaking. For example, you should aim to explore the interests underlying parties’ positions, such as a desire to resolve a dispute without attracting negative publicity or to repair a damaged business relationship. In addition, determine your best alternative to a negotiated agreement , or BATNA —what you will do if you fail to reach an agreement, such as finding a new partner or filing a lawsuit. By brainstorming options and looking for tradeoffs across issues, you may be able to negotiate a satisfactory outcome to your dispute without the aid of outside parties.

• Mediation. In mediation, disputants enlist a trained, neutral third party to help them come to a consensus. Rather than imposing a solution, a professional mediator encourages disputants to explore the interests underlying their positions. Working with parties both together and separately, mediators seek to help them discover a resolution that is sustainable, voluntary, and nonbinding.

• Arbitration. In arbitration, which can resemble a court trial, a neutral third party serves as a judge who makes decisions to end the dispute. The arbitrator listens to the arguments and evidence presented by each side, then renders a binding and often confidential decision. Although disputants typically cannot appeal an arbitrator’s decision, they can negotiate most aspects of the arbitration process, including whether lawyers will be present and which standards of evidence will be used.

• Litigation. In civil litigation, a defendant and a plaintiff face off before either a judge or a judge and jury, who weigh the evidence and make a ruling. Information presented in hearings and trials usually enters the public record. Lawyers typically dominate litigation, which often ends in a negotiated settlement during the pretrial period.

In general, it makes sense to start off less-expensive, less-formal conflict resolution procedures, such as negotiation and mediation, before making the larger commitments of money and time that arbitration and litigation often demand. Conflict-resolution training can further enhance your ability to negotiate satisfactory resolutions to your disputes.

What conflict resolution methods have you tried before? Leave us a comment.

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No Responses to “What is Conflict Resolution, and How Does It Work?”

4 responses to “what is conflict resolution, and how does it work”.

Conflict resolution arise due to dispute between two parties involved in any trade , it can be solved with fair negotiation or through Mediator or through arbitrator or through litigation.

Wondful work keep up pls.

Conflict resolution is way of settling misundestanding between two or more bodies on a matter through dialog.

Conflict Resolution can also be defined as a strong will and determination to create solution to a misunderstanding between two or more parties

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106 Conflict Resolution Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Conflict resolution is an essential skill that plays a crucial role in various aspects of our lives. Whether it is in personal relationships, the workplace, or even on a global scale, conflicts are inevitable. However, it is how we address and resolve these conflicts that determines the outcome and impact they have on our lives and the world around us.

Writing an essay on conflict resolution can provide a deeper understanding of this skill and its significance. To help you get started, here are 106 conflict resolution essay topic ideas and examples:

The importance of conflict resolution in personal relationships.
Conflict resolution techniques used in international diplomacy.
The role of empathy in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution strategies for parents and children.
The impact of unresolved conflicts on mental health.
Conflict resolution in the workplace: best practices.
The role of effective communication in resolving conflicts.
Conflict resolution in multicultural societies.
The influence of gender on conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and negotiation skills in business.
The role of compromise in resolving conflicts.
Conflict resolution in online communities.
The impact of conflict resolution on organizational productivity.
Conflict resolution and its effect on community building.
The role of forgiveness in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in educational settings.
Conflict resolution in the criminal justice system.
The impact of cultural differences on conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in the healthcare industry.
Conflict resolution in sports teams.
Conflict resolution and human rights.
The role of power dynamics in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and social media.
The impact of conflict resolution on economic development.
Conflict resolution in environmental disputes.
Conflict resolution and international cooperation.
The role of mediation in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in the family business.
The impact of conflict resolution on personal growth.
Conflict resolution and social justice.
Conflict resolution and restorative justice.
The role of negotiation in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in political campaigns.
The impact of conflict resolution on romantic relationships.
Conflict resolution in the classroom.
Conflict resolution and conflict prevention.
The role of compromise in international conflicts.
Conflict resolution and the media.
Conflict resolution in the digital age.
The impact of conflict resolution on community engagement.
Conflict resolution and public policy.
Conflict resolution and mental health stigma.
The role of leadership in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in the family court system.
Conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
The impact of conflict resolution on employee satisfaction.
Conflict resolution in the nonprofit sector.
Conflict resolution and social inequality.
The role of trust in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in the music industry.
Conflict resolution in urban planning.
The impact of conflict resolution on interpersonal relationships.
Conflict resolution in the military.
Conflict resolution and workplace diversity.
The role of emotions in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and environmental conservation.
Conflict resolution in international trade disputes.
Conflict resolution and community policing.
The impact of conflict resolution on team dynamics.
Conflict resolution in diplomatic negotiations.
Conflict resolution and conflict transformation.
The role of dialogue in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution and social change.
Conflict resolution in healthcare teams.
Conflict resolution and human rights violations.
The impact of conflict resolution on organizational culture.
Conflict resolution in online gaming communities.
Conflict resolution and the justice system.
The role of compromise in interpersonal conflicts.
Conflict resolution and urban development.
Conflict resolution in the tech industry.
The impact of conflict resolution on workplace communication.
Conflict resolution and gender equality.
Conflict resolution in community organizations.
Conflict resolution and sustainable development.
The role of active listening in conflict resolution.
Conflict resolution in international peacekeeping missions.
Conflict resolution and social entrepreneurship.
The impact of conflict resolution on employee well-being.
Conflict resolution in the film industry.
Conflict resolution and environmental justice.
The role of negotiation in interpersonal conflicts.
Conflict resolution in public health emergencies.
Conflict resolution and poverty reduction.
Conflict resolution in online dating.
The impact of conflict resolution on family dynamics.
Conflict resolution and international human rights law.
Conflict resolution and workplace ethics.
The role of compromise in political conflicts.
Conflict resolution in the fashion industry.
Conflict resolution and sustainable agriculture.
Conflict resolution in international aid organizations.
The impact of conflict resolution on organizational effectiveness.
Conflict resolution in online marketing campaigns.
Conflict resolution and racial justice.
The role of empathy in interpersonal conflicts.
Conflict resolution in disaster response efforts.
Conflict resolution and social media activism.
The impact of conflict resolution on team performance.
Conflict resolution in international business transactions.
Conflict resolution and sustainable tourism.
Conflict resolution in humanitarian interventions.
The role of compromise in environmental conflicts.
Conflict resolution and sustainable energy.
Conflict resolution in international sports competitions.
The impact of conflict resolution on community empowerment.

These essay topics cover a wide range of areas where conflict resolution plays a significant role. Whether you are interested in personal relationships, international affairs, or social justice, there is a topic that suits your interests. Remember to conduct thorough research and provide examples to support your arguments. Good luck with your essay!

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Article contents

Conflict management.

Patricia Elgoibar , Patricia Elgoibar University of Barcelona
Martin Euwema Martin Euwema Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
and Lourdes Munduate Lourdes Munduate University of Seville
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.5
Published online: 28 June 2017

Conflicts are part of nature and certainly part of human relations, between individuals, as well as within and between groups. Conflicts occur in every domain of life: family, work, and society, local and global. Conflict management, therefore, is an essential competency for each person. People differ largely in their emotional and behavioral responses to conflict and need to learn how to behave effectively in different conflict situations. This requires a contingency approach, first assessing the conflict situation, and then choosing a strategy, matching the goals of the party. In most situations, fostering cooperative relations will be most beneficial; however, this is also most challenging. Therefore, constructive conflict management strategies, including trust building and methods of constructive controversy, are emphasized. Conflict management, however, is broader than the interaction of the conflicting parties. Third-party interventions are an essential element of constructive conflict management, particularly the assessment of which parties are intervening in what ways at what escalation stage.

cooperation
competition
conflict behavior
conglomerate conflict behavior
constructive conflict management
conflict resolution strategies

Definition of Conflict

Conflicts are part of nature, and certainly part of human relations. People experience conflict with other persons, in teams or in groups, as well as between larger entities, departments, organizations, communities, and countries. Conflicts appear at home, at work, and in our spare-time activities with friends, with people we love and with people we hate, as well as with our superiors and with our subordinates and coworkers. Parties need to accept conflicts as part of life dynamics and learn to deal with them effectively and efficiently. Conflict management refers to the way we manage incompatible actions with others, where others can be a person or a group.

Conflict is a component of interpersonal interactions; it is neither inevitable nor intrinsically bad, but it is commonplace (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ; Schellenberg, 1996 ). In the 20th century , Lewin ( 1935 ) concluded that an intrinsic state of tension motivates group members to move toward the accomplishment of their desired common goals. Later on, Parker Follett ( 1941 ) explored the constructive side of conflict and defined conflict as the appearance of difference, difference of opinions or difference of interests. Deutsch ( 1949 ) developed this line of thought and analyzed the relation between the way group members believe their goals are related and their interactions and relationships.

A common definition of conflict argues that there is a conflict between two (or more) parties (individuals or groups) if at least one of them is offended, or feels bothered by the other (Van de Vliert, 1997 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Traditionally, conflict has been defined as opposing interests involving scarce resources and goal divergence and frustration (Pondy, 1967 ). However, Deutsch ( 1973 ) defined conflict as incompatible activities: one person's actions interfere, obstruct, or in some way get in the way of another's action. Tjosvold, Wan, and Tang ( 2016 ) proposed that defining conflict as incompatible actions is a much stronger foundation than defining conflict as opposing interests, because conflicts also can occur when people have common goals (i.e., they may disagree about the best means to achieve their common goals). The key contribution of Deutsch’s ( 1973 ) proposal is that incompatible activities occur in both compatible and incompatible goal contexts. Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interaction, and outcomes as they approach conflict (Tjosvold et al., 2016 ).

Characteristics of Conflict

Euwema and Giebels ( 2017 ) highlighted some key elements of conflict.

Conflict implies dependence and interdependence. Parties rely to some extent on the other parties to realize their goals (Kaufman, Elgoibar, & Borbely, 2016 ). This interdependence can be positive (a cooperative context), negative (a competitive context), or mixed. Positive interdependence is strongly related to cooperative conflict behaviors, while negative interdependence triggers competitive behaviors (Johnson & Johnson, 2005 ). Interdependence also reflects the power difference between parties. A short-term contractor on a low-paid job usually is much more dependent on the employer than vice versa. Many conflicts, however, can be seen as “mixed motive” situations.

Conflicts are mostly mixed motive situations because parties have simultaneous motives to cooperate and motives to compete. Parties are, on the one hand, dependent on each other to realize their goal, and, on the other hand, they are at the same time competitors. For example, two colleagues on a team are cooperating for the same team result; however, there is competition for the role as project leader. In a soccer team, the players have a team goal of working together to win, but they can be competing to be the top scorer. The mixed motive structure is very important to understand conflict dynamics. When conflicts arise, the competitive aspects become more salient, and the cooperative structure often is perceived less by parties. Interventions to solve conflict, therefore, are often related to these perceptions and the underlying structures.

Conflict is a psychological experience. Conflict is by definition a personal and subjective experience, as each individual can perceive and manage the same conflict in a different manner. Conflict doesn’t necessarily have an objective basis (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). It depends on the perception of the specific situation, and the perception is by definition subjective and personal.

Conflict concerns cognitive and affective tension. When someone perceives blocked goals and disagreements, he or she can also, although not necessarily, feel fear or anger. Many authors consider that conflict is emotionally charged (Nair, 2007 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Sinaceur, Adam, Van Kleef, & Galinky, 2013 ), although the emotion doesn’t need to be labeled necessarily as a negative emotion. Some people actually enjoy conflict. Emotional experiences in conflict are also scripted by cultural, historical, and personal influences (Lindner, 2014 ).

Conflict can be unidirectional. One party can feel frustrated or thwarted by the other while the second party is hardly aware of, and doesn’t perceive the same reality of, the conflict.

Conflict is a process. Conflict is a dynamic process that does not appear suddenly, but takes some time to develop and passes through several stages (Spaho, 2013 ). Conflict is the process resulting from the tension in interpersonal interactions or between team members because of real or perceived differences (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ).

Type of Conflict: Task, Process, and Relationship Conflict

Early conflict and organizational research concluded that conflict interferes with team performance and reduces satisfaction due to an increase in tension and distraction from the objective (Brown, 1983 ; Hackman & Morris, 1975 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Jehn ( 1995 ) differentiated between task and relational conflict, and later also included process conflict (De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012 ). Task conflict refers to different opinions on content (Jehn & Mannix, 2001 ). Examples of task conflict are conflict about distribution of resources, about procedures and policies, and judgment and interpretation of facts (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). Process conflict refers to how tasks should be accomplished (Jehn, Greer, Levine, & Szulanski, 2008 ). Examples are disagreements about logistic and delegation issues (Jehn et al., 2008 ). Finally, relationship conflict refers to “interpersonal incompatibility” (Jehn, 1995 , p. 257). Examples of relationship conflict are conflict about personal taste, political preferences, values, and interpersonal style (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). All three types of conflict—task, process, and personal (relational) conflicts—are usually disruptive, especially personal conflict, which is highly disruptive (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Jehn, 1995 , 1997 ). A review and meta-analysis by De Wit et al. ( 2012 ) showed that, under specific conditions, task conflict can be productive for teams. Moreover, conflict can wreck a team’s efforts to share information and reach a consensus (Amason & Schweiger, 1994 ). Therefore, research supporting the benefit of task and relationship conflict is not conclusive and each situation varies. What seems to be clear is that managing conflict efficiently to avoid escalation is a priority for teams.

Conflict Behavior, Conflict Management, and Conflict Resolution

Conflict behavior, conflict management, and conflict resolution are different layers of a conflict process and therefore should be distinguished. Conflict behavior is any behavioral response to the experience of frustration, while conflict management is the deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, both to prevent or to escalate them. Also, conflict management is differentiated from conflict resolution, which is specific action aimed to end a conflict.

Conflict Behavior

Conflict behavior is the behavioral response to the experience of conflict (Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). Conflict behavior is defined as one party’s reaction to the perception that one’s own and the other party’s current aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Deutsch, 1973 ; Pruitt, 1981 ; Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994 ). It is both what people experiencing conflict intend to do, as well as what they actually do (De Dreu, Evers, Beersma, Kluwer, & Nauta, 2001 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). In conflict situations people often respond primarily, following their emotions, more or less conscientiously.

Many factors affect how people respond to the experience of conflict. Social psychology shows the processes are largely unconscious (Wilson, 2004 ). For example, how people respond to intimidating behavior by their supervisor might be primarily influenced by the context and individual perception, as well as previous relations with persons in authority, including parents and teachers (Gelfand & Brett, 2004 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ). These natural behavioral responses are also referred to as “conflict styles.” They are rooted in our personality and can differ in context. Some people will naturally respond by being friendly and accommodating, where others will start arguing or fighting (Barbuto, Phipps, & Xu, 2010 ; Kilmann & Thomas, 1977 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ).

Conflict behavior becomes more effective once we are more aware of our natural tendencies and are also able not to act upon them, and instead to show flexibility in behavioral approaches. This is where conflict behavior becomes conflict management. Therefore, one can be a naturally highly accommodating person who will spontaneously give in to others who make demands, but one will be more effective after learning to assess the situation at hand and to carefully decide on a response, which might be quite different from the natural or spontaneous reaction.

Dual-Concern Model

The dual-concern model holds that the way in which parties handle conflicts can de described and is determined by two concerns: concern for self (own interests) and concern for others (relational interests) (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 1983 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Van de Vliert, 1999 ) (see Figure 1 ). Usually, the two concerns define five different conflict behaviors: forcing, avoiding, accommodating, compromising, and problem solving or integrating. These behaviors are studied at the level of general personal conflict styles, closely connected to personality, as well as at the level of strategies and tactics (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ).

The different conflict styles have been studied intensively, with three approaches. A normative approach, wherein integrating (also known as problem solving) is seen as the preferred behavior for conflict resolution; a contingency approach, exploring conditions under which each of the behaviors is most appropriate; and a conglomerate approach, focusing on a combination of the behaviors (see “ Conglomerate Conflict Behavior ”).

Figure 1. Dual-concern model.

In forcing, one party aims to achieve his or her goal by imposing a solution onto the other party. Concern for one’s own interests and own vision is what matters. There is little attention and care for the interests and needs of the other party, or the relationship with the other (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ). This style is appropriate when the outcome is important for one party but trivial to the opponent, or when fast decision making is necessary. It becomes inappropriate when issues are complex, when both parties are equally powerful, when the outcome is not worth the effort for one party, or when there is enough time to make a collective decision. Moreover, forcing decisions can seriously damage a relationship and contribute to bullying in the workplace (Baillien, Bollen, Euwema, & De Witte, 2014 ); however, normative forcing, which is referring to rules and imposing them, can be effective (De Dreu, 2005 ). Note that some alternative terms that have been used for forcing in the literature are competitive , contending , or adversarial behavior .

With avoiding, one party aims to stay out of any confrontation with the other. This behavior prevents efforts to yield, to negotiate constructively, or to compete for one’s own gains. The conflict issue receives little attention, usually because the avoiding party thinks he or she won’t gain from entering into the conflict (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Avoiding may be used when the benefits of resolving the conflict are not worth confronting the other party, especially when the problem is trivial or minor; when no good solutions are available for now; or when time is needed (Van Erp et al., 2011 ). An important motive for avoiding also is to prevent loss of face and to maintain the relationship. This is particularly true in collectivistic cultures, particularly in Asian societies (Oetzel et al., 2001 ). Avoiding is inappropriate when the issues are important to a party, when the parties cannot wait, or when immediate action is required (Rahim, 2002 ). Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim ( 1994 ) distinguished between long-term avoidance, which is a permanent move to leave the conflict, and short-term avoidance, defined as temporary inaction.

Accommodating

Accommodating is giving in or going along with the ideas, wishes, and needs of the other party. Accommodating usually is the result of a low concern for one’s own conflictive interests combined with a high concern for the interests and needs of the other party. Giving in often is related to a strong need for harmony and a sensitivity to the needs of the other. Accommodation is useful when a party is not familiar with the issues involved in the conflict, when the opponent is right, when the issue is much more important to the other party, and in order to build or maintain a long-term relationship, in exchange for future consideration when needed. Giving in also can be an educational strategy, giving space to the other to find out what the effect will be. Accommodating is less appropriate when the issue is of great concern, when accommodation creates frustration, or when accommodation reinforces dynamics of exploitation (Spaho, 2013 ). Note that an alternative term for this concept that can be found in the literature is yielding .

Compromising

Compromising involves searching for a middle ground, with an eye on both one’s own interest and the interest of the other. The premise is that both parties must find a middle ground where everyone receives equal consideration, meaning that each party makes some concession (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Compromising is appropriate when a balance of forces exists and the goals of parties are mutually exclusive (Buddhodev, 2011 ). Compromise leads to a democratic solution; however, it may prevent arriving at a creative solution to the problem and a limited effort to increase resources before distributing them (Spaho, 2013 ).

Problem Solving or Integrating

Problem solving is a win–win strategy aimed at “optimizing rather than satisfying the parties” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 36). Great value is attached to one’s own interests and vision, but also a lot of attention is given to the needs, ideas, and interests of the other. One looks for open and creative solutions that meet both interests. Problem solving or integrating is useful in dealing with complex issues, and it allows both parties to share skills, information, and other resources to redefine the problem and formulate alternative solutions. It is, however, inappropriate when the task is simple or trivial, and when there is no time. Also, it is more difficult to develop when the other party does not have experience in problem solving or when the parties are unconcerned about the outcomes (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ). Note that some alternative terms that can be found in the literature for this concept are cooperation and collaboration .

The dual-concern model is used as a contingency model, describing which conflict behaviors are used best under what conditions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 ), and also as a normative model, promoting integrating behaviors as the most effective style, particularly when it comes to joined outcomes and long-term effectiveness. Forcing, in contrast, is often described as a noncooperative behavior, with risk of escalated and unilateral outcomes (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Burke, 1970 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 2010 ; Thomas, 1992 ). As a result, authors define forcing and integrating as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold, Morishima, & Belsheim, 1999 ). Following this model, many scholars during the 1970s and 1980s proposed that individuals use a single behavior in conflict, or that the behaviors should be seen as independent. Therefore, the antecedents and effects of different conflict behaviors are often analyzed separately (Tjosvold, 1997 ; Volkema & Bergmann, 2001 ). However, parties usually try to achieve personal outcomes, and try to reach mutual agreements by combining several behaviors in a conflict episode (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). This is the basic assumption of the conglomerate conflict behavior (CCB) theory (Van de Vliert, Euwema, & Huismans, 1995 ), which established that conflict behaviors are used in a compatible manner, sequentially or simultaneously.

Conglomerate Conflict Behavior (CCB)

In the dual-concern model, a contrast is made between forcing (contending with an adversary in a direct way) and integrating (reconciling the parties’ basic interests) as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold et al., 1999 ). However, the CCB framework assumes that individual reactions to conflict typically are complex and consist of multiple components of behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997 , Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). The CCB theory covers the idea that behavioral components may occur simultaneously or sequentially and that the combination drives toward effectiveness (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Medina & Benitez, 2011 ). The theory has been supported in studies analyzing conflict management effectiveness in different contexts, such as in managerial behavior (Munduate, Ganaza, Peiro, & Euwema, 1999 ), in military peacekeeping (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ) and by worker representatives in organizations (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

The main reason that people combine different behaviors is because conflicts are often mixed-motive situations (Euwema, Van de Vliert, & Bakker, 2003 ; Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). Mixed-motive situations are described as situations that pose a conflict between securing immediate benefits through competition, and pursuing benefits for oneself and others through cooperation with other people (Komorita & Parks, 1995 ; Sheldon & Fishbach, 2011 ). Therefore, a person's behavior in a conflict episode is viewed as a combination of some of the five forms of conflict behaviors. An example of sequential complex behavior is to first put the demands clearly (forcing), followed by integrating (searching for mutual gains, and expanding the pie), and finally compromising, where distributive issues are dealt with in a fair way. An example of serial complexity can be found in multi-issue conflict, when for some issues conflict can be avoided, while for high priorities, demands are put on the table in a forcing way. Another CCB pattern is the conglomeration of accommodating and forcing. This pattern is sometimes referred to as “logrolling” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 35), and it is a classic part of integrative strategies, to maximize the outcomes for both parties. Logrolling behavior consists of accommodating the high-concern issues of the other party and forcing one’s own high-concern issues. This approach is usually helpful in multi-issue trade negotiations; however, it requires openness of both parties to acknowledging key interests.

How to Explore Your Tendency in Conflict

The most famous and popular conflict behavior questionnaires are:

MODE (Management of Differences Exercise). MODE, developed in 1974 by Thomas and Killman, presents 30 choices between two options representing different conflict styles.

ROCI (Rahim's Organizational Conflict Inventory). The ROCI is a list of 28 items that measures the five styles of conflict behavior described.

Dutch Test of Conflict Handling. This list of 20 items measures the degree of preference for the five styles (Van de Vliert & Euwema, 1994 ; De Dreu et al., 2001 , 2005 ). It has been validated internationally.

Conflict management is deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, either to prevent or to escalate them. Unlike conflict behavior, conflict management encompasses cognitive responses to conflict situations, which can vary from highly competitive to highly cooperative. Conflict management does not necessarily involve avoidance, reduction, or termination of conflict. It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and to enhance the constructive functions of conflict in order to improve team and organizational effectiveness (Rahim, 2002 ).

Conflicts are not necessarily destructive (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema, Munduate, Elgoibar, Pender, & Garcia, 2015 ), and research has shown that constructive conflict management is possible (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ). The benefits of conflict are much more likely to arise when conflicts are discussed openly, and when discussion skillfully promotes new ideas and generates creative insights and agreements (Coleman et al., 2014 ; De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema et al., 2015 ; Tjosvold, Won, & Chen, 2014 ). To make a constructive experience from conflict, conflict needs to be managed effectively.

Deutsch’s classic theory of competition and cooperation describes the antecedents and consequences of parties’ cooperative or competitive orientations and allows insights into what can give rise to constructive or destructive conflict processes (Deutsch, 1973 , 2002 ). The core of the theory is the perceived interdependence of the parties, so that the extent that protagonists believe that their goals are cooperative (positively related) or competitive (negatively related) affects their interaction and thus the outcomes. Positive interdependence promotes openness, cooperative relations, and integrative problem solving. Perceived negative interdependence on the other hand, induces more distance and less openness, and promotes competitive behavior, resulting in distributive bargaining or win–lose outcomes (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interactions, and outcomes. If parties perceive that they can reach their goals only if the other party also reaches their goals, the goal interdependence is positively perceived and therefore parties will have higher concern for the other’s goals and manage the conflict cooperatively (De Dreu et al., 2001 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). On the contrary, if one party perceives that they can reach their goals only if the other party fails to obtain their goals, the interdependence becomes negatively perceived and the approach to conflict becomes competitive (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Goals can also be independent; in that case, conflict can be avoided (the parties don’t need to obstruct each other’s goals to be successful). Therefore, how parties perceive their goals’ interdependence affects how they negotiate conflict and whether the conflict is constructively or destructively managed (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 2008 ).

Successfully managing conflict cooperatively requires intellectual, emotional, and relational capabilities in order to share information, to contribute to value creation, and to discuss differences constructively (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). In contrast, a competitive-destructive process leads to material losses and dissatisfaction, worsening relations between parties, and negative psychological effects on at least one party—the loser of a win–lose context (Deutsch, 2014 ).

Deutsch’s theory proposes that emphasizing cooperative goals in conflict by demonstrating a commitment to pursue mutually beneficial solutions creates high-quality resolutions and relationships, while focusing on competitive interests by pursuing one’s own goals at the expense of the other’s escalates conflict, resulting in imposed solutions and suspicious relationships (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

In summary, Deutsch’s theory states that the context in which the conflict process is expressed drives parties toward either a cooperative or a competitive orientation in conflicts (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 2006 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ). In other words, a cooperative context is related to a cooperative conflict pattern, and a competitive context is related to a competitive conflict pattern. When parties have a cooperative orientation toward conflict, parties discuss their differences with the objective of clarifying them and attempting to find a solution that is satisfactory to both parties—both parties win (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ). On the contrary, in competition, there is usually a winner and a loser (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ) (see Table 1 ). In the CCB model, the patterns can include cooperative (i.e., integrating) and competitive (i.e. forcing) behavior; however, the cooperative pattern will be dominated by integrating while the competitive pattern will be dominated by forcing (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

Table 1. Characteristics of Cooperative and Competitive Climates

Source : Coleman, Deutsch, and Marcus ( 2014 ).

How to Manage Conflicts Constructively

The need for trust.

Trust is commonly defined as a belief or expectation about others’ benevolent motives during a social interaction (Holmes & Rempel, 1989 ; Rousseau et al., 1998 ). Mutual trust is one important antecedent as well as a consequence of cooperation in conflicts (Deutsch, 1983 ; Ferrin, Bligh, & Kohles, 2008 ). As Nahapiet and Ghoshal pointed out, “Trust lubricates cooperation, and cooperation itself breeds trust” ( 1998 , p.255). There is ample evidence that constructive conflict and trust are tightly and positively related (Hempel, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2009 ; Bijlsma & Koopman, 2003 ; Lewicki, Tonlinson, & Gillespie, 2006 ).

Successful constructive conflict management requires maximal gathering and exchange of information in order to identify problems and areas of mutual concern, to search for alternatives, to assess their implications, and to achieve openness about preferences in selecting optimal solutions (Bacon & Blyton, 2007 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 1999 ). Trust gives parties the confidence to be open with each other, knowing that the shared information won’t be used against them (Zaheer & Zaheer, 2006 ). Various studies revealed that trust leads to constructive conglomerate behaviors and to more integrative outcomes in interpersonal and intergroup conflicts (Lewicki, Elgoibar, & Euwema, 2016 ; Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998 ; Ross & LaCroix, 1996 ).

How can trust be promoted? Developing trust is challenging (Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2014 ; Hempel et al., 2009 ). Numerous scholars have noted that trust is easier to destroy than to create (Hempel et al., 2009 ; Meyerson et al., 1996 ). There are two main reasons for this assertion. First, trust-breaking events are often more visible and noticeable than positive trust-building actions (Kramer, 1999 ). Second, trust-breaking events are judged to have a higher impact on trust judgments than positive events (Slovic, 1993 ). Furthermore, Slovic ( 1993 ) concluded that trust-breaking events are more credible than sources of good news. Thus, the general belief is that trust is easier to destroy than it is to build, and trust rebuilding may take even longer than it took to create the original level of trust (Lewicki et al., 2016 ).

However, there is room for optimism, and different strategies have been shown to promote trust. As held in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964 ), risk taking by one party in supporting the other party has been found to signal trust to the other party (Serva et al., 2005 ). Yet, fears of exploitation make trust in conflict management and negotiation scarce. Therefore, the use of trust-promoting strategies depends on the specific situation, and parties need practical guidance on how and when to manage conflict constructively by means of promoting mutual trust.

How does the possibility of trust development between parties depend on the conflict context? Based on this practical question, some strategies for trust development have been proposed (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012 ; Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2012 ; Lewicki et al., 2016 ). In relationships where trust is likely, the following strategies can help: assume trustworthiness, prioritize your interests and give away a little information about them, engage in reciprocity (concessions), highlight similarities and spend time together, get to know your counterpart personally and try to be likable, behave consistently and predictably, and paraphrase your counterpart’s positions. In relationships where trust seems possible: emphasize common goals; focus on the subject, not on the people; look to the future and find a shared vision; mix questions and answers about interests and priorities—the fundamental elements of information sharing—with making and justifying offers; take a break; suggest another approach; call in a mediator; and forgive the other party’s mistakes. In relationships where trust is not possible, more cautious strategies can help: make multi-issue offers; think holistically about your counterpart’s interests; engage in reciprocity (concessions); express sympathy, apologize, or compliment your counterpart; and look for preference patterns in your counterpart’s offers and responses.

Constructive Controversy

C onstructive controversy is defined as the open-minded discussion of conflicting perspectives for mutual benefit, which occurs when protagonists express their opposing ideas that obstruct resolving the issues, at least temporarily (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Indicators of constructive controversy include listening carefully to each other’s opinion, trying to understand each other’s concerns, and using opposing views to understand the problem better. These skills are considered vitally important for developing and implementing cooperative problem-solving processes successfully and effectively.

Deutsch ( 2014 ) stated that there haven’t been many systematic discussions of the skills involved in constructive solutions to conflict, and he proposed three main types of skills for constructive conflict management:

Rapport-building skills are involved in establishing effective relationships between parties (such as breaking the ice; reducing fears, tensions, and suspicion; overcoming resistance to negotiation; and fostering realistic hope and optimism).

Cooperative conflict-resolution skills are concerned with developing and maintaining a cooperative conflict resolution process among the parties involved (such as identifying the type of conflict in which the parties are involved; reframing the issues so that conflict is perceived as a mutual problem to be resolved cooperatively; active listening and responsive communication; distinguishing between effective relationships between parties and positions; encouraging, supporting, and enhancing the parties; being alert to cultural differences and the possibilities of misunderstanding arising from them; and controlling anger).

Group process and decision-making skills are involved in developing a creative and productive process (such as monitoring progress toward group goals; eliciting, clarifying, coordinating, summarizing, and integrating the contributions of the various participants; and maintaining group cohesion).

Tjosvold et al. ( 2014 ) and Johnson et al. ( 2014 ) also elaborate on the skills needed for facilitating open-minded discussions and constructive controversy. They developed four mutually reinforcing strategies for managing conflict constructively:

Developing and expressing one’s own view. Parties need to know what each of the others wants and believes, and expressing one’s own needs, feelings, and ideas is essential to gaining that knowledge. By strengthening expression of their own positions, both parties can learn to investigate their position, present the best case they can for it, defend it vigorously, and try at the same time to refute opposing views. However, expressing one’s own position needs to be supplemented with an open-minded approach to the other’s position.

Questioning and understanding others’ views. Listening and understanding opposing views, as well as defending one’s own views, makes discussing conflicts more challenging but also more rewarding; therefore, the parties can point out weaknesses in each other’s arguments to encourage better development and expression of positions by finding more evidence and strengthening their reasoning.

Integrating and creating solutions. The creation of new alternatives lays the foundation for genuine agreements about a solution that both parties can accept and implement. However, protagonists may have to engage in repeated discussion to reach an agreement, or indeed they may be unable to create a solution that is mutually acceptable, and then they can both learn to become less adamant, to exchange views directly, and to show that they are trying to understand and integrate each other’s ideas so that all may benefit.

Agreeing to and implementing solutions. Parties can learn to seek the best reasoned judgment, instead of focusing on “winning”; to criticize ideas, not people; to listen and understand everyone’s position, even if they do not agree with it; to differentiate positions before trying to integrate them; and to change their minds when logically persuaded to do so.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution processes are aimed at ending a conflict. So, while conflict management can also include escalation, conflict resolution searches for a way of ending the conflict. The difference between resolution and management of conflict is more than semantic (Robbins, 1978 ). Conflict resolution means reduction, elimination, or termination of conflict.

To find a resolution, parties have to bring an extra piece of information, relate the information they have differently, or transform the issue, change the rules, change the actors or the structure, or bring in a third party (Vayrynen, 1991 ). The most popular conflict resolution processes are: negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration (Rahim, 2002 ). Conflict resolution can also be accomplished by ruling by authorities. Integration of the different techniques sequentially or simultaneously has been shown to support optimal conflict resolution (Jones, 2016 ).

Negotiation

Negotiation is a process in which the parties attempt to jointly create an agreement that resolves a conflict between them (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014 ). Walton and McKersie ( 1965 ) were the first to identify the two polar yet interdependent strategies known as distributive and integrative negotiation. Distributive negotiation means that activities are instrumental to the attainment of one party’s goals when they are in basic conflict with those of the other party. Integrative negotiation means that parties’ activities are oriented to find common or complementary interests and to solve problems confronting both parties. Other scholars also focused on the opposite tactical requirements of the two strategies, using a variety of terms, such as contending versus cooperating (Pruitt, 1981 ), claiming value versus creating value (Lax & Sebenius, 1987 ), and the difference between positions and interests (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ).

If a distributive strategy is pursued too vigorously, a negotiator may gain a greater share of gains, but of a smaller set of joint gains, or, worse, may generate an outcome in which both parties lose. However, if a negotiator pursues an integrative negotiation in a single-minded manner—being totally cooperative and giving freely accurate and credible information about his/her interests—he or she can be taken advantage of by the other party (Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). The different proposals that have been formulated to cope with these central dilemmas in negotiation are mainly based on a back-and-forth communication process between the parties, which is linked to the negotiators’ interpersonal skills (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Rubin et al., 1994 ).

Mediation is process by which a third party facilitates constructive communication among disputants, including decision making, problem solving and negotiation, in order to reach a mutually acceptable agreement (Bollen, Munduate, & Euwema, 2016 ; Goldman, Cropanzano, Stein, & Benson, 2008 ; Moore, 2014 ). Using mediation in conflict resolution has been proven to prevent the negative consequences of conflict in the workplace (Bollen & Euwema, 2010 ; Bollen et al., 2016 ), in collective bargaining (Martinez-Pecino et al., 2008 ), in inter- and intragroup relations (Jones, 2016 ), and in interpersonal relations (Herrman, 2006 ). However, mediation is not a magic bullet and works better in conflicts that are moderate rather than extreme, when parties are motivated to resolve the conflict, and when parties have equal power, among other characteristics (Kressel, 2014 ).

Conflict Coaching

Conflict coaching is a new and rapidly growing process in the public as well as private sector (Brinkert, 2016 ). In this process, a conflict coach works with a party to accomplish three goals (Jones & Brinkert, 2008 ): (a) analysis and coherent understanding of the conflict, (b) identification of a future preferred direction, and (c) skills development to implement the preferred strategy. Therefore, a conflict coach is defined as a conflict expert who respects the other party’s self-determination and aims to promote the well-being of the parties involved. Giebels and Janssen ( 2005 ) found that, when outside help was called in, parties in conflict experienced fewer negative consequences in terms of individual well-being than people who did not ask for third-party help.

Sometimes, the leader of a team can act as conflict coach. A study by Romer and colleagues ( 2012 ) showed that a workplace leader’s problem-solving approach to conflicts increased employees’ perception of justice and their sense that they had a voice in their workplace, as well as reduced employees’ stress (De Reuver & Van Woerkom, 2010 ; Romer et al., 2012 ). In contrast, the direct expression of power in the form of forcing behavior can harm employees’ well-being (Peterson & Harvey, 2009 ). A forcing leader may become an additional party to the conflict (i.e., employees may turn against their leader; Romer et al, 2012 ).

Conflict coaching and mediation are different processes. First, in conflict coaching, only one party is involved in the process, while in mediation, the mediator helps all the parties in conflict to engage in constructive interaction. Second, conflict coaching focuses on direct skills instructions to the party (i.e., negotiation skills). In that, conflict coaching is also a leadership development tool (Romer et al., 2012 ). There is a growing tendency to integrate conflict coaching and workplace mediation, particularly in preparation for conflict resolution, because the coach can help the coached party to investigate options and weigh the advantages of the different options (Jones, 2016 ).

Arbitration

Arbitration is an institutionalized procedure in which a third party provides a final and binding or voluntary decision (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2014 ; Mohr & Spekman, 1994 ). Arbitration allows the parties to have control over the process, but not over the outcomes. Therefore, arbitration differs from negotiation, mediation, and conflict coaching, in which the parties decide the agreement themselves (Posthuma & Dworkin, 2000 ; Lewicki et al., 2014 ). In arbitration, the third party listens to the parties and decides the outcome. This procedure is used mainly in conflicts between organizations, in commercial disputes, and in collective labor conflicts (Beechey, 2000 ; Elkouri & Elkouri, 1995 ).

Decision Making by Authorities

The strategies of negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration have in common that the parties together decide about the conflict process, even when they agree to accept an arbitration. This is different from how authorities resolve conflict. Decision making by authorities varies from parents’ intervening in children’s fights to rulings by teachers, police officers, managers, complaint officers, ombudsmen, and judges. Here, often one party complains and the authority acts to intervene and end the conflict. This strategy is good for ending physical violence and misuse of power. However, the authorities’ decisive power is limited, and therefore in most situations authorities are strongly urged to first explore the potential for conflict resolution and reconciliation among the parties involved. The authority can act as an escalator for the process, or as a facilitator, and only in cases of immediate threat can intervene or rule as a last resort. Authorities who employ this strategy can improve the learning skills of the parties and can impose upon the parties an acceptance of responsibility, both for the conflict and for the ways to end it.

It is important to emphasize the natural and positive aspects of conflict management. Conflict occurs in all areas of organizations and private lives and its management is vital for their effectiveness. Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities are identified, and new solutions are forged (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Therefore, when conflict occurs, it shouldn’t be avoided but should be managed constructively.

Introduction to Conflict Resolution

Citation: Federman, Sarah, and Alison Castel. Introduction to Conflict Resolution: Discourses and Dynamics. Edited by Sarah Cobb. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2019.
Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding
conflict resolution
failed states
coexistence
second-track diplomacy
peacebuilding

The field of conflict resolution has evolved dramatically during the relatively short duration of the discipline’s existence. Each generation of scholars has struggled with the major puzzles of their era, providing theories and solutions that meet the needs of the time, only to be pushed forward by new insights and, at times, totally upended by a changing world. This introductory course text explores the genealogy of the field of conflict resolution by examining three different epochs of the field, each one tied to the historical context and events of the day. In each of these epochs, scholars and practitioners worked to understand and address the conflicts that the world was facing, at that time. This book provides a framework that students will carry with them far into their careers, enriching their contributions and strengthening their voices. Rather than a didactic approach to the field, students will develop their critical analytical skills through an inductive inquiry. Students will broaden their vocabulary, grapple with argumentation, and develop critical reading skills.

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Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Interpersonal Relationship — Conflict Resolution

Essays on Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is a crucial skill in both personal and professional relationships. Writing an essay on conflict resolution can help you understand the importance of effective communication and problem-solving in resolving conflicts. It can also help you develop critical thinking and analytical skills as you explore different aspects of conflict resolution.

When choosing a topic for your conflict resolution essay, consider the different types of essays you can write, such as argumentative, cause and effect, opinion, and informative essays. For an argumentative essay, you might explore the effectiveness of different conflict resolution strategies. For a cause and effect essay, you could examine the impact of unresolved conflicts on relationships or organizations. An opinion essay could allow you to share your personal experiences with conflict resolution, while an informative essay could delve into the various theories and approaches to resolving conflicts.

For example, you could write an essay on the importance of active listening in conflict resolution, or the role of empathy in understanding different perspectives. You could also explore the impact of unresolved conflicts on mental health, or the benefits of mediation in resolving disputes.

In an argumentative essay on conflict resolution, you could argue that compromise is the key to resolving conflicts, or that conflict can be a catalyst for positive change. For a cause and effect essay, you could examine the long-term effects of unresolved conflicts on individuals or organizations. In an opinion essay, you could express your views on the best conflict resolution strategies, or share your personal experiences with resolving conflicts. An informative essay could cover topics such as the history of conflict resolution, different conflict resolution models, or the psychology of conflict.

For example, a thesis statement for a conflict resolution essay could be: " Effective communication is essential in resolving conflicts and maintaining healthy relationships. " Another thesis statement could be: " The use of mediation can lead to more sustainable solutions in conflict resolution. "

In the to a conflict resolution essay, you could start by defining what conflict resolution is and why it is important. You could then provide an overview of the topics you will cover in your essay, and end with a strong thesis statement that outlines your main argument.

In the of a conflict resolution essay, you could summarize the key points you have made in your essay and reiterate the importance of effective conflict resolution. You could also suggest possible areas for further research or practical applications of the ideas you have discussed.

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Conflict

Learning objectives.

In this chapter, we will:

Define conflict.
Describe the key elements of conflict.
Recognize how conflict can be differentiated from disputes, competitions, and interpersonal violence.
Identify three views to understanding conflict in the workplace.
Explain different levels at which conflict can occur.
Review common sources of conflict in the workplace.
Discuss the potential benefits and costs of conflict in the workplace.
Recognize the importance of conflict management skills for success in your personal and professional relationships.

Who do you have the most conflict with right now? Your answer to this question probably depends on the various contexts in your life. If you still live at home with a parent or parents, you may have daily conflicts with your family as you try to balance your autonomy, or desire for independence, with the practicalities of living under your family’s roof. If you’ve recently moved away to go to college, you may be negotiating roommate conflicts as you adjust to living with someone you may not know at all. You probably also have experiences managing conflict in romantic relationships, friendships, and in the workplace. In this chapter, we will introduce some introductory concepts and explore why understanding conflict is important for your career success.

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Beyond Intractability

The Hyper-Polarization Challenge to the Conflict Resolution Field: A Joint BI/CRQ Discussion BI and the Conflict Resolution Quarterly invite you to participate in an online exploration of what those with conflict and peacebuilding expertise can do to help defend liberal democracies and encourage them live up to their ideals.

Follow BI and the Hyper-Polarization Discussion on BI's New Substack Newsletter .

Hyper-Polarization, COVID, Racism, and the Constructive Conflict Initiative Read about (and contribute to) the Constructive Conflict Initiative and its associated Blog —our effort to assemble what we collectively know about how to move beyond our hyperpolarized politics and start solving society's problems.

By Heidi Burgess

March 2005, updated in June 2017, and again in July 2020.

Oppression is at the root of many of the most serious, enduring conflicts in the world today. Racial and religious conflicts; conflicts between dictatorial governments and their citizens; the battle between the sexes; conflicts between management and labor; between heterosexuals and homosexuals, between liberals and conservatives, all stem, in whole or in part, to oppression or perceived oppression.

In 2017, conflicts between religion and races seemed to be on the significant increase, both in the U.S. and abroad. Many (on both sides) were talking about a serious conflict between "the West" (mostly Christian) and Islam. The conflict between Jews (mostly in Israel) and Muslims has a long, extremely intractable, history. The conflict in Syria is one of oppression based on religion (among other things), and the migration that has caused has spawned oppression of minorities in many other countries as well. In the United States, race, immigration, and resentment of elites were big factors in the 2016 Presidential election, as working-class whites, long feeling oppressed by the liberal elite, lashed back by electing a President, who, though extremely rich, they still viewed as "one of their own," or at least one who wouldn't oppress whites, as they believed President Obama and other liberals before him had done.

Now in the summer of 2020, racial conflict has boiled over again with the high-profile police killing of an unarmed Black man in Minnesota. This event and the worldwide response to it has put the oppression of Blacks (in the U.S.) and other minorities around the world on center stage once again.

To paraphrase Mark Twain, we need to quit complaining about oppression and actually do something about it. And, in order to do that, we need to understand the multi-faceted nature of the problem and the strategies for addressing it that are most likely to be successful.

This section of the knowledge base explores oppression: what causes it, and what can be done to address it. Most of the essays in this section are drawn from a larger essay originally entitled "Oppression and Conflict[1]" Since that essay was too long to stand alone in Beyond Intractability, here it is divided up into six essays, which together make up the "oppression" section of the website. BI is lucky to be able to include these essays from Mort Deutsch—they provide a comprehensive, succinct, and understandable introduction to this critically important topic.

In addition to this short introduction, the essays in this section currently include:

1. The Nature and Origins of Oppression

2. The Forms of Oppression

3. What Keeps Oppression in Place?

4. Awakening the Sense of Injustice

5. Overcoming Oppression Through Persuasion

6. Overcoming Oppression with Power

[1] The original paper was delivered as a plenary address at the annual meetings of the International Society of Justice Research in Skovde, Sweden on June 17, 2002.

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Use the following to cite this article: Deutsch, Morton. "Oppression and Conflict: Introduction." Beyond Intractability . Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Information Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: March 2005 < http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/oppression-introduction >.

The Intractable Conflict Challenge

Our inability to constructively handle intractable conflict is the most serious, and the most neglected, problem facing humanity. Solving today's tough problems depends upon finding better ways of dealing with these conflicts. More...

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Massively Parallel Peace and Democracy Building Links for the Week of May 19, 2024 -- Another in our weekly set of links from readers, our colleagues, and others with important ideas for our field.
Crisis, Contradiction, Certainty, and Contempt -- Columbia Professor Peter Coleman, an expert on intractable conflict, reflects on the intractable conflict occurring on his own campus, suggesting "ways out" that would be better for everyone.
Massively Parallel Peace and Democracy Building Links for the Week of April 28, 2024 -- New suggested readings from colleagues and the Burgesses.

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Practical things we can all do to limit the destructive conflicts threatening our future.

Conflict Frontiers

A free, open, online seminar exploring new approaches for addressing difficult and intractable conflicts. Major topic areas include:

Scale, Complexity, & Intractability

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Conflict Fundamentals

An look at to the fundamental building blocks of the peace and conflict field covering both “tractable” and intractable conflict.

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Siphathisiwe Kelly

Introduction to conflict resolution essay.

Introduction to Conflict Resolution: Discourses and Dynamics (Book Introduction)

2019, Introduction to Conflict Resolution: Discourses and Dynamics

We, the authors of this new conflict resolution resource, created an anthology textbook that offers a genealogy of the field. We introduce variety of theories, approaches and research methodologies that emerged to speak to conundrums of their time. We discuss the field as three overlapping eras, or "epochs" as we call them, each comprised of a series of discourses. Epoch 1 (1945-1989) Epoch 2 (1990-2001) Epoch 3 (2002-today). This introduction will give you a sense of the textbook useful for a variety of undergrad and grad classes on conflict resolution and other related subjects. Thank you for checking it out! For more information or to order a copy of the full textbook please visit: https://www.rowmaninternational.com/book/introduction_to_conflict_resolution/3-156-0d2e841a-0cdd-425a-b69c-832e0a26dfd9

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In a period of fundamental geopolitical shifts and discursive contestation, the critique of liberal peace no longer offers an adequate framework for understanding peace and war in the international order. Foucault-inspired critiques of liberal peacebuilding policies in the Balkans or Afghanistan have struggled to engage with conflicts where non-Western states are the chief protagonists, such as the Sri Lankan conflict, or the Russian interventions in Syria or Chechnya. A 'local turn' in peace studies has often failed to recognise the possibility of illiberal norms and practices , rather than emanicipatory peace, emerging at the local level. Post-Foucauldian discourse theories offer a more productive analytical perspective that makes visible the multiple, competing discourses that attempt to define meanings of peace and conflict. A theoretical framework that emphasizes discursive contestation rather than unitary domination allows serious consideration of alternative conceptualizations of peacemaking. In particular, such a framework makes visible an authoritarian, illiberal approach to managing conflict that challenges both liberal and emancipatory conceptualizations of peace and conflict, but is occluded in the current debate over post-liberal peace.

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“Difference has become a significant concern of the study of international politics and also in peace and conflict studies. Yet, approaches to understanding or incorporating issues of difference into the analysis of international order have often tended to come to rest on essentialising notions of ethnicity or other forms of identity, which also are relegated to a state of lesser importance than westernised notions of secular citizenship, cosmopolitan toleration, and free-flowing capital. This important book engages with the difficult and necessary task of envisioning peace-with-difference in international politics. Without advances in this area, as Professor Behr outlines, difference is destined to undermine order when instead it might be constitutive of peace.” Prof. Oliver Richmond, University of Manchester, UK “Hartmut Behr makes a significant contribution to our understanding of the fundamental problems centering around our conventional concept of peace. With the help of phenomenological, anti-essentialist thinkers, he reveals that the concept of peace, as deployed in the Western tradition of political and philosophical thought as well as in international politics, is a hegemonic and imperial concept that suppresses and assimilates difference, thus effacing otherness for the sake of the self. He eloquently invites us on a thrilling but serious journey towards reconceptualizing a non-hegemonic peace that is hospitable to difference.” Takashi Kibe, Professor of Political Theory and Director of the Peace Research Institute, International Christian University, Tokyo, Japan “Philosophically grounded, Politics of Difference not only produces one of the most compelling critiques of ‘imperial peace’ and its genealogies, but offers with sustained intellectual vigour an original discourse on the ontology of our times. It is truly a tour de force.” Mustapha Kamal Pasha, Chair in International Politics, Aberystwyth University, UK

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Conflict Management Essay

Introduction, causes of conflict, change the culture and context of the conflict, listen actively and responsibly, acknowledge and integrate emotions to solve problems, search beneath the surface for hidden meaning, separate what matters from what gets in the way, stop rewarding and learn from difficult behavior, solve problems creatively, plan strategically, and negotiate collaboratively, explore resistance, mediate, and design systems for prevention.

Are you assigned to write an essay about conflict management, but don’t know where to start? Then, you are in the right place. Check out this sample on managing conflicts, its causes, and possible solutions.

Conflicts come as a result of disagreements. They are part of everyone’s life from childhood with parents, teenagers in school and usually carried on to the work place from home. The trends of business and organizational conflicts which are resulting into their breakdown and loss are an area that needs special attention to preserve and increase their profitability.

The solution to these problems is good management skills which can be implemented. This essay will discuss the conflicts between management and employees in organizations. It will include the eight strategies by Kenneth Cloke and Joan Smith in their book, “ Resolving Conflicts at work: Strategies for everyone on the job .”

The process involves, “organizational change, managing change, change implementation, multicultural, change resistance, readiness for change, coping with change, communication, involvement, middle management, case study, change factors, intercultural management and involving change agents” (Savolaien, 2011, p. 1).

The process of conflict management in organizations requires determination and participation of two parties, employees and the management.

In this essay leadership skills in management are emphasized to create efficiency. Poor communication within the work place where those employed are never involved or asked of their opinion is one source of conflict. This causes the employees not to rely on the employer but rather on the gossip.

Employees need a good working environment with adequate working equipment; with each employee’s work clearly defined. Failure of management to provide appropriate working conditions may lead to disagreement between the employees. The employees should also learn to understand each other, with respect while appreciating their work and personality.

This builds a strong team. If the leadership fails by being unfair or having poor values in an organization or business, this would be another source of conflict. To enhance harmony and team work the above factors must be put at the right place by the management (McNamara, n.d.).

National culture affects organizations. For an organization to grow it must keep on changing the old ways so as remain competitive. A problem in leadership management may be in form of failure of leaders to have adequate information on the business; thus lowering their competitiveness.

If employees complain of the problems in the working place without supervisors addressing the issue, the conflict continues to build pressure. The work and procedures of the business activities have an influence by values from the community (Cloke & Goldsmith 2005).

The cultures of societies are characterized by conflicts which come from various circles that shape our behaviors e.g. racism and economic conflicts (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2005). The beliefs of the people are usually taken to the organization. This is what brings differences between different countries with the same type of business organizations.

From research, it became clear that culture has an influence on organizations implying that there will be a great difference between organizations established in different places.

Failure of supervisors to involve other employees in decision making may bring conflict. This however may be as a result of the culture of the local people. The supervisors who like the way operations are run and not willing to change can be a hindrance to solving any problem.

To change the culture and involve the employees, while insisting on open communication and flexibility is a good way forward in solving organizational conflicts. The organization should decide to change, by implementing the changing strategies of their conflict approach (Savvolaien, 2011).

Communication is vital in every organization. Employees can bring success of the business. Satisfaction of the employees motivates them to have a greater output. Management concern about them will help them to have confidence in what they do. Listening to the employees is one of the greatest virtues that a manager can do to promote higher output of the employee (Business, 2010).

Openness of employees to management would help the managers to always get first hand information in most cases whether good or bad. Being clear on expectations of employees on their work enables them to avoid any confusion. This helps employees to become more responsible. Guidance in their work builds confidence in their work and helps increase their efficiency (Business, 2010).

After listening to the employees, the manager should have in mind that the employees are meant to implement the plan for change. Appreciating information given by employees help them to respond positively to the strategy that is laid in place. The manager should design a strategy that helps the employees to fulfill their needs as they promote growth of business organization.

Visiting the employees at their working place is the starting place to promote openness. It is important that a manager should know how they feel about the work and what they wish the management could do for them.

A manager should be keen to evaluate performance of employees. It is recommended for managers to discuss with their employees regarding their goals and hear their views and how they feel about their progress. Furthermore, the employer should be empathetic to the employees and should be concerned of any problem with their employees (Business, 2010).

Conflicts cause people to act against their wishes. For example people may speak and act against what they think. This is because of thinking that there may be no solution to the problem encountered. “Conflict processes dark, hypnotic, destructive power: the power of attachment when it is time to leave…” (Cloke & Goldsmith 2005, p. 21).

This means that management should work from the grassroots to solve any problem and not just superficially. Knowing the root cause of the problem helps in effective planning as one realizes, “ If you listen closely, you will discover that beneath every insult and accusation lies a confession, and beneath every confession lies a request” (Cloke & Goldsmith 2005, p. 8).

This helps in building mutual trust and respect. This relationship can only be build by having effective communication between the employees and the management (Business, 2010).

The concern of management should focus on the future. Unnecessary questions on who was right or wrong should not come between the management and employees. This means the management should keep focus on the solution to the problem but not concentrating on non beneficial arguments (Perkins, 2010).

The action taken by management to solve a conflict between employees should always seek the best and just action. Managers should speak straight to the point; to the person who causes a conflict. Those who fail to do right after repeated counsel should be fired and leave the rest of the workers with peace.

Listening to employees gives direction to deal with the opponents, by stopping to reward them and learning from their difficult behaviors (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2005). This means seeking for new strategies to deal with the opponents so as to stop rewarding them. Failure to plan and apply new strategies to solve problems makes the conflict to have deep roots in the organization as well as creating a bad culture (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2005).

To manage conflicts in an organization, management should have clear values, vision, mission and objectives. Seeing opportunities to solve the problems; with a positive attitude assists in effective implementation. It requires a lot of effort to deal with an opposition.

The management should therefore work so as to reach a certain goal of an agreement or disagreement (Cloke & Goldsmith, 2005). This means they should have a plan of talking to the employees as well as the necessary action to the opponent employee with fairness and justice.

Conflict management means dealing with the conflict till the end of it. If any resistance is seen in the process of solving a conflict it is a good opportunity to dismiss fears of employees. It is an indication of dissatisfaction; probably they were not included in the implementation or they were not involved in the process. If employees feel they had been undermined, they can bring resistance. Thus, communication remains paramount in the whole process of solving a problem (Nermin, 2011).

Business organizations will always encounter conflict from one time to another. Employees and management culture can be a hindrance to conflict management. Culture should therefore be considered in the planning of resolving any conflict. Managers should enhance transparency in their organizations and good leadership skills in conflict management. This would result in justice as well as the growth of business organization.

Business. (2010). How to actively listen to your employees . Web.

Cloke, K. & Goldsmith, J. (2005). Resolving conflicts at work: eight strategies for everyone on the job . New York, NY: John Wiley and sons.

McNamara, C. Basics of Conflict Management . Web.

Nermin, A. (2011). Enhance Your Leadership Skills- Build Trust & Resolve Conflict . Web.

Perkins, K. (2010). Proactive Steps to turn around workplace disputes . Web.

Savolaien, T. (2011). Challenges of Intercultural Management, Change Implementation in The Context of National Culture . Web.

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Academic Essay Writing Made Simple: 4 types and tips

The pen is mightier than the sword, they say, and nowhere is this more evident than in academia. From the quick scribbles of eager students to the inquisitive thoughts of renowned scholars, academic essays depict the power of the written word. These well-crafted writings propel ideas forward and expand the existing boundaries of human intellect.

What is an Academic Essay

An academic essay is a nonfictional piece of writing that analyzes and evaluates an argument around a specific topic or research question. It serves as a medium to share the author’s views and is also used by institutions to assess the critical thinking, research skills, and writing abilities of a students and researchers.

Importance of Academic Essays

4 main types of academic essays.

While academic essays may vary in length, style, and purpose, they generally fall into four main categories. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal: to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

1. Expository Essay

2. Descriptive Essay

3. Narrative Essay

4. Argumentative Essay

Expository and persuasive essays mainly deal with facts to explain ideas clearly. Narrative and descriptive essays are informal and have a creative edge. Despite their differences, these essay types share a common goal ― to convey information, insights, and perspectives effectively.

Expository Essays: Illuminating ideas

An expository essay is a type of academic writing that explains, illustrates, or clarifies a particular subject or idea. Its primary purpose is to inform the reader by presenting a comprehensive and objective analysis of a topic.

By breaking down complex topics into digestible pieces and providing relevant examples and explanations, expository essays allow writers to share their knowledge.

What are the Key Features of an Expository Essay

Provides factual information without bias

Presents multiple viewpoints while maintaining objectivity

Uses direct and concise language to ensure clarity for the reader

Composed of a logical structure with an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion

When is an expository essay written.

1. For academic assignments to evaluate the understanding of research skills.

2. As instructional content to provide step-by-step guidance for tasks or problem-solving.

3. In journalism for objective reporting in news or investigative pieces.

4. As a form of communication in the professional field to convey factual information in business or healthcare.

How to Write an Expository Essay

Expository essays are typically structured in a logical and organized manner.

1. Topic Selection and Research

Choose a topic that can be explored objectively
Gather relevant facts and information from credible sources
Develop a clear thesis statement

2. Outline and Structure

Create an outline with an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion
Introduce the topic and state the thesis in the introduction
Dedicate each body paragraph to a specific point supporting the thesis
Use transitions to maintain a logical flow

3. Objective and Informative Writing

Maintain an impartial and informative tone
Avoid personal opinions or biases
Support points with factual evidence, examples, and explanations

4. Conclusion

Summarize the key points
Reinforce the significance of the thesis

Descriptive Essays: Painting with words

Descriptive essays transport readers into vivid scenes, allowing them to experience the world through the writer ‘s lens. These essays use rich sensory details, metaphors, and figurative language to create a vivid and immersive experience . Its primary purpose is to engage readers’ senses and imagination.

It allows writers to demonstrate their ability to observe and describe subjects with precision and creativity.

What are the Key Features of Descriptive Essay

Employs figurative language and imagery to paint a vivid picture for the reader

Demonstrates creativity and expressiveness in narration

Includes close attention to detail, engaging the reader’s senses

Engages the reader’s imagination and emotions through immersive storytelling using analogies, metaphors, similes, etc.

When is a descriptive essay written.

1. Personal narratives or memoirs that describe significant events, people, or places.

2. Travel writing to capture the essence of a destination or experience.

3. Character sketches in fiction writing to introduce and describe characters.

4. Poetry or literary analyses to explore the use of descriptive language and imagery.

How to Write a Descriptive Essay

The descriptive essay lacks a defined structural requirement but typically includes: an introduction introducing the subject, a thorough description, and a concluding summary with insightful reflection.

1. Subject Selection and Observation

Choose a subject (person, place, object, or experience) to describe
Gather sensory details and observations

2. Engaging Introduction

Set the scene and provide the context
Use of descriptive language and figurative techniques

3. Descriptive Body Paragraphs

Focus on specific aspects or details of the subject
Engage the reader ’s senses with vivid imagery and descriptions
Maintain a consistent tone and viewpoint

4. Impactful Conclusion

Provide a final impression or insight
Leave a lasting impact on the reader

Narrative Essays: Storytelling in Action

Narrative essays are personal accounts that tell a story, often drawing from the writer’s own experiences or observations. These essays rely on a well-structured plot, character development, and vivid descriptions to engage readers and convey a deeper meaning or lesson.

What are the Key features of Narrative Essays

Written from a first-person perspective and hence subjective

Based on real personal experiences

Uses an informal and expressive tone

Presents events and characters in sequential order

When is a narrative essay written.

It is commonly assigned in high school and college writing courses to assess a student’s ability to convey a meaningful message or lesson through a personal narrative. They are written in situations where a personal experience or story needs to be recounted, such as:

1. Reflective essays on significant life events or personal growth.

2. Autobiographical writing to share one’s life story or experiences.

3. Creative writing exercises to practice narrative techniques and character development.

4. College application essays to showcase personal qualities and experiences.

How to Write a Narrative Essay

Narrative essays typically follow a chronological structure, with an introduction that sets the scene, a body that develops the plot and characters, and a conclusion that provides a sense of resolution or lesson learned.

1. Experience Selection and Reflection

Choose a significant personal experience or event
Reflect on the impact and deeper meaning

2. Immersive Introduction

Introduce characters and establish the tone and point of view

3. Plotline and Character Development

Advance the plot and character development through body paragraphs
Incorporate dialog , conflict, and resolution
Maintain a logical and chronological flow

4. Insightful Conclusion

Reflect on lessons learned or insights gained
Leave the reader with a lasting impression

Argumentative Essays: Persuasion and Critical Thinking

Argumentative essays are the quintessential form of academic writing in which writers present a clear thesis and support it with well-researched evidence and logical reasoning. These essays require a deep understanding of the topic, critical analysis of multiple perspectives, and the ability to construct a compelling argument.

What are the Key Features of an Argumentative Essay?

Logical and well-structured arguments

Credible and relevant evidence from reputable sources

Consideration and refutation of counterarguments

Critical analysis and evaluation of the issue

When is an argumentative essay written.

Argumentative essays are written to present a clear argument or stance on a particular issue or topic. In academic settings they are used to develop critical thinking, research, and persuasive writing skills. However, argumentative essays can also be written in various other contexts, such as:

1. Opinion pieces or editorials in newspapers, magazines, or online publications.

2. Policy proposals or position papers in government, nonprofit, or advocacy settings.

3. Persuasive speeches or debates in academic, professional, or competitive environments.

4. Marketing or advertising materials to promote a product, service, or idea.

How to write an Argumentative Essay

Argumentative essays begin with an introduction that states the thesis and provides context. The body paragraphs develop the argument with evidence, address counterarguments, and use logical reasoning. The conclusion restates the main argument and makes a final persuasive appeal.

Choose a debatable and controversial issue
Conduct thorough research and gather evidence and counterarguments

2. Thesis and Introduction

Craft a clear and concise thesis statement
Provide background information and establish importance

3. Structured Body Paragraphs

Focus each paragraph on a specific aspect of the argument
Support with logical reasoning, factual evidence, and refutation

4. Persuasive Techniques

Adopt a formal and objective tone
Use persuasive techniques (rhetorical questions, analogies, appeals)

5. Impactful Conclusion

Summarize the main points
Leave the reader with a strong final impression and call to action

To learn more about argumentative essay, check out this article .

5 Quick Tips for Researchers to Improve Academic Essay Writing Skills

Use clear and concise language to convey ideas effectively without unnecessary words

Use well-researched, credible sources to substantiate your arguments with data, expert opinions, and scholarly references

Ensure a coherent structure with effective transitions, clear topic sentences, and a logical flow to enhance readability

To elevate your academic essay, consider submitting your draft to a community-based platform like Open Platform for editorial review

Review your work multiple times for clarity, coherence, and adherence to academic guidelines to ensure a polished final product

By mastering the art of academic essay writing, researchers and scholars can effectively communicate their ideas, contribute to the advancement of knowledge, and engage in meaningful scholarly discourse.

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Harry Edwards to sociology grads: Even in turbulent times, believe in yourself

By Public Affairs

May 24, 2024

Follow Berkeley Talks , a Berkeley News podcast that features lectures and conversations at UC Berkeley. See all Berkeley Talks .

Harry Edwards gives a commencement speech at a podium

Allena Cayce/UC Berkeley

In Berkeley Talks episode 199 , Harry Edwards, a renowned sports activist and UC Berkeley professor emeritus of sociology, gives the keynote address at the Department of Sociology’s 2024 commencement ceremony.

“As I stand here before you, in the twilight of my life’s time of long shadows,” said Edwards at the May 13 event, “from a perspective informed by my 81 years of experience, and by a retrospective assessment of the lessons learned over my 60 years of activism, what is my advice and message to you young people today? What emerges as most critically germane and relevant in today’s climate?

“First: Even in turbulent times, in the midst of all of the challenges, contradictions and confusion to be faced, never cease to believe in yourself and your capacities to realize your dreams.

“From time to time, you might have to take a different path than you had anticipated and planned, but you can still get there. Achievement of your dreams always begins with a belief in yourself. Never allow anyone to dissuade you of this imperative disposition. And if someone so much as even tries, you tell them that the good doctor said you need to go and get a second opinion.”

[ Music: “Silver Lanyard” by Blue Dot Sessions ]

Intro: This is Berkeley Talks , a Berkeley News podcast from the Office of Communications and Public Affairs that features lectures and conversations at UC Berkeley. You can follow Berkeley Talks wherever you listen to your podcasts. New episodes come out every other Friday. Also, we have another podcast, Berkeley Voices , that shares stories of people at UC Berkeley and the work that they do on and off campus.

[Music fades out]

Raka Ray: Well, hello everyone. It’s a delight to be here with you today to congratulate the class of 2024 and everybody else who is here in support of them. Today I get to introduce to you a man who is not only a foot and a half taller than I am, but also truly a giant of a human being in every way, Professor Harry Edwards, who was professor of sociology at Berkeley between 1970 and 2000.

Born in St. Louis Missouri, Harry Edwards was awarded an athletic scholarship to San Jose State University, completed his Ph.D. degree in sociology from Cornell, and then joined the Berkeley faculty. His experiences as an African American, as an athlete and as a sociologist helped him to keenly understand in the late 1960s that sport in America was deeply racialized and discriminatory. With this understanding, he set about transforming race relations in sports through his research, teaching, mentoring and activism.

Some of you might have seen the statues of Tommy Smith and John Carlos in San Jose State. If you haven’t, they’re great athletes, Tommy Smith and John Carlos, who won the 200 meters race in the 1968 Mexico Olympics and then raised their fists in a Black power salute. This was done because of Harry Edwards who encouraged them to do this.

He created the Olympic Project for human rights, which challenged racism in sports and called for the boycott of apartheid South Africa. Just the other day, he arranged for a personal video to be sent by gymnast Simone Biles to encourage a heartbroken 8-year-old Black Irish gymnast who had been ignored during a medal ceremony. He has used his keen sociological imagination and eye for justice to affect transformation in every sphere of sports that he could.

As professor in the department, he taught thousands of students about the sociology of sports and race, effectively creating the field of sociology of sports, even as he advised the NBA, the NFL and the major baseball league. Always a scholar and activist, he has insisted that struggle not be divorced from strategic analysis and intellectual consideration. Earlier this year, I was honored to present Harry with the Social Science for the Public Good Award for 2024. We have now renamed it the Harry Edwards Social Science for the Public Good Award. Please join me in welcoming Harry Edwards to the podium.

Do you need to adjust this?

Harry Edwards: Oh, yeah. A little bit. I got to make an adjustment here. People are vertically challenged, so I got to make up for that. Dean Ray, thank you for that gracious and profoundly generous introduction. I hope that one day soon you and I and that gentleman that you introduced will be in the same room and I’d like to meet him because he sounds like a heck of a guy.

Graduating class of 2024, families and guests, colleagues, thank you so much for this opportunity to address you on this August occasion. The problem with being the last speaker is that everything that needs to be said has been said, you just haven’t had a chance to say it, but I will try not to be too repetitive.

Today we stand again on the threshold of transformative times. Sixty-plus years ago, my undergraduate graduation was a time of exhilaration, high expectations and joy. I was a 21-year-old honors student and former scholarship athlete with the options of entering the pro football or basketball drafts, or accepting one of several fellowships to graduate school.

Strongly influenced by Dr. King’s “I Have a Dream” speech at the 1963 march on Washington, I indulged the dream of helping to create a society where people would not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character, the caliber of their competence and the magnitude of their contributions to society.

But hanging over and clouding my personal excitement and aspirations was a growing concern about what was happening in society and the world around me. American society was already badly divided over civil rights issues and there was a growing division over the nation’s expanding involvement in a far-off war in a place called Vietnam, and the president was coming under increasing criticism and pressure related to both.

The trajectory of the domestic political climate had been set by the assassination of a popular president, John F. Kennedy on Nov. 22, 1963 — a tragedy that, for me, was all the more bewildering because it occurred at what was a major coming of age phase of life for me. I was a graduating honors student with fellowships to Ivy league universities, and Nov. 22, 1963 was my 21st birthday.

The tragedy was followed by a long list of others, all within the period of my subsequent graduate school matriculation, including the murder of civil rights workers Goodman, Chaney, and Schwerner in Philadelphia, Mississippi; the assassination of the martyred president’s brother, himself a presidential candidate; and other national leadership figures, some of whom I’ve come to know and work with personally, including Malcolm X and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., over the course of my graduate matriculation.

By 1970, in my Ph.D. graduation from Cornell, I had organized the 1968 Olympic project for human rights and protest of racial conditions in America, America’s support for apartheid in South Africa and the continuing involvement in a war where casualties on all sides were escalating and young Black men were being drafted and killed in grossly disproportionate numbers. Nationwide campus protests demanding that colleges and universities divest from apartheid South Africa had melded with what by then was a tsunami of anti-Vietnam war protest that even had disrupted the Presidential Nomination Convention in Chicago in 1968.

And most graphically, the nation’s first war with real time saturation TV coverage had brought into our living rooms the horrific scenes of religious figures setting themselves afire in front of the U.S. embassy in Saigon, of dead and wounded anti-war student protesters at Kent State, and of Black students in Orangeburg, South Carolina, killed and wounded while protesting segregation.

And again, all considered, it would seem that today we stand again on the cusp of similarly turbulent times: a society badly divided over issues of race, immigration, women’s rights, LGBTQ+ rights and more.

A president under increasing criticism and pressure for both his domestic political agenda and for his policies relating to America’s involvement with, if not trending complicity, in a far off war that has spawned popular dissent, campus protest, and now an active-duty soldier setting himself afire outside of the Israeli embassy in Washington, D.C, all of which have exacerbated our already existing divisions as a people on the eve of what is developing through the most significant presidential election at least since 1968, if not 1860. There is even a presidential convention again being scheduled in Chicago. All of this combining to make the challenges we face today all the more explosive, convoluted, complex and difficult to resolve.

But there are critical differences. As a people we did not know about the depths and scope of human tragedy that came with the expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia, or in the wake of that expansion, the horrors perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge until after these events happened. We did not know about the Rwanda genocide until after it happened. For the most part, we did not know about the scale and magnitude of 6 million-plus souls whose lives were viciously and horrifically snuffed out until the gates and ovens of Buchenwald and Auschwitz were open to the world after it happened.

But today, right now, we know about 1,200 Israeli civilian deaths, 5,100 wounded and maimed, and 253 kidnapped and initially held hostages. We know about 35,000-plus Palestinian civilian deaths, over 7,000 wounded and maimed, with thousands more buried under bombed-out rubble in Gaza, nearly 70% of them women, children and babies. We know about a burgeoning, administratively induced famine and the massive starvation in Gaza. Again, most of those threatened being women, children and babies. And these differences between now and back in my day make a difference. And if you’ve ever wondered what you would’ve done had you been around and known about the march up to the atrocities in Cambodia, in Rwanda, in 1930s Germany. Today, you’ve got your answer. It’s exactly what you are doing now.

We can be honest even when we can’t be right. The reality is that the last 75 years of this Middle East perennial conflict have taught us, attack after attack, war after war, that there is no military solution to this tragedy. The only viable resolution is for the parties involved to come together at the peace table and establish a mutually agreed-upon and sustainable peace, not just the ceasefire, not just a temporary halt for hostilities in order to get in humanitarian supplies, but a sustainable peace. Other measures simply have not worked. Occupation is not peace, and a body count is not a measure of victory.

Now, sanity compels us to concede that the only real question remaining is how many bodies each party to this conflict is going to insist upon climbing over to get to the peace table. And to this point, nobody on either side appears to even have a number in mind. The parties involved continue to forge headlong, down the same paths, employing the same bankrupt strategies and expecting different outcomes — outcomes that have only spawned more war and more violent attacks, doing the same things expecting different outcomes. The very definition of insanity.

As I stand here before you then in the twilight of my life’s time of long shadows, from a perspective informed by my 81 years of experience, and by a retrospective assessment of the lessons learned over my 60 years of activism, what is my advice and message to you young people today? What emerges as most critically germane and relevant in today’s climate?

First, even in turbulent times, in the midst of all of the challenges, contradictions and confusion to be faced, never cease to believe in yourself and your capacities to realize your dreams.

From time to time, you might have to take a different path than you had anticipated and planned, but you can still get there. Achievement of your dreams always begins with a belief in yourself. Never allow anyone to dissuade you of this imperative disposition. And if someone so much as even tries, you tell them that the good doctor said you need to go and get a second opinion.

The Founding Fathers believed in themselves, and they were not just a bunch of old dudes as typically portrayed and memorialized. When you look at one of them paintings of 1776, everybody, if they’re not gray, they’re wearing a gray wig. On July the 4th, 1776, among the signers of the Declaration of Independence creating the United States of America in the face of threats of hanging and a declaration of war from the British Empire was James Monroe, 18, Aaron Burr, 20, Alexander Hamilton, 21, James Madison, 25, and old Thomas Jefferson, 33. Don’t let anybody tell you you’re nothing but a bunch of kids and don’t know what you’re doing.

As I look at this situation today, it’s easy to see how much ageism works into our perceptions and understandings of what we are and what we’re dealing with. Don’t get caught up not only in you’re too young, but the presidential candidates are too old. I was listening to somebody the other day … Did you see Biden trying to run up on the stage? Did you see him trying to hop up on the steps of Air Force One? He looked horrible. Hey, I want to tell you something. I’m Biden’s age. I’m 81. I couldn’t run out of sight if you gave me all day.

You are not electing somebody who can run a hundred meters. You’re not electing somebody who can set a world-class time in 110 meter high hurdles. You are electing a president. We need to get over this nonsense and understand that this ageism and this ageist bias, there’s no place for that. If they’re too old, hey, guess what? Don’t tell anybody old Edwards told you that, but it sounds to me like that’s a problem that’s going to probably take care of itself. At the end of the day, get out and vote, get your friends up off the couch where they start talking about, “Yeah, we can talk about how old the candidates are,” as we go to the poll and vote. Get out and vote.

You are part of the most informed, technologically savvy and sophisticated generation in human history, you have capabilities and access to information, analysis and communications technology that in the 1960s and ’70s we not only did not have, we could not even imagine. The mobile phone that you routinely use every day puts more information retrieval analysis and computing power at your fingertips than the rocket ship that took men to the moon in the 1970s and brought them back home safely. In fact, given the volume and scope of information you need to make a habit of checking, cross-checking and verifying everything, hold to your dreams, but learn to dream with your eyes open.

Second, keep the faith, not only in yourself, but in the ideals and promises of this nation, its institutions and, most of all, the majority of the American people. They’re eminently decent, intelligent and, for the most part, value and treasure freedom.

Though controversial and dismissed in some political circles as protestor capitulation, and alternatively as pandering to protestors, it is affirming to see student protestors, counter protestors and university administrators coming together across the nation from San Francisco State and Sacramento State to Rutgers in New Jersey to discuss and debate issues of urgent and mutual concern. To paraphrase a number of university presidents and chancellors across the nation, “If we cannot come together to discuss and debate these issues even on our college campuses in an America that so many have struggled to realize and have fought and died for then that America is doomed.”

Adversarial parties, not just reaching over, but coming out from behind their barricades to sit down and discuss and debate contentious issues, is a development that speaks persuasively to the conviction that American democratic traditions and processes not only work and can be saved, but that they are worth saving.

And do not be concerned about the lack of apparent, popular political cultural leaders. We never see them coming. We never have been able to see them coming. We didn’t see Dr. King, a 26-year-old Baptist pastor coming out of Birmingham. We didn’t see Malcolm X, a 26-year-old convict coming out of prison. We didn’t see Donald, what’s his name, coming, and didn’t believe it when he got here.

This old age is something you forget. You just forget. Stay positive, you’re going to be all right. America is greater at this kind of struggle than any other nation on Earth.

Third, always cast and view societal challenges and their proposed solutions through a prism of inclusiveness.

We as a people are more successful and effective at any task undertaken when we work together, as opposed to working separately or against each other. To quote the illustrious writer and public intellectual James Baldwin and his warning in 1962 to the Civil Rights Movement, no less than America more generally, “Unless we dare to include everybody in our strategic change strategies and efforts and goals, we are doomed to realize the prophecy of those words from the Bible put the song by a slave,” and God gave Noah the rainbow sign, “No more water, the fire next time.”

And in our deafness to Baldwin’s message, between the 1962 publication of his warning and his classic book of essays, The Fire Next Time, at the turn of the decade in 1970, over 150 American cities were ravaged with fire, riots, rebellions from Watson Los Angeles to Newark, New Jersey. Episodes of lawlessness typically carried out by masses of people who felt left out and left behind by both mainstream America and a Black middle class oriented Deep South focused church-based civil rights movement.

And finally, do not be afraid.

The greatest storehouse and repository of human creativity, ingenuity and strategic solutions on Earth is in all probability the cemetery. Because far too often people are afraid to step out of their comfort zones, to take the chance of actively and aggressively pursuing their dreams and purposes in life, so tragically for everybody concerned. Ultimately, they end up taking their dreams and potential contributions to the grave with them.

And by no means should you be in fear of and immobilized by controversy. Controversy is all too often part of the deal. I heard a parent tell his daughter last week who was participating in demonstrations, protesting war and carnage, “You’re involved in something controversial.”

I was born in controversy and became even more controversial than that. You can get past it, you can get over it. Being controversial does not equate with being wrong, even when law enforcement is deployed against you. Police were sent in to break up student sit-ins protesting segregation at lunch counters and other public accommodations. In the 1960s, police were sent in to break up voting rights protests, marches led by John Lewis and others at the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma, Alabama. Police were called on Rosa Parks for not giving up her seat on a bus and she was arrested. Police were deployed to break up many of his protests, marches and they arrested Dr. Martin Luther King 29 times. Deploying law enforcement to arrest protesters is not necessarily right or even a moral act. It is a legal act. It is an act of power, and all too often, depending upon the cause and its urgency, might still doesn’t make right.

In the broader context, we have an even greater problem with fear in these turbulent times. Fear and fear-mongering have become staples of our social political life as a society to the point that it appears that everybody is afraid of somebody. Fear the left, fear the right, fear the immigrants, fear the progressives, fear the liberals, fear the conservatives, fear the Republicans, fear the Democrats, fear the government. Fear the evangelicals. Fear the secular humanists. Fear the Muslims. Fear the Jews. Fear Black males in hoodies. Fear the rich in their power, fear the poor in their demands. Fear women and their agenda for healthcare and equality. Fear the MAGA devotees and their agenda. Fear the LBGTQ+ and their agenda. Be whatever you want to be today. But first of all, be afraid and someone it seems is always there pledging to save you from everybody and everything that you fear in exchange for your money, your loyalty, your support, your idolization and your adulation of them.

Let me conclude then with this. As I look out upon this graduating class, I am not the slightest bit hopeful that you and your generation will successfully confront and manage the challenges of these turbulent times. I am confident that you got this.

You are just that much smarter, better equipped and better prepared than any other generation in American history. Now, at this commencement, as you start your journeys into the rest of your lives, as an old scholar-activist and UC Berkeley professor, I feel certain and completely convinced that the struggle to form that more perfect union and to create a better world is in good hands. And I salute and applaud you. Congratulations, best of luck and Godspeed.

Outro: You’ve been listening to Berkeley Talks , a Berkeley News podcast from the Office of Communications and Public Affairs that features lectures and conversations at UC Berkeley. Follow us wherever you listen to your podcasts. You can find all of our podcast episodes, with transcripts and photos, on Berkeley News at news.berkeley.edu/podcasts.

Watch a video of the Department of Sociology’s full commencement ceremony.

Listen to other episodes of Berkeley Talks:

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