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Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

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Significance of the Study

Definition:

Significance of the study in research refers to the potential importance, relevance, or impact of the research findings. It outlines how the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge, what gaps it fills, or what new understanding it brings to a particular field of study.

In general, the significance of a study can be assessed based on several factors, including:

Originality : The extent to which the study advances existing knowledge or introduces new ideas and perspectives.
Practical relevance: The potential implications of the study for real-world situations, such as improving policy or practice.
Theoretical contribution: The extent to which the study provides new insights or perspectives on theoretical concepts or frameworks.
Methodological rigor : The extent to which the study employs appropriate and robust methods and techniques to generate reliable and valid data.
Social or cultural impact : The potential impact of the study on society, culture, or public perception of a particular issue.

Types of Significance of the Study

The significance of the Study can be divided into the following types:

Theoretical Significance

Theoretical significance refers to the contribution that a study makes to the existing body of theories in a specific field. This could be by confirming, refuting, or adding nuance to a currently accepted theory, or by proposing an entirely new theory.

Practical Significance

Practical significance refers to the direct applicability and usefulness of the research findings in real-world contexts. Studies with practical significance often address real-life problems and offer potential solutions or strategies. For example, a study in the field of public health might identify a new intervention that significantly reduces the spread of a certain disease.

Significance for Future Research

This pertains to the potential of a study to inspire further research. A study might open up new areas of investigation, provide new research methodologies, or propose new hypotheses that need to be tested.

How to Write Significance of the Study

Here’s a guide to writing an effective “Significance of the Study” section in research paper, thesis, or dissertation:

Background : Begin by giving some context about your study. This could include a brief introduction to your subject area, the current state of research in the field, and the specific problem or question your study addresses.
Identify the Gap : Demonstrate that there’s a gap in the existing literature or knowledge that needs to be filled, which is where your study comes in. The gap could be a lack of research on a particular topic, differing results in existing studies, or a new problem that has arisen and hasn’t yet been studied.
State the Purpose of Your Study : Clearly state the main objective of your research. You may want to state the purpose as a solution to the problem or gap you’ve previously identified.
Contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
Addresses a significant research gap.
Offers a new or better solution to a problem.
Impacts policy or practice.
Leads to improvements in a particular field or sector.
Identify Beneficiaries : Identify who will benefit from your study. This could include other researchers, practitioners in your field, policy-makers, communities, businesses, or others. Explain how your findings could be used and by whom.
Future Implications : Discuss the implications of your study for future research. This could involve questions that are left open, new questions that have been raised, or potential future methodologies suggested by your study.

Significance of the Study in Research Paper

The Significance of the Study in a research paper refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic being investigated. It answers the question “Why is this research important?” and highlights the potential contributions and impacts of the study.

The significance of the study can be presented in the introduction or background section of a research paper. It typically includes the following components:

Importance of the research problem: This describes why the research problem is worth investigating and how it relates to existing knowledge and theories.
Potential benefits and implications: This explains the potential contributions and impacts of the research on theory, practice, policy, or society.
Originality and novelty: This highlights how the research adds new insights, approaches, or methods to the existing body of knowledge.
Scope and limitations: This outlines the boundaries and constraints of the research and clarifies what the study will and will not address.

Suppose a researcher is conducting a study on the “Effects of social media use on the mental health of adolescents”.

The significance of the study may be:

“The present study is significant because it addresses a pressing public health issue of the negative impact of social media use on adolescent mental health. Given the widespread use of social media among this age group, understanding the effects of social media on mental health is critical for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies. This study will contribute to the existing literature by examining the moderating factors that may affect the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes. It will also shed light on the potential benefits and risks of social media use for adolescents and inform the development of evidence-based guidelines for promoting healthy social media use among this population. The limitations of this study include the use of self-reported measures and the cross-sectional design, which precludes causal inference.”

Significance of the Study In Thesis

The significance of the study in a thesis refers to the importance or relevance of the research topic and the potential impact of the study on the field of study or society as a whole. It explains why the research is worth doing and what contribution it will make to existing knowledge.

For example, the significance of a thesis on “Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare” could be:

With the increasing availability of healthcare data and the development of advanced machine learning algorithms, AI has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare industry by improving diagnosis, treatment, and patient outcomes. Therefore, this thesis can contribute to the understanding of how AI can be applied in healthcare and how it can benefit patients and healthcare providers.
AI in healthcare also raises ethical and social issues, such as privacy concerns, bias in algorithms, and the impact on healthcare jobs. By exploring these issues in the thesis, it can provide insights into the potential risks and benefits of AI in healthcare and inform policy decisions.
Finally, the thesis can also advance the field of computer science by developing new AI algorithms or techniques that can be applied to healthcare data, which can have broader applications in other industries or fields of research.

Significance of the Study in Research Proposal

The significance of a study in a research proposal refers to the importance or relevance of the research question, problem, or objective that the study aims to address. It explains why the research is valuable, relevant, and important to the academic or scientific community, policymakers, or society at large. A strong statement of significance can help to persuade the reviewers or funders of the research proposal that the study is worth funding and conducting.

Here is an example of a significance statement in a research proposal:

Title : The Effects of Gamification on Learning Programming: A Comparative Study

Significance Statement:

This proposed study aims to investigate the effects of gamification on learning programming. With the increasing demand for computer science professionals, programming has become a fundamental skill in the computer field. However, learning programming can be challenging, and students may struggle with motivation and engagement. Gamification has emerged as a promising approach to improve students’ engagement and motivation in learning, but its effects on programming education are not yet fully understood. This study is significant because it can provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of gamification in programming education and inform the development of effective teaching strategies to enhance students’ learning outcomes and interest in programming.

Examples of Significance of the Study

Here are some examples of the significance of a study that indicates how you can write this into your research paper according to your research topic:

Research on an Improved Water Filtration System : This study has the potential to impact millions of people living in water-scarce regions or those with limited access to clean water. A more efficient and affordable water filtration system can reduce water-borne diseases and improve the overall health of communities, enabling them to lead healthier, more productive lives.

Study on the Impact of Remote Work on Employee Productivity : Given the shift towards remote work due to recent events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, this study is of considerable significance. Findings could help organizations better structure their remote work policies and offer insights on how to maximize employee productivity, wellbeing, and job satisfaction.

Investigation into the Use of Solar Power in Developing Countries : With the world increasingly moving towards renewable energy, this study could provide important data on the feasibility and benefits of implementing solar power solutions in developing countries. This could potentially stimulate economic growth, reduce reliance on non-renewable resources, and contribute to global efforts to combat climate change.

Research on New Learning Strategies in Special Education : This study has the potential to greatly impact the field of special education. By understanding the effectiveness of new learning strategies, educators can improve their curriculum to provide better support for students with learning disabilities, fostering their academic growth and social development.

Examination of Mental Health Support in the Workplace : This study could highlight the impact of mental health initiatives on employee wellbeing and productivity. It could influence organizational policies across industries, promoting the implementation of mental health programs in the workplace, ultimately leading to healthier work environments.

Evaluation of a New Cancer Treatment Method : The significance of this study could be lifesaving. The research could lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments, increasing the survival rate and quality of life for patients worldwide.

When to Write Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section is an integral part of a research proposal or a thesis. This section is typically written after the introduction and the literature review. In the research process, the structure typically follows this order:

Title – The name of your research.
Abstract – A brief summary of the entire research.
Introduction – A presentation of the problem your research aims to solve.
Literature Review – A review of existing research on the topic to establish what is already known and where gaps exist.
Significance of the Study – An explanation of why the research matters and its potential impact.

In the Significance of the Study section, you will discuss why your study is important, who it benefits, and how it adds to existing knowledge or practice in your field. This section is your opportunity to convince readers, and potentially funders or supervisors, that your research is valuable and worth undertaking.

Advantages of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section in a research paper has multiple advantages:

Establishes Relevance: This section helps to articulate the importance of your research to your field of study, as well as the wider society, by explicitly stating its relevance. This makes it easier for other researchers, funders, and policymakers to understand why your work is necessary and worth supporting.
Guides the Research: Writing the significance can help you refine your research questions and objectives. This happens as you critically think about why your research is important and how it contributes to your field.
Attracts Funding: If you are seeking funding or support for your research, having a well-written significance of the study section can be key. It helps to convince potential funders of the value of your work.
Opens up Further Research: By stating the significance of the study, you’re also indicating what further research could be carried out in the future, based on your work. This helps to pave the way for future studies and demonstrates that your research is a valuable addition to the field.
Provides Practical Applications: The significance of the study section often outlines how the research can be applied in real-world situations. This can be particularly important in applied sciences, where the practical implications of research are crucial.
Enhances Understanding: This section can help readers understand how your study fits into the broader context of your field, adding value to the existing literature and contributing new knowledge or insights.

Limitations of Significance of the Study

The Significance of the Study section plays an essential role in any research. However, it is not without potential limitations. Here are some that you should be aware of:

Subjectivity: The importance and implications of a study can be subjective and may vary from person to person. What one researcher considers significant might be seen as less critical by others. The assessment of significance often depends on personal judgement, biases, and perspectives.
Predictability of Impact: While you can outline the potential implications of your research in the Significance of the Study section, the actual impact can be unpredictable. Research doesn’t always yield the expected results or have the predicted impact on the field or society.
Difficulty in Measuring: The significance of a study is often qualitative and can be challenging to measure or quantify. You can explain how you think your research will contribute to your field or society, but measuring these outcomes can be complex.
Possibility of Overstatement: Researchers may feel pressured to amplify the potential significance of their study to attract funding or interest. This can lead to overstating the potential benefits or implications, which can harm the credibility of the study if these results are not achieved.
Overshadowing of Limitations: Sometimes, the significance of the study may overshadow the limitations of the research. It is important to balance the potential significance with a thorough discussion of the study’s limitations.
Dependence on Successful Implementation: The significance of the study relies on the successful implementation of the research. If the research process has flaws or unexpected issues arise, the anticipated significance might not be realized.

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How to Effectively Write the “Significance of the Study” in Your Research

In the realm of academic research, the “Significance of the Study” stands out prominently. It’s the heartbeat of your research, ensuring that readers grasp the depth, implications, and pivotal role of your work. As an academician or student delving into research or thesis writing, mastering the art of crafting this section is essential.

Understanding “Significance of the Study”

The significance of the study answers the following questions:

By answering these questions, you can demonstrate the value and relevance of your research to your readers and justify why they should care about your work.

Where Does it Fit?

The significance of the study should be concise and clear, usually no more than 500 words for a thesis and around 200 words for a research paper. It should also be written in an inverted pyramid format, starting with the broadest impacts and then narrowing down to the specifics.

Unraveling its Importance

The significance section is more than just a formality. It’s your opportunity to elaborate on how your research builds on the existing body of literature. Moreover, it demonstrates the tangible value your research offers to society, specific groups, professionals, and institutions.

The significance of the study can also help you:

A Structured Guide to Crafting “Significance of the Study”

Practical insights for drafting, examples bringing “significance of the study” to life.

Here are some examples of how to write the significance of the study for different fields of research:

The significance of this study lies in its potential to discover the medicinal properties of lemongrass, a plant that is widely available and affordable in many tropical countries. This study can contribute to the existing literature on herbal medicine and natural remedies, as well as provide scientific evidence for the efficacy and safety of lemongrass as an alternative treatment for various diseases. This study can also benefit society by promoting the cultivation and consumption of lemongrass, which can improve health and wellness, reduce environmental impact, and generate income for farmers and communities. Furthermore, this study can inspire future research on other plants that may have similar or complementary benefits to lemongrass.

The significance of this study lies in its potential to assess the role of meditation in managing anxiety among students. This study can contribute to the existing literature on mental health and wellness, as well as provide empirical evidence for the effectiveness and feasibility of meditation as a coping strategy for anxiety. This study can also benefit society by improving the mental health and academic performance of students, as well as promoting a culture of mindfulness and self-care among educators and learners. Furthermore, this study can inspire future research on other forms of meditation or other interventions that may help reduce anxiety among students.

More YouTube & Blogging Guides

How To Write Scope and Delimitation of a Research Paper (With Examples)

An effective research paper or thesis has a well-written Scope and Delimitation. This portion specifies your study’s coverage and boundaries.

Not yet sure about how to write your research’s Scope and Delimitation? Fret not, as we’ll guide you through the entire writing process through this article.

Related: How To Write Significance of the Study (With Examples)

What is the scope and delimitation of a research paper.

The “Scope and Delimitation” section states the concepts and variables your study covered. It tells readers which things you have included and excluded in your analysis.

This portion tells two things: 1

The study’s “Scope” – concepts and variables you have explored in your research and;
The study’s “Delimitation” – the “boundaries” of your study’s scope. It sets apart the things included in your analysis from those excluded.

For example, your scope might be the effectiveness of plant leaves in lowering blood sugar levels. You can “delimit” your study only to the effect of gabi leaves on the blood glucose of Swiss mice.

Where Should I Put the Scope and Delimitation?

This portion is in Chapter 1, usually after the “Background of the Study.”

Why Should I Write the Scope and Delimitation of My Research Paper?

There’s a lot to discover in a research paper or thesis. However, your resources and time dedicated to it are scarce. Thus, given these constraints, you have to narrow down your study. You do this in the Scope and Delimitation.

Suppose you’re studying the correlation between the quantity of organic fertilizer and plant growth . Experimenting with several types of plants is impossible because of several limitations. So, you’ve decided to use one plant type only.

Informing your readers about this decision is a must. So, you have to state it in your Scope and Delimitation. It also acts as a “disclaimer” that your results are inapplicable to the entire plant kingdom.

What Is the Difference Between Delimitation and Limitation?

People often use the terms “Delimitation” and “Limitation” interchangeably. However, these words differ 2 .

Delimitation refers to factors you set to limit your analysis. It delineates those that are included in your research and those that are excluded. Remember, delimitations are within your control.

Meanwhile, limitations are factors beyond your control that may affect your research’s results. You can think of limitations as the “weaknesses” of your study.

Let’s go back to our previous example. Due to some constraints, you’ve only decided to examine one plant type: dandelions. This is an example of a delimitation since it limits your analysis to dandelions only and not other plant types. Note that the number of plant types used is within your control.

Meanwhile, your study cannot state that a higher quantity of organic fertilizer is the sole reason for plant growth. That’s because your research’s focus is only on correlation. Since this is already beyond your control, then this is a limitation.

How To Write Scope and Delimitation: Step-by-Step Guide

To write your research’s Scope and Delimitation section, follow these steps:

1. Review Your Study’s Objectives and Problem Statement

Your study’s coverage relies on its objectives. Thus, you can only write this section if you know what you’re researching. Furthermore, ensure that you understand the problems you ought to answer.

Once you understand the abovementioned things, you may start writing your study’s Scope and Delimitation.

2. State the Key Information To Explain Your Study’s Coverage and Boundaries

a. The Main Objective of the Research

This refers to the concept that you’re focusing on in your research. Some examples are the following:

level of awareness or satisfaction of a particular group of people
correlation between two variables
effectiveness of a new product
comparison between two methods/approaches
lived experiences of several individuals

It’s helpful to consult your study’s Objectives or Statement of the Problem section to determine your research’s primary goal.

b. Independent and Dependent Variables Included

Your study’s independent variable is the variable that you manipulate. Meanwhile, the dependent variable is the variable whose result depends upon the independent variable. Both of these variables must be clear and specific when indicated.

Suppose you study the relationship between social media usage and students’ language skills. These are the possible variables for the study:

Independent Variable: Number of hours per day spent on using Facebook
Dependent Variable: Grade 10 students’ scores in Quarterly Examination in English.

Note how specific the variables stated above are. For the independent variable, we narrow it down to Facebook only. Since there are many ways to assess “language skills,” we zero in on the students’ English exam scores as our dependent variable.

c. Subject of the Study

This refers to your study’s respondents or participants.

In our previous example, the research participants are Grade 10 students. However, there are a lot of Grade 10 students in the Philippines. Thus, we have to select from a specific school only—for instance, Grade 10 students from a national high school in Manila.

d. Timeframe and Location of the Study

Specify the month(s), quarter(s), or year(s) as the duration of your study. Also, indicate where you will gather the data required for your research.

e. Brief Description of the Study’s Research Design and Methodology

You may also include whether your research is quantitative or qualitative, the sampling method (cluster, stratified, purposive) applied, and how you conducted the experiment.

Using our previous example, the Grade 10 students can be selected using stratified sampling. Afterward, the researchers may obtain their English quarterly exam scores from their respective teachers. You can add these things to your study’s Scope and Delimitation.

3. Indicate Which Variables or Factors Are Not Covered by Your Research

Although you’ve already set your study’s coverage and boundaries in Step 2, you may also explicitly mention things you’ve excluded from your research.

Returning to our previous example, you can state that your assessment will not include the vocabulary and oral aspects of the English proficiency skill.

Examples of Scope and Delimitation of a Research Paper

1. scope and delimitation examples for quantitative research.

a. Example 1

Research Title

A Study on the Relationship of the Extent of Facebook Usage on the English Proficiency Level of Grade 10 Students of Matagumpay High School

Scope and Delimitation

(Main Objective)

This study assessed the correlation between the respondents’ duration of Facebook usage and their English proficiency level.

(Variables used)

The researchers used the number of hours per day of using Facebook and the activities usually performed on the platform to assess the respondents’ extent of Facebook usage. Meanwhile, the respondents’ English proficiency level is limited to their quarterly English exam scores.

(Subject of the study)

A sample of fifty (50) Grade 10 students of Matagumpay High School served as the study’s respondents.

(Timeframe and location)

This study was conducted during the Second Semester of the School Year 2018 – 2019 on the premises of Matagumpay High School in Metro Manila.

(Methodology)

The respondents are selected by performing stratified random sampling to ensure that there will be ten respondents from five Grade 10 classes of the school mentioned above. The researchers administered a 20-item questionnaire to assess the extent of Facebook usage of the selected respondents. Meanwhile, the data for the respondents’ quarterly exam scores were acquired from their English teachers. The collected data are handled with the utmost confidentiality. Spearman’s Rank Order Correlation was applied to quantitatively assess the correlation between the variables.

(Exclusions)

This study didn’t assess other aspects of the respondents’ English proficiency, such as English vocabulary and oral skills.

Note: The words inside the parentheses in the example above are guides only. They are not included in the actual text.

b. Example 2

Level of Satisfaction of Grade 11 Students on the Implementation of the Online Learning Setup of Matagumpay High School for SY 2020 – 2021

This study aims to identify students’ satisfaction levels with implementing online learning setups during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Students’ satisfaction was assessed according to teachers’ pedagogy, school policies, and learning materials used in the online learning setup. The respondents included sixty (60) Grade 11 students of Matagumpay High School who were randomly picked. The researchers conducted the study from October 2020 to February 2021.

Online platforms such as email and social media applications were used to reach the respondents. The researchers administered a 15-item online questionnaire to measure the respondents’ satisfaction levels. Each response was assessed using a Likert Scale to provide a descriptive interpretation of their answers. A weighted mean was applied to determine the respondents’ general satisfaction.

This study did not cover other factors related to the online learning setup, such as the learning platform used, the schedule of synchronous learning, and channels for information dissemination.

2. Scope and Delimitation Examples for Qualitative Research

Lived Experiences of Public Utility Vehicle (PUV) Drivers of Antipolo City Amidst the Continuous June 2022 Oil Price Hikes

This research focused on the presentation and discussion of the lived experiences of PUV drivers during the constant oil price hike in June 2022.

The respondents involved are five (5) jeepney drivers from Antipolo City who agreed to be interviewed. The researchers assessed their experiences in terms of the following: (1) daily net income; (2) duration and extent of working; (3) alternative employment opportunity considerations; and (4) mental and emotional status. The respondents were interviewed daily at their stations on June 6 – 10, 2022.

In-depth one-on-one interviews were used for data collection. Afterward, the respondents’ first-hand experiences were drafted and annotated with the researchers’ insights.

The researchers excluded some factors in determining the respondents’ experiences, such as physical and health conditions and current family relationship status.

A Study on the Perception of the Residents of Mayamot, Antipolo City on the Political and Socioeconomic Conditions During the Post-EDSA Period (1986 – 1996)

This research aims to discuss the perception of Filipinos regarding the political and socioeconomic economic conditions during the post-EDSA period, specifically during the years 1986 – 1996.

Ten (10) residents of Mayamot, Antipolo City, who belonged to Generation X (currently 40 – 62 years old), were purposively selected as the study’s respondents. The researchers asked them about their perception of the following aspects during the period mentioned above (1) performance of national and local government; (2) bureaucracy and government services; (3) personal economic and financial status; and (4) wage purchasing power.

The researchers conducted face-to-face interviews in the respondents’ residences during the second semester of AY 2018 – 2019. The responses were written and corroborated with the literature on the post-EDSA period.

The following factors were not included in the research analysis: political conflicts and turmoils, the status of the legislative and judicial departments, and other macroeconomic indicators.

Tips and Warnings

1. use the “5ws and 1h” as your guide in understanding your study’s coverage.

Why did you write your study?
What variables are included?
Who are your study’s subject
Where did you conduct the study?
When did your study start and end?
How did you conduct the study?

2. Use key phrases when writing your research’s scope

This study aims to …
This study primarily focuses on …
This study deals with …
This study will cover …
This study will be confined…

3. Use key phrases when writing factors beyond your research’s delimitations

The researcher(s) decided to exclude …
This study did not cover….
This study excluded …
These variables/factors were excluded from the study…

4. Don’t forget to ask for help

Your research adviser can assist you in selecting specific concepts and variables suitable to your study. Make sure to consult him/her regularly.

5. Make it brief

No need to make this section wordy. You’re good to go if you meet the “5Ws and 1Hs”.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what are scope and delimitation in tagalog.

In a Filipino research ( pananaliksik ), Scope and Delimitation is called “ Saklaw at Delimitasyon”.

Here’s an example of Scope and Delimitation in Filipino:

Pamagat ng Pananaliksik

Epekto Ng Paggamit Ng Mga Digital Learning Tools Sa Pag-Aaral Ng Mga Mag-Aaral Ng Mataas Na Paaralan Ng Matagumpay Sa General Mathematics

Sakop at Delimitasyon ng Pag-aaral

Nakatuon ang pananaliksik na ito sa epekto ng paggamit ng mga digital learning aids sa pag-aaral ng mga mag-aaral.

Ang mga digital learning tools na kinonsidera sa pag-aaral na ito ay Google Classroom, Edmodo, Kahoot, at mga piling bidyo mula YouTube. Samantala, ang epekto sa pag-aaral ng mga mag-aaral ng mga nabanggit na digital learning tools ay natukoy sa pamamagitan ng kanilang (1) mga pananaw hinggil sa benepisyo nito sa kanilang pag-aaral sa General Mathematics at (2) kanilang average grade sa asignaturang ito.

Dalawampu’t-limang (25) mag-aaral mula sa Senior High School ng Mataas na Paaralan ng Matagumpay ang pinili para sa pananaliksik na ito. Sila ay na-interbyu at binigyan ng questionnaire noong Enero 2022 sa nasabing paaralan. Sinuri ang resulta ng pananaliksik sa pamamagitan ng mga instrumentong estadistikal na weighted mean at Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Hindi saklaw ng pananaliksik na ito ang ibang mga aspeto hinggil sa epekto ng online learning aids sa pag-aaral gaya ng lebel ng pag-unawa sa aralin at kakayahang iugnay ito sa araw-araw na buhay.

2. The Scope and Delimitation should consist of how many paragraphs?

Three or more paragraphs will suffice for your study’s Scope and Delimitation. Here’s our suggestion on what you should write for each paragraph:

Paragraph 1: Introduction (state research objective) Paragraph 2: Coverage and boundaries of the research (you may divide this section into 2-3 paragraphs) Paragraph 3 : Factors excluded from the study

University of St. La Salle. Unit 3: Lesson 3 Setting the Scope and Limitation of a Qualitative Research [Ebook] (p. 12). Retrieved from https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-st-la-salle/senior-high-school/final-sg-pr1-11-12-unit-3-lesson-3-setting-the-scope-and-limitation-of-a-qualitative-research/24341582
Theofanidis, D., & Fountouki, A. (2018). Limitations and Delimitations in the Research Process. Perioperative Nursing (GORNA), 7(3), 155–162. doi: 10.5281/zenodo.2552022

Written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

in Career and Education , Juander How

Jewel Kyle Fabula

Jewel Kyle Fabula is a Bachelor of Science in Economics student at the University of the Philippines Diliman. His passion for learning mathematics developed as he competed in some mathematics competitions during his Junior High School years. He loves cats, playing video games, and listening to music.

Browse all articles written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

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significance of the study in filipino research

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What is the Significance of the Study?

By DiscoverPhDs
August 25, 2020

what the significance of the study means,
why it’s important to include in your research work,
where you would include it in your paper, thesis or dissertation,
how you write one
and finally an example of a well written section about the significance of the study.

What does Significance of the Study mean?

The significance of the study is a written statement that explains why your research was needed. It’s a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research field, it’s contribution to new knowledge and how others will benefit from it.

Why is the Significance of the Study important?

The significance of the study, also known as the rationale of the study, is important to convey to the reader why the research work was important. This may be an academic reviewer assessing your manuscript under peer-review, an examiner reading your PhD thesis, a funder reading your grant application or another research group reading your published journal paper. Your academic writing should make clear to the reader what the significance of the research that you performed was, the contribution you made and the benefits of it.

How do you write the Significance of the Study?

When writing this section, first think about where the gaps in knowledge are in your research field. What are the areas that are poorly understood with little or no previously published literature? Or what topics have others previously published on that still require further work. This is often referred to as the problem statement.

The introduction section within the significance of the study should include you writing the problem statement and explaining to the reader where the gap in literature is.

Then think about the significance of your research and thesis study from two perspectives: (1) what is the general contribution of your research on your field and (2) what specific contribution have you made to the knowledge and who does this benefit the most.

For example, the gap in knowledge may be that the benefits of dumbbell exercises for patients recovering from a broken arm are not fully understood. You may have performed a study investigating the impact of dumbbell training in patients with fractures versus those that did not perform dumbbell exercises and shown there to be a benefit in their use. The broad significance of the study would be the improvement in the understanding of effective physiotherapy methods. Your specific contribution has been to show a significant improvement in the rate of recovery in patients with broken arms when performing certain dumbbell exercise routines.

This statement should be no more than 500 words in length when written for a thesis. Within a research paper, the statement should be shorter and around 200 words at most.

Significance of the Study: An example

Building on the above hypothetical academic study, the following is an example of a full statement of the significance of the study for you to consider when writing your own. Keep in mind though that there’s no single way of writing the perfect significance statement and it may well depend on the subject area and the study content.

Here’s another example to help demonstrate how a significance of the study can also be applied to non-technical fields:

The significance of this research lies in its potential to inform clinical practices and patient counseling. By understanding the psychological outcomes associated with non-surgical facial aesthetics, practitioners can better guide their patients in making informed decisions about their treatment plans. Additionally, this study contributes to the body of academic knowledge by providing empirical evidence on the effects of these cosmetic procedures, which have been largely anecdotal up to this point.

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Understanding the Filipino Millennial Generation.pdf

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Monte Sahlin

Journal of Leadership in Organizations

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The importance of well-being on resiliency of filipino adults during the covid-19 enhanced community quarantine: a necessary condition analysis.

1 College of Arts and Sciences, Manila Tytana Colleges, Pasay, Philippines
2 Psycli-Nik Psychological Assessment and Intervention Services, Zamboanga City, Philippines

Nation-wide community quarantines and social distancing are part of the new normal because of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Since extensive and prolonged lockdowns are relatively novel experiences, not much is known about the well-being of individuals in such extreme situations. This research effort investigated the relationship between well-being elements and resiliency of 533 Filipino adults who were placed under the nationwide enhanced community quarantine (ECQ) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants comprised of 376 females (70.56%) and 157 males (29.45%). The median and mode ages of the participants is 23 years, while 25 is the mean age. PERMA Profiler was used to measure participants’ well-being elements, while Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale-10 (CD-RISC-10) was used to measure their resiliency. Collected data were analyzed using the regression model and necessary condition analysis. This study corroborated that all the five pillars of well-being are significant positive correlates of resiliency ( p < 0.00) in quarantined adults. The results shown accomplishment ( β = 0.447, p < 0.01) positively predicts resiliency, while negative emotions ( β = −0.171, p < 0.00) negatively predict resiliency. Lastly, the five pillars of well-being are necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions (ceiling envelopment with free disposal hull, CE-FDH p < 0.00) of resiliency. Our results cast a new light on well-being elements as constraints rather than enablers of resiliency. This novel result shows that optimum resiliency is only possible when all the five pillars of well-being are taken care of and when a person is at least minimally contented with their physical health. The present findings underscore the importance of a holistic as against an atomistic approach to maintaining good mental health, which suggests that deficiencies in certain areas of well-being may not be fully addressed by overcompensating on other areas, as all five pillars of well-being are necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions of resiliency. The study ends with the recommendation for the use of necessary condition analysis to study both classical and novel psychological research problems.

The Importance of Well-Being on Resiliency of Filipino Adults During the COVID-19 Who are Community Quarantined

The infectious Coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which causes respiratory illness includes flu-like symptoms such as cough, fever, and in more severe cases, breathing difficulties. COVID-19 is mainly spread through contact with an infected person who sneezes or coughs. It can be acquired when a person touches their eyes, nose, or mouth after touching objects or surfaces that have the virus on it ( World Health Organization, 2020 ). Starting December 2019, countries imposed travel bans and asked individuals who have possibly been exposed to the contagion to isolate themselves in a dedicated quarantine facility or at home ( Brooks et al., 2020 ) at an unprecedented scale. The Philippines reported its first case of COVID-19 on January 30, 2020. Since then, the number of reported cases exponentially increased by the day ( ABS-CBN Investigative and Research Group, 2020 ). As of December 12, 2020, 447,039 infected cases were reported throughout the country. Of the total number of cases, 409,329 have recovered, and 8,709 have died ( Department of Health, 2020 ).

As a response to the growing threat of the pandemic, the entire Luzon was placed under enhanced community quarantine (ECQ; Medialdea, 2020 ). Shortly, both Visayas and Mindanao followed suit. The said measure involves draconian restrictions: that include the establishment of checkpoints in most cities; the suspension of classes in all levels; the prohibition of mass gatherings; the temporary shutting down of non-essential businesses; the banning of public utilized utility vehicles; and the strict implementation of home isolation. Although it was initially planned to end on April 12, 2020 ( Abueg, 2020 ), several subsequent recommendations both from the national and local governments extended the nationwide community quarantine until December 31, 2020 ( CNN Philippines Staff, 2020 ). As the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) shrank 16.5% in the second quarter of 2020, the Philippines officially entered recession as an effect of the extended quarantines ( Agence France-Presse, 2020 ). While quarantine is often among the initial responses against an emerging infectious disease ( Parmet and Sinha, 2020 ), it is often unpleasant for those who are required to submit to it and may lead to several harmful conditions for some persons ( Hawryluck et al., 2004 ; Brooks et al., 2020 ). Hence, the psychological effects of quarantine have received considerable attention. Barbisch et al. (2015) reported that losing autonomy, isolation away from loved ones, uncertainty, and boredom could lead to adverse effects on an individual’s well-being. Following the imposition of cordon sanitaire in previous outbreaks, substantial anger, anxiety and even an increase in suicide rates have been reported ( Brooks et al., 2020 ). Similarly, the National Center for Mental Health (NCMH) in the Philippines reported that depression and other mental health issues were on the rise after imposing ECQ in different provinces in the country ( Tenorio, 2020 ).

Well-Being and Its Elements

It is important to note that while quarantines are often unpleasant, their effect on people diverge. While there are individuals who experience mental health issues, there are also those who are more resilient and can move on with their lives. This highlights the importance of studying not only how individuals suffer in light of community quarantines, but also how they cope, and even flourish in the face of such challenging times. Seligman (2011) argued that even in difficult situations, human beings are motivated to thrive and not just merely survive. According to Fredrickson and Losada (2005) , flourishing means living “within an optimal range of human functioning, one that connotes goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience.” Based on this definition, resilience appears to arise from flourishing. Well-being predicts resiliency. For clarity, the terms “flourishing,” “thriving,” and “well-being” are used interchangeably in the literature ( Butler and Kern, 2016 ). Therefore, we also use the terms interchangeably here.

Well-being Theory of Seligman (2011) advocates that flourishing arises from five well-being pillars-Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment, hence PERMA. It is important to note that no single element defines well-being, but each contributes to it. Positive emotions include an extensive variety of feelings, which include excitement, satisfaction, pride, and awe. Previous reviews highlight the important role of these emotions in positive life outcomes ( Butler and Kern, 2016 ). Engagement involves activities that stimulate and develop upon an individual’s interests. Csikszentmihalyi (2009) argues that true engagement leads to a state of deep and effortless involvement where an individual is completely absorbed in an activity that often leads to a sense of joy and lucidity. Relationships are social connections important in stimulating positive emotions. They can either be work-related, familial, romantic, and even platonic. The experiences that contribute to well-being are often amplified through our relationships. Positive relationships have been linked to positive outcomes such as better physical health, healthier behaviors, less psychopathology, and lower mortality risk ( Tay et al., 2013 ). A sense of meaning is derived from having a direction in life, belonging to a cause larger than the self, and serving a purpose greater than one’s immediate needs ( Steger, 2012 ). Such activities provide a sense that life is valuable and worthwhile. Various societal institutions such as religion, politics, justice, and community social causes enable a sense of meaning. Accomplishments are pursuits toward and reaching goals, mastery, and efficacy to complete tasks ( Butler and Kern, 2016 ) in various domains such as the workplace, in sports and games, and even in hobbies and interests. Seligman (2011) argued that people pursue accomplishments even when they do not result in positive emotions, meaning, or relationships. Although PERMA was developed mainly within the Western context, several researches found that PERMA is experienced in culturally consistent manners in non-Western societies such as the United Arab Emirates ( Lambert and Pasha-Zaidi, 2016 ), Hong-Kong ( Lai et al., 2018 ), and the Philippines ( Nebrida and Dullas, 2018 ).

Defining Resilience

Over the past decade, resilience has become a popular concept in both research and clinical practice ( Kumpfer, 2002 ; Walsh-Dilley and Wolford, 2015 ). Despite the lack of consensus in how it is defined ( Vella and Pai, 2019 ), it is accepted that resilience involves the positive adaptation following a stressful or adverse experience ( Porterfield et al., 2010 ). Most definitions acknowledge two key points about resilience ( Herrman et al., 2011 ). First, is that various factors interact with it. For example, personal characteristics such as personality traits ( Oshio et al., 2018 ), self-esteem ( Karatas and Cakar, 2011 ), and even age ( Diehl and Hay, 2010 ) influence resilience. Social and community factors ( Harms et al., 2018 ) such as secure attachments, the presence of a role model ( Levine, 2003 ), family stability ( Grubman, 2018 ), and culture ( Ungar, 2008 ) affect the ability to cope with daily struggles. Second, resilience is time and context-specific and may not be present across all life domains. Resilience appears to be receptive to the influence of specific situations ( Hayman et al., 2017 ) such as unique stressors ( Jex et al., 2013 ) like war and other happenstances ( Besser et al., 2014 ).

While the aforementioned literature provides key insights into the definition, factors, and contexts of resilience, most research focuses on factors are outside the control of the individual. While these researches are important in explaining the development of resilience, they lack emphasis on positive mechanisms, which are behaviors a person can perform to facilitate resilience. While resilience has been studied both in daily and unique stressors, none focused on the novel situation of wide range community quarantines. Therefore, despite the abundance of resilience-related research, the question remains “What positive mechanisms are involved in the resilience of people who are subjected to quarantine?”

The Present Study

In this paper, we introduced a novel approach in understanding the necessary but not sufficient nature of the aforementioned positive aspects of well-being in predicting resiliency. We used Dul (2016) Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA), which seeks to identify necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions in data sets ( Dul, 2018 ). A necessary condition is a crucial factor in an outcome. If it is not in place, the outcome will not be achieved, but its sole presence does not guarantee that the outcome will be obtained. Without the necessary condition, however, there is a certain failure, which may not be compensated by other determinants of the outcome. Necessary (but not sufficient) conditions widely exist in real-life. For example, the novel SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus is a necessary-but-not-sufficient condition for COVID-19 ( World Health Organization, 2020 ). Without SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, an individual will not acquire COVID-19. However, even with SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, an individual may or may not acquire COVID-19. In the same light, a college student who wants to pass the course, Introduction to Psychology (the outcome) needs to attend 80% of lecture hours (necessary conditions). However, attending class regularly does not guarantee passing the course as other requirements (examinations, seat-works, research work, and journal critique paper) play a role in a student’s grade. Yet, if the student incurs too many absences and tardiness, failure is guaranteed. As seen in the aforementioned examples, necessary causes are not automatically sufficient. They can be seen as constraints, barriers, or obstacles one needs to deal with to arrive at the desired outcome.

While well-being and resiliency are closely related concepts ( Hu et al., 2015 ) Flourishing model of Seligman’s (2011) perceives resiliency as the result of both “surviving” and “thriving” psychological characteristics. This theoretical relationship between well-being and resilience has gained empirical support in recent years ( Harms et al., 2018 ). For example, Martínez-Martí and Ruch (2017) and Burns and Anstey (2010) demonstrated that measures of well-being are not simply redundant with self-report scales of resilience. At the same time, while the relationship between these two concepts are robust, it is rarely straightforward ( Harms et al., 2018 ). Interestingly, some researchers ( Fredrickson et al., 2003 ; Tugade and Fredrickson, 2004 ; Ong et al., 2006 , 2010 ; Kuntz et al., 2016 ) argued that optimal levels of PERMA elements predict resilience in normal sample.

In the light of the foregoing, the present study aims to investigate how PERMA predicts the resiliency of community quarantined individuals. An explanation of possible necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions of resiliency during quarantine may have both theoretical and practical value. Theoretically, an investigation of this sort allows the advancement of our understanding of how a multitude of variables coalesces to produce resiliency in times of quarantine and social isolation. This is significant as wide-range and prolonged quarantines are relatively novel experiences. Hence, not much is known about its psychological implications for human beings. Psychological interventions may target different necessary-but-not-sufficient variables jointly. Because of NCA’s ability to identify bottleneck variables ( Dul, 2019a ), conditions that must be present for resiliency to be possible, interventions may prioritize bottleneck variables of resiliency to maximize the use of limited resources. Lastly, identifying necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions for resiliency may also help individuals who are quarantined to develop their understanding of the behaviors they need to engage to have resiliency. Following this logic, we hypothesize that:

H 01 : PERMA elements predict the resiliency of the community-quarantined individuals.

H 02 : PERMA elements are necessary, but not sufficient conditions, for the resiliency of the community-quarantined individuals.

Methodology

Research design.

To test the assumption that PERMA elements are both sufficient and necessary conditions of resiliency in community quarantined individuals, sufficiency and necessity observational design were used concurrently. In these designs, the conditions (PERMA) and the outcome (resiliency) are observed in real-life context and without the manipulation of the condition. While sufficiency and necessity observational research designs follow the same data gathering procedures, they diverge in data analysis. Dul (2016) argued that NCA is a complement to traditional approaches to analyze relations. As in our research, by using multiple regression we could spot determinants that contribute to resiliency, whereas NCA allowed us to spot critical determinants (constraints) that prevent resiliency from developing. These bottlenecks, when present, prevents resiliency from occurring even when we increase the values of other determinants unless we take away the bottlenecks by increasing the value of the critical determinant. NCA lead us to discover critical determinants that were not part of the determinants identified with the regression model. Using both approaches is critical in adequately understanding the resiliency of individuals who are subjected to the extended ECQ.

Research Participants

Because of the restrictions in both mobility and social interactions as direct consequences of the nationwide ECQ, we used purposive – convenience sampling to recruit Filipino Facebook users who reside in communities placed under the ECQ. The survey was promoted through social media, primarily on Facebook. A total of 541 participants responded to our online survey via Google Form. The minimum age reported was 16 years old, while the maximum age was 64 years old with a median of 23. Because resiliency scores are contingent to age, only those whose ages ranged between emerging adulthood to early middle adulthood (18–40) were included in the study.

Inclusion Criteria

Participants that were considered to partake in the research met the following criteria: first, a participant must be aged 18 to 40 years old. Second, he/she resides in a quarantined area in the Philippines. Third, a participant must be a Filipino citizen as social and cultural factors influence resiliency.

Exclusion Criteria

A participant was excluded in the research because of the following conditions: first, a participant aged less than 18 years old and over 40 years old, a participant who refused to completely answer the online survey questionnaires, and a participant who does not reside in a quarantine area in the Philippines.

Ethical Considerations

In dealing with the participants, respect and protection of the privacy of the participants were prioritized. Thus, privacy and anonymity was of paramount importance. Also, voluntary participation of the chosen participants for said the study was important. Participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any phase of the research if they wished to do so.

Potential participants were fully informed regarding the research, full consent was essential and obtained from the participants. The first page of the online questionnaire required participants to check a box to show consent before having access to the survey. The principle of informed consent involved the researchers providing sufficient information and assurances about taking part to allow potential participants to understand the implications of participation and to reach a fully informed, considered, and freely decided about whether to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or coercion. No incentives were provided in return for their participation.

In collecting data through online surveys, we minimized intrusions on privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality. Before data collection, an adequate level of confidentiality of the research data was ensured to the participants to make them feel secured and protected with the information they shared or contributed. Also, any communication about the research was observed with respect and transparency. Ultimately, research participants are not subjected to harm.

Research Instruments

Google Forms was used to gather sociodemographic variables from the sample and deliver the following self-administered scales, which were used to measure the variables of the current study. Specifically, we used the Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale-10 (CD-RISC-10) to measure their resiliency, and the PERMA Profiler to measure participants’ well-being elements.

Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale

The CD-RISC-10 is a 10 item scale that is used to measure resiliency, operationally defined as the ability to “thrive in the face of adversity” ( Connor and Davidson, 2003 ). The unidimensional CD-RISC-10 evaluates several components of psychological pliability: the abilities to adapt to change, manage what comes along, handle stress, stay focused and think clearly, avoid getting discouraged in the face of failure, and handle unpleasant emotions such as pain, sadness, and anger ( Campbell-Sills and Stein, 2007 ). Each item is rated on a five-point range of responses. The total score is computed by getting the sum of all the responses whereby higher scores show high resilience ( Scali et al., 2012 ). Campbell-Sills et al. (2009) maintained that CD-RISC-10 has a median score of 32 with lowest to highest quartiles of 0–29 (Q1), 30–32 (Q2), 33–36 (Q3), and 37–40 (Q4) in general sample. As a widely used scale, CD-RISC-10 has achieved remarkable internal consistency of 0.89 in general population samples. It is both valid and reliable within the context of different cultures, including Filipino samples ( Campbell-Sills and Stein, 2007 ).

PERMA Profiler

The PERMA Profiler is a brief scale that measures the five pillars of well-being: positive emotion, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment, together with negative emotions and health ( Butler and Kern, 2016 ) along a 10-point Likert type scale. Of the 23 items, 15 correspond to the five core elements of well-being (three items per PERMA domain). In addition, eight items were included to test negative emotions (three items), physical health (three items), loneliness (one item), and overall well-being (one item). All items are expressed positively and higher scores denote better well-being except for negative emotions. Subscale scores are calculated by getting the mean of the three items on each subscale, except for loneliness. Overall well-being is calculated by averaging all items except those from the negative emotions subscale. The measure has been used in various samples and was found to have sufficient psychometric properties ( Cobo-Rendón et al., 2020 ). Butler and Kern (2016) reported that adequate reliability is observed for overall well-being and all subscales, α range from 0.71 to 0.94 across eight studies ( N = 31,966). According to Nebrida and Dullas (2018) , the Tagalog version of the PERMA Profiler has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.842 in 101 Filipino participants.

In the current study ( n = 533), both PERMA Profiler ( α = 0.927) and CD-RISC-10 ( α = 0.915) have an “excellent” internal consistency. These results confirm that the scales are reliable tools for measuring elements of Well-being and Resiliency, respectively, in our sample.

Data Gathering Procedures

Data gathering lasted from March 23 to April 10, 2020, during the first reset of the nationwide extended ECQ. After securing individuals’ interest to take part in the study, we sent potential participants a link to the survey via Facebook Messenger. The first section of the Google Form shows the title of the research and an overview of the current study. After giving consent, participants could fill out the survey. Participants cannot answer the scales without explicitly agreeing to partake in the study. After securing informed consent, each participant was asked to provide their sociodemographic characteristics and then answer the PERMA Profiler and the CD-RSC-10. Answering both scales did not take the participants more than 20 min. After completing the questionnaire, each participant was virtually debriefed.

At any point, should a participant decide not to proceed with the research, they were free to do so with no implications. All the participant has to do was to close the Google Form window and any previously provided data were not recorded.

Data from Google Form were exported to IBM’s Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and NCA Software for data analysis.

Data Analysis

Frequency and percentage were used to analyze the sociodemographic characteristics of the participants. We used Cronbach’s alpha to determine the internal reliability of the measuring scales. Correlation and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between PERMA elements and potential predictors of resiliency. Lastly, we used NCA to analyze whether the core elements of well-being are necessary but not sufficient conditions of resiliency.

There are two steps in NCA ( Dul et al., 2019 ), determining ceiling lines and bottleneck tables are the first. Unlike traditional regression models where a line is drawn through the middle of the data in an XY-plot, a ceiling line is created in NCA. This line distinguishes between areas with cases and areas without cases, the zone found in the upper left-hand corner of the plot. However, exceptions such as outliers and errors may be present in a sample so that the empty zone above the ceiling is not empty ( Karwowski et al., 2016 ). The ceiling line is a non-decreasing line (either a linear step function or a straight line) that shows which level of x (well-being elements) is necessary but not sufficient in producing the desired level of y (resiliency).

Dul (2016) identified two techniques in drawing the ceiling line. The first is the non-parametric Ceiling Envelopment with Free Disposal Hull (CE-FDH), which is a piecewise linear line. It is the default ceiling envelopment technique for NCA because it is flexible and intuitive and applies to dichotomous, discrete, and continuous conditions. The second technique is the parametric Ceiling Regression with Free Disposal Hull (CR-FDH), unlike the CE-FDH, this technique smoothens the piecewise linear lines by using a straight line. Because of this, CR-FDH usually has some observations above the ceiling line. Whereas CE-FDH does not. In further comparing the two techniques, CE-FDH is preferred when a straight line does not represent the data because smoothing reduces the size of the ceiling zone as with dichotomous variables and for discrete and continuous variables with relatively low small data sets. CE-FDH is 100% accurate in drawing the demarcation between observations above and observations below the ceiling line.

Quantifying the accuracy of ceiling lines, effect size, and statistical significance of the necessary conditions and necessary inefficiency are the second and final step ( Dul et al., 2020 ). The area of the empty zone above the ceiling line divided by the area where cases would be possible given the minimum and maximum values of X and Y is the effect size of a necessary condition ( Karwowski et al., 2016 ). Therefore, large effect size shows lower ceiling line and greater limitations that well-being elements have on resiliency. On the other hand, if there is a lack of empty space in the scatter plot then well-being elements are not contingents of resiliency. The effect size of a necessary condition can take the values between 0 and 1 where 0–0.1 corresponds to a small effect, 0.1–0.3 a medium effect, 0.3–0.5 a large effect, and d that is greater than 0.5 a very large effect ( Tynan et al., 2020 ). An R package that allows the calculation of various effect size indicators and inferential statistics useful for hypothesis testing is provided by Dul (2016) . The NCA null hypothesis is that the observed effect size is the same as the effect size calculated using random data ( Dul, 2019b ). An estimation of the probability that the observed necessary condition effect size results from comparing two unrelated variables, otherwise known as permutation test, is used to determine statistical significance in NCA ( Dul et al., 2020 ). Observed values of the x and y variables are randomly paired without replacement. Such pairing continues until the sample size is reached and the process is repeated at least 10,000. The resultant value of p is interpreted using traditional thresholds such as α = 0.05 or α = 0.01. Depending on the context of the research, both significance testing and effect size are useful in determining the theoretical and practical importance of an observed outcome ( Tynan et al., 2020 ). We focus our attention on conditions with both d > 0.5 and p < 0.05.

SPSS was used to analyze the frequency and percentage of various sociodemographic variables, the scales’ reliability, and for generating the Regression Model. R Statistical Software with NCA Package was used to conduct NCA.

Profile of the Participants

Participants comprised 376 females (70.56%) and 157 males (29.45%). The median and mode ages of the participants are 23 years, while the mean age is 25. Among the participants 189 (35.46%) were college students, 293 (54.97%) are employed, and 51 (9.57%) are out of work. Lastly, seven (1.31%) participants reported that they had direct contact with someone who was infected with COVID-19, while 100 (18.76%) reside in communities with known COVID-19 cases and 426 (79.92%) have no exposure to the disease.

PERMA as Predictors of Resiliency

Table 1 summarizes the descriptive statistics and analysis results of the study. Results revealed that the mean resiliency score of the participants is 24.83, with a SD of 7.22. PERMA elements including overall well-being are positive and significantly correlated with resiliency. Interestingly, a subjective sense of health (feeling good and healthy each day) showed only a weak, albeit significant positive correlation with resiliency. Negative emotions and loneliness are negatively correlated with resiliency.

Table 1 . Summary statistics, correlations, and coefficient results for regression analysis of study variables.

The multiple regression model with all nine predictors produced R 2 = 0.368, F (9, 523) = 33.83, p < 0.001 with adjusted R 2 = 0.357. This means that 36.8% of the variance in resiliency scores is because of the PERMA elements. As seen in Table 1 , accomplishment ( β = 0.447, p < 0.01) and negative emotions ( β = −0.171, p < 0.00) are the only elements of PERMA with significant regression weights, showing scores on these elements predict resiliency. However, negative emotions have significant negative weight as compared to with standardized coefficients of −0.171 vs. 0.477.

The multiple regression model of the four confounders between the relationship of PERMA elements and resiliency produced R 2 = 0.036, F (4, 528) = 4.90, p < 0.001 with adjusted R 2 = 0.028. It shows that the spread of the confounders is 3.6% between the relationship of the variables. As seen in Table 2 , only employment status (student, unemployed, and employed) with β = 0.14, p < 0.00 is a significant predictor of resiliency.

Table 2 . Confounders between the relationship of PERMA and Resiliency.

PERMA as Necessary-But-Not-Sufficient Conditions of Resiliency

The results of NCA on Resiliency show that all five elements of the original Seligman (2011) PERMA are necessary but not sufficient conditions of Resiliency among individuals who are community quarantined as showed by the size of the empty zone in the XY-plots in Figure 1 . This means that to score 35 in the CD-RISC-10, a score of 1 for positive emotions and engagement, a score of 2 for Positive Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment are necessary.

Figure 1 . Scatterplots of the original PERMA elements ( x ) as necessary conditions of resiliency ( y ). Note: The dashed lines are ceiling lines. The selected ceiling line technique (CE-FDH) do not allow data points above the ceiling line. The solid line is the ordinary least squares regression line.

Figure 2 contains the scatterplots of the four supplementary subscales of Butler and Kern (2016) PERMA Profiler. Only the xy-plot of Overall Well-being ( x ) and Resiliency ( y ) has a “moderately sized” empty zone in the upper left corner of the plot. This is not surprising considering that Overall Well-being is the composite score of the five PERMA elements and health score. The scatterplots of Health ( x ) and Resiliency ( y ), and Negative Emotions ( x ) and Resiliency ( y ) contain discernibly small empty zones. Lastly, the empty zone is absent in the Loneliness ( x ) – Resiliency ( y ) scatterplot. This assumes that Loneliness is not a necessary condition of Resiliency as the presence and size of an empty zone is a sign that a necessary condition is present ( Dul, 2016 ).

Figure 2 . Scatterplots of overall well-being, health, negative emotions, and loneliness ( x ) as necessary conditions of resiliency ( y ). These elements were not in the original Seligman (2011) PERMA model but are supplementary subscales in Butler and Kern (2016) PERMA Profiler. Note: The dashed lines are ceiling lines. The selected ceiling line technique (CE-FDH) does not allow data points above the ceiling line. The solid line is the ordinary least squares regression line.

We summarized the results of the multiple NCA in Table 3 . The observed accuracy of all variables exceeds arbitrary benchmark of Dul (2018) for the desired accuracy of 95%. Dul suggests the use of CR-FDH for interpreting variables with accuracies above 95%. However, since our variables do not follow a normal distribution ( p = 0.00) based on One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test, we used the non-parametric CE-FDH ceiling line technique. Necessary-but-not-sufficient relationships between Resiliency and the five original PERMA elements and the auxiliary components are observed. The NCA effect size range between d = 0.09 and 0.12 based on CE-FDH for the original PERMA elements and d = 0.04 to 0.12 on the supplementary elements, excluding Loneliness. According to recommendations, Positive Emotions, Meaning, Accomplishment, and Overall Well-being of Dul (2016) have medium effect sizes on Resiliency. Engagement, Positive Relationships, Negative Emotions, and Health have small effect sizes on Resiliency. The NCA significance test is powerful enough to rule out an effect being the product of randomness ( Dul et al., 2020 ). Lastly, there is no necessary-but-not-sufficient relationship between Loneliness and Resiliency.

Table 3 . Necessary conditions effect size and significance test for PERMA Profiler subscales predicting Connor-Davidson Resiliency Scale-10 (CD-RISC-10) scores.

The ability to identify bottleneck variables (constraints) is a useful feature of NCA, especially for interpreting multivariate necessary conditions ( Dul, 2019b ). Table 4 , which is read horizontally, shows for which level of resiliency, which level of PERMA elements is necessary. For a desired value of resiliency, in the first column, it shows the minimum required values of the PERMA elements in the next columns. Levels are expressed in percentage ranges so that 0 is the minimum value, the maximum is 100, and 50 is the point between these two values.

Table 4 . Bottleneck table of PERMA elements as necessary conditions of resiliency based on CE-FDH.

The bottleneck table shows that no minimum value of any PERMA element is necessary to score 30% in Resiliency. This means that at 30% no PERMA element is a bottleneck for resiliency. However, for a resiliency level of 40%, the minimum required level of Positive Emotions is 6.9%, the necessary level of Accomplishment is 3.7, 7.1% for Overall Well-being, and none of the over PERMA elements are necessary. As observed in the bottleneck table, when Resiliency increases from 0 to 100%, more PERMA elements become necessary, and required levels of the PERMA elements become higher. At 90% level of Resiliency, the necessary level of Positive Emotions is 34.5%, Engagement is 18.6%, Positive Relationships is 25.9%, Meaning is 26.7%, Accomplishment is 25.9%, Overall Well-being is 34.2%, Health is 6.7%, and Negative Emotions is 42.9%. No level of Loneliness is necessary for any level of Resiliency. Not achieving any of these minimum levels means that attaining a 90% level in resiliency is impossible. Since each condition is a bottleneck, scoring higher in other elements does not compensate for the deficiency in others.

Wide range community quarantines and social distancing are elements that are increasingly becoming the new normal as a result of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Previous research ( Hawryluck et al., 2004 ; Barbisch et al., 2015 ; Brooks et al., 2020 ; Parmet and Sinha, 2020 ) offer invaluable insights into the psychological consequences of restrictions. Moreover, while there has been an interest in the psychological impact of COVID-19 and community quarantine in the Philippines (for example, Nicomedes and Avila, 2020 ; Tee et al., 2020 ), most focus on the negative psychological impact of COVID-19. This raises the question of what protective factors are important in the midst of prolonged community quarantines. To test this properly, we used a combination of the traditional regression model and the novel multivariate necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions analysis to investigate how resiliency is contingent on well-being elements in Filipinos who are community quarantined.

Participants of this study were predominantly female, around the age of 23 and who are employed. While, we specifically targeted individuals between the ages of 18–40, most of our sample are emergent adults (mean age = 25, median, and mode ages = 23). The disproportional representation of young adult females can be attributed to several factors. First, previous studies ( Smith, 2008 ; Yetter and Capaccioli, 2010 ; Slauson-Blevins and Johnson, 2016 ) have reported that young adult females take part in online surveys at a higher frequency compared with their male counterparts. There are more female Facebook users than males ( Lee et al., 2016 ), which is significant because we invited potential participants through Facebook. Lastly, the Philippines has a young population. The median age in the Philippines is 25.7 ( United Nations Statistics Division, 2019 ; Plecher, 2020 ). Taken together, it can be assumed that the sociodemographic characteristics of our study are similar to the Filipino Facebook population.

Based on the CD-RISC-10 quartiles for community sample provided by Campbell-Sills et al. (2009) , the mean resilience score (24.83) of the current sample belongs to the lowest 25%. This implies that the participants of the current study have lower resiliency scores than the general population. This result ties well with the notion that resilience is stress-context specific ( Jex et al., 2013 ; Wood and Bhatnagar, 2015 ; Hayman et al., 2017 ) and that the nature of the sample influences resiliency scores ( Connor and Davidson, 2003 ). Specifically, people with psychiatric problems and those who are experiencing significant stress score lower than the general population ( Li et al., 2012 ; Ye et al., 2017 ). In the context of COVID-19, Nicomedes and Avila (2020) found that Filipinos in community quarantine experience significant stress and scored high on both health anxiety and panic.

While resiliency and well-being have become commonplace terms and construct central in positive psychology ( Jeste et al., 2015 ), they are often studied using correlational methods ( Schultze-Lutter et al., 2016 ), and traditional approaches via the sufficiency paradigm. In line with previous studies ( Souri and Hasanirad, 2011 ; Khawaja et al., 2017 ; van Agteren et al., 2018 ), we found that all elements of well-being are positively correlated with resiliency. Although the multiple regression test shows that among the original PERMA elements, only accomplishment is a significant predictor of resilience. This means that the subjective sense of competence, having a structure each day, i.e., identifying, setting, and achieving daily goals enable resiliency in individuals subjected to quarantine. We also observed that negative emotions significantly, although negatively predict resilience. This suggests the significant predicting function of individuals’ tendency to experience anxiety and anger for lower levels of resilience. These findings support the previously reported ( Tugade and Fredrickson, 2004 ; Chen et al., 2018 ) link between negative emotions and low levels of resilience.

In this paper, we identified elements of well-being that are necessary-but-not-sufficient for resiliency to occur in individuals who are community quarantined. Specifically, Positive Emotions, Meaning, and Accomplishment are significant and moderately necessary conditions of Resiliency, as suggested by their medium effect size. This finding suggests that positive feelings like interest, joy, and contentment and pursuing a daily purpose, and regularly experiencing a sense of accomplishment are essential to quarantined individuals’ ability to thrive in their present predicament. Such necessary conditions not only allow individuals to enjoy everyday experiences ( Abiola et al., 2017 ) but also provide a sense that life matter, which replenishes depleted energy from adverse experiences, and are required in the development of resiliency.

Engagement and Positive Relationships have small yet significant effect sizes on Resiliency. This infers that experiencing a state of “flow,” or being absorbed in an activity ( Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014 ) and feeling loved, supported, and valued by others are also necessary to the quarantined individuals’ capacity to recover quickly from their daily difficulties. This ties well with previous studies ( Eaude, 2009 ; Svence et al., 2015 ; Abiola et al., 2017 ; Gerino et al., 2017 ; Roncaglia, 2017 ; Cobo-Rendón et al., 2020 ), where well-being elements were observed to be related with the occurrence of resiliency in individuals from a different context. Well-being elements allow quarantined individuals to focus their attention on alleviating harm, preventing negative mental health consequences, and finding positive outcomes in the presence of difficulty.

A unique finding, we encountered is that PERMA elements are bottleneck variables of resiliency. This highlights the little-known capacity of well-being to serve as a constraint to attaining higher levels of resiliency in community-quarantined individuals. This novel result shows two things. First, low levels of resiliency (30% and less) do not necessitate even the slightest well-being elements. Second, higher levels of resiliency require certain levels of all the original PERMA elements and physical health. However, health remains a constant, albeit weak, necessary condition. This means that optimum resiliency is only possible when all the five pillars of well-being are taken care of and when one is at least minimally content with their physical health. When comparing our results to those of older studies ( Sanders et al., 2015 ; Svence et al., 2015 ; Abiola et al., 2017 ). It must be pointed out that while the link between well-being and resiliency has been suggested in these studies, none could establish the necessary-but-not-sufficient relationship between the concepts. The present findings underpin the importance of holistic rather than an atomistic approach to mental health as noted by Mario (2012) and contradicts the compensation hypothesis of well-being. NCA revealed that deficiencies in certain areas of well-being may not be addressed by overcompensating in other areas, as all five pillars of well-being are necessary-but-not-sufficient conditions of resiliency.

Our findings show that loneliness is inversely correlated with the subjective perception of health. This basic result is consistent with the research ( Balter et al., 2019 ) showing that loneliness predicts poor immune systems in healthy young adults. This is important since maintaining good health is vital amidst a growing viral pandemic. We observed that loneliness is a significant negative predictor of resiliency and not a necessary condition for any level of resiliency in individuals who are community quarantined. A similar conclusion was reached by Perron et al. (2014) where individuals who feel resilient also experience less loneliness. This further highlights the importance of the elements of well-being as necessary conditions of resiliency, which may lessen the effects of or serve as a buffer against loneliness and other negative psychological consequences of quarantine.

The overall results of our study have theoretical and practical implications. At a theoretical level, our results found clear support to PERMA concept of Seligman (2011) as necessary ingredients of resiliency even for socially isolated individuals such as those placed in ECQ. This goes beyond previous reports wherein PERMA elements were observed as predictors of resiliency, as only NCA can identify a necessary-but-not-sufficient relationship between the said variables. Despite experiencing segregation like lockdowns, the conditions that will allow people to thrive in the face of adversity are the same as when they are not undergoing such a predicament. Therefore, this finding can help us understand how the five elements of well-being constrain the negative psychological consequences of community quarantine by providing a buffer against these harms, reducing their effects, and promoting individual capacity to cope with such unsettling conditions. From this standpoint, we speculate that PERMA should be inversely correlated with negative indicators of mental health and correspondingly with other elements of positive psychological health, as noted by Hu et al. (2015) . At a practical level, this opens an opportunity to develop evidence-based interventions such as telepsychology ( Zhou et al., 2020 ) for quarantined individuals that help clients understand behaviors they need to engage to have resiliency, and target multiple necessary-but-not-sufficient variables jointly, and not just focus on certain elements of well-being. This provides support for eclectic approaches to therapy especially the ones that incorporate positive psychology as Bolier et al. (2013) noted empirical support for the effectiveness of such interventions. Lastly, our findings agree with the call to a more inclusive psychology in the Philippines. This paradigm shift involves incorporating such approaches as critical ( Paredes-Canilao et al., 2015 ) and positive ( Datu et al., 2018 ) psychology to the prevailing traditional pathology-based perspective.

One fundamental limitation of this study is that the use of multiple regression and NCA cannot guarantee causality ( Dul, 2016 ). While our data is consistent with the causal hypothesis, it is not evidence of a causal connection. Therefore, causal necessary-but-not-sufficient relations should not be inferred from our data. Another important caveat in interpreting our results is that we used the Facebook population as compared to the actual geographical population. It is not a perfect representative since Facebook users are usually younger females who have better educational attainment compared to the general population ( Kosinski et al., 2015 ). Resiliency and well-being were measured during the ECQ, a far from normal situation. Therefore, although we took obligatory safety measures to increase the trustworthiness of the findings, we suggest that care be exercised when generalizing our findings into the general population and normal circumstances.

Many questions remain to be answered concerning the well-being of people who are community quarantined and the utility of NCA in psychological research. Further work is needed to identify the negative consequences of prolonged quarantine on individuals, especially those who have preexisting mental health problems and those who experience a disruption in access to their mental health-care providers. Moreover Odacı and Kalkan (2010) reported that internet use, specifically social media ( Maglunog and Dy, 2019 ) exacerbates loneliness and that social media usage is expected to rise during the ECQ. Another important question, therefore, is how does the ongoing quarantine affects rates and levels of loneliness. Finally, while necessary conditions are traditionally studied using regression analysis in psychological research, NCA proved to be a more useful tool in understanding necessary-but-not-sufficient relationships because of its ability to understand bottleneck variables. We, therefore, recommend the use of NCA in both classical and novel psychological research problems.

Resiliency grants us the capacity to flourish in the face of difficulty. For resiliency to result, the pillars of well-being are essential. Our research reveals, however, that well-being elements could be enablers or constraints. Accomplishment, for example, could predict resiliency. All pillars are necessary to attain it. Compensating in certain aspects cannot address the deficiency in others. Herein lies the importance and significance of holistic well-being. Those who can attain this are better equipped to thrive in the ECQ, a situation that affects the lives of so many Filipinos.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Manila Tytana Colleges Research Ethics Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

DC wrote the introduction, results, and discussion and conducted the necessary condition analysis. LB wrote the methods, contributed in the results and discussion, and conducted the correlation analysis, regression analysis, and reliability check of the scales. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558930/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: positive psychology, well-being, resilience, PERMA, COVID-19, necessary conditions and sufficient conditions for optimality, necessary condition analysis, Philippines

Citation: Camitan DS IV and Bajin LN (2021) The Importance of Well-Being on Resiliency of Filipino Adults During the COVID-19 Enhanced Community Quarantine: A Necessary Condition Analysis. Front. Psychol . 12:558930. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.558930

Received: 04 May 2020; Accepted: 01 March 2021; Published: 22 March 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Camitan and Bajin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Desiderio S. Camitan IV, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

The Savvy Scientist

Experiences of a London PhD student and beyond

What is the Significance of a Study? Examples and Guide

Significance of a study graphic, showing a female scientist reading a book

If you’re reading this post you’re probably wondering: what is the significance of a study?

No matter where you’re at with a piece of research, it is a good idea to think about the potential significance of your work. And sometimes you’ll have to explicitly write a statement of significance in your papers, it addition to it forming part of your thesis.

In this post I’ll cover what the significance of a study is, how to measure it, how to describe it with examples and add in some of my own experiences having now worked in research for over nine years.

If you’re reading this because you’re writing up your first paper, welcome! You may also like my how-to guide for all aspects of writing your first research paper .

Looking for guidance on writing the statement of significance for a paper or thesis? Click here to skip straight to that section.

What is the Significance of a Study?

For research papers, theses or dissertations it’s common to explicitly write a section describing the significance of the study. We’ll come onto what to include in that section in just a moment.

However the significance of a study can actually refer to several different things.

Graphic showing the broadening significance of a study going from your study, the wider research field, business opportunities through to society as a whole.

Working our way from the most technical to the broadest, depending on the context, the significance of a study may refer to:

Within your study: Statistical significance. Can we trust the findings?
Wider research field: Research significance. How does your study progress the field?
Commercial / economic significance: Could there be business opportunities for your findings?
Societal significance: What impact could your study have on the wider society.
And probably other domain-specific significance!

We’ll shortly cover each of them in turn, including how they’re measured and some examples for each type of study significance.

But first, let’s touch on why you should consider the significance of your research at an early stage.

Why Care About the Significance of a Study?

No matter what is motivating you to carry out your research, it is sensible to think about the potential significance of your work. In the broadest sense this asks, how does the study contribute to the world?

After all, for many people research is only worth doing if it will result in some expected significance. For the vast majority of us our studies won’t be significant enough to reach the evening news, but most studies will help to enhance knowledge in a particular field and when research has at least some significance it makes for a far more fulfilling longterm pursuit.

Furthermore, a lot of us are carrying out research funded by the public. It therefore makes sense to keep an eye on what benefits the work could bring to the wider community.

Often in research you’ll come to a crossroads where you must decide which path of research to pursue. Thinking about the potential benefits of a strand of research can be useful for deciding how to spend your time, money and resources.

It’s worth noting though, that not all research activities have to work towards obvious significance. This is especially true while you’re a PhD student, where you’re figuring out what you enjoy and may simply be looking for an opportunity to learn a new skill.

However, if you’re trying to decide between two potential projects, it can be useful to weigh up the potential significance of each.

Let’s now dive into the different types of significance, starting with research significance.

Research Significance

What is the research significance of a study.

Unless someone specifies which type of significance they’re referring to, it is fair to assume that they want to know about the research significance of your study.

Research significance describes how your work has contributed to the field, how it could inform future studies and progress research.

Where should I write about my study’s significance in my thesis?

Typically you should write about your study’s significance in the Introduction and Conclusions sections of your thesis.

It’s important to mention it in the Introduction so that the relevance of your work and the potential impact and benefits it could have on the field are immediately apparent. Explaining why your work matters will help to engage readers (and examiners!) early on.

It’s also a good idea to detail the study’s significance in your Conclusions section. This adds weight to your findings and helps explain what your study contributes to the field.

On occasion you may also choose to include a brief description in your Abstract.

What is expected when submitting an article to a journal

It is common for journals to request a statement of significance, although this can sometimes be called other things such as:

Impact statement
Significance statement
Advances in knowledge section

Here is one such example of what is expected:

Impact Statement: An Impact Statement is required for all submissions. Your impact statement will be evaluated by the Editor-in-Chief, Global Editors, and appropriate Associate Editor. For your manuscript to receive full review, the editors must be convinced that it is an important advance in for the field. The Impact Statement is not a restating of the abstract. It should address the following: Why is the work submitted important to the field? How does the work submitted advance the field? What new information does this work impart to the field? How does this new information impact the field? Experimental Biology and Medicine journal, author guidelines

Typically the impact statement will be shorter than the Abstract, around 150 words.

Defining the study’s significance is helpful not just for the impact statement (if the journal asks for one) but also for building a more compelling argument throughout your submission. For instance, usually you’ll start the Discussion section of a paper by highlighting the research significance of your work. You’ll also include a short description in your Abstract too.

How to describe the research significance of a study, with examples

Whether you’re writing a thesis or a journal article, the approach to writing about the significance of a study are broadly the same.

I’d therefore suggest using the questions above as a starting point to base your statements on.

Why is the work submitted important to the field?
How does the work submitted advance the field?
What new information does this work impart to the field?
How does this new information impact the field?

Answer those questions and you’ll have a much clearer idea of the research significance of your work.

When describing it, try to clearly state what is novel about your study’s contribution to the literature. Then go on to discuss what impact it could have on progressing the field along with recommendations for future work.

Potential sentence starters

If you’re not sure where to start, why not set a 10 minute timer and have a go at trying to finish a few of the following sentences. Not sure on what to put? Have a chat to your supervisor or lab mates and they may be able to suggest some ideas.

This study is important to the field because…
These findings advance the field by…
Our results highlight the importance of…
Our discoveries impact the field by…

Now you’ve had a go let’s have a look at some real life examples.

Statement of significance examples

A statement of significance / impact:

Impact Statement This review highlights the historical development of the concept of “ideal protein” that began in the 1950s and 1980s for poultry and swine diets, respectively, and the major conceptual deficiencies of the long-standing concept of “ideal protein” in animal nutrition based on recent advances in amino acid (AA) metabolism and functions. Nutritionists should move beyond the “ideal protein” concept to consider optimum ratios and amounts of all proteinogenic AAs in animal foods and, in the case of carnivores, also taurine. This will help formulate effective low-protein diets for livestock, poultry, and fish, while sustaining global animal production. Because they are not only species of agricultural importance, but also useful models to study the biology and diseases of humans as well as companion (e.g. dogs and cats), zoo, and extinct animals in the world, our work applies to a more general readership than the nutritionists and producers of farm animals. Wu G, Li P. The “ideal protein” concept is not ideal in animal nutrition. Experimental Biology and Medicine . 2022;247(13):1191-1201. doi: 10.1177/15353702221082658

And the same type of section but this time called “Advances in knowledge”:

Advances in knowledge: According to the MY-RADs criteria, size measurements of focal lesions in MRI are now of relevance for response assessment in patients with monoclonal plasma cell disorders. Size changes of 1 or 2 mm are frequently observed due to uncertainty of the measurement only, while the actual focal lesion has not undergone any biological change. Size changes of at least 6 mm or more in T 1 weighted or T 2 weighted short tau inversion recovery sequences occur in only 5% or less of cases when the focal lesion has not undergone any biological change. Wennmann M, Grözinger M, Weru V, et al. Test-retest, inter- and intra-rater reproducibility of size measurements of focal bone marrow lesions in MRI in patients with multiple myeloma [published online ahead of print, 2023 Apr 12]. Br J Radiol . 2023;20220745. doi: 10.1259/bjr.20220745

Other examples of research significance

Moving beyond the formal statement of significance, here is how you can describe research significance more broadly within your paper.

Describing research impact in an Abstract of a paper:

Three-dimensional visualisation and quantification of the chondrocyte population within articular cartilage can be achieved across a field of view of several millimetres using laboratory-based micro-CT. The ability to map chondrocytes in 3D opens possibilities for research in fields from skeletal development through to medical device design and treatment of cartilage degeneration. Conclusions section of the abstract in my first paper .

In the Discussion section of a paper:

We report for the utility of a standard laboratory micro-CT scanner to visualise and quantify features of the chondrocyte population within intact articular cartilage in 3D. This study represents a complimentary addition to the growing body of evidence supporting the non-destructive imaging of the constituents of articular cartilage. This offers researchers the opportunity to image chondrocyte distributions in 3D without specialised synchrotron equipment, enabling investigations such as chondrocyte morphology across grades of cartilage damage, 3D strain mapping techniques such as digital volume correlation to evaluate mechanical properties in situ , and models for 3D finite element analysis in silico simulations. This enables an objective quantification of chondrocyte distribution and morphology in three dimensions allowing greater insight for investigations into studies of cartilage development, degeneration and repair. One such application of our method, is as a means to provide a 3D pattern in the cartilage which, when combined with digital volume correlation, could determine 3D strain gradient measurements enabling potential treatment and repair of cartilage degeneration. Moreover, the method proposed here will allow evaluation of cartilage implanted with tissue engineered scaffolds designed to promote chondral repair, providing valuable insight into the induced regenerative process. The Discussion section of the paper is laced with references to research significance.

How is longer term research significance measured?

Looking beyond writing impact statements within papers, sometimes you’ll want to quantify the long term research significance of your work. For instance when applying for jobs.

The most obvious measure of a study’s long term research significance is the number of citations it receives from future publications. The thinking is that a study which receives more citations will have had more research impact, and therefore significance , than a study which received less citations. Citations can give a broad indication of how useful the work is to other researchers but citations aren’t really a good measure of significance.

Bear in mind that us researchers can be lazy folks and sometimes are simply looking to cite the first paper which backs up one of our claims. You can find studies which receive a lot of citations simply for packaging up the obvious in a form which can be easily found and referenced, for instance by having a catchy or optimised title.

Likewise, research activity varies wildly between fields. Therefore a certain study may have had a big impact on a particular field but receive a modest number of citations, simply because not many other researchers are working in the field.

Nevertheless, citations are a standard measure of significance and for better or worse it remains impressive for someone to be the first author of a publication receiving lots of citations.

Other measures for the research significance of a study include:

Accolades: best paper awards at conferences, thesis awards, “most downloaded” titles for articles, press coverage.
How much follow-on research the study creates. For instance, part of my PhD involved a novel material initially developed by another PhD student in the lab. That PhD student’s research had unlocked lots of potential new studies and now lots of people in the group were using the same material and developing it for different applications. The initial study may not receive a high number of citations yet long term it generated a lot of research activity.

That covers research significance, but you’ll often want to consider other types of significance for your study and we’ll cover those next.

Statistical Significance

What is the statistical significance of a study.

Often as part of a study you’ll carry out statistical tests and then state the statistical significance of your findings: think p-values eg <0.05. It is useful to describe the outcome of these tests within your report or paper, to give a measure of statistical significance.

Effectively you are trying to show whether the performance of your innovation is actually better than a control or baseline and not just chance. Statistical significance deserves a whole other post so I won’t go into a huge amount of depth here.

Things that make publication in The BMJ impossible or unlikely Internal validity/robustness of the study • It had insufficient statistical power, making interpretation difficult; • Lack of statistical power; The British Medical Journal’s guide for authors

Calculating statistical significance isn’t always necessary (or valid) for a study, such as if you have a very small number of samples, but it is a very common requirement for scientific articles.

Writing a journal article? Check the journal’s guide for authors to see what they expect. Generally if you have approximately five or more samples or replicates it makes sense to start thinking about statistical tests. Speak to your supervisor and lab mates for advice, and look at other published articles in your field.

How is statistical significance measured?

Statistical significance is quantified using p-values . Depending on your study design you’ll choose different statistical tests to compute the p-value.

A p-value of 0.05 is a common threshold value. The 0.05 means that there is a 1/20 chance that the difference in performance you’re reporting is just down to random chance.

p-values above 0.05 mean that the result isn’t statistically significant enough to be trusted: it is too likely that the effect you’re showing is just luck.
p-values less than or equal to 0.05 mean that the result is statistically significant. In other words: unlikely to just be chance, which is usually considered a good outcome.

Low p-values (eg p = 0.001) mean that it is highly unlikely to be random chance (1/1000 in the case of p = 0.001), therefore more statistically significant.

It is important to clarify that, although low p-values mean that your findings are statistically significant, it doesn’t automatically mean that the result is scientifically important. More on that in the next section on research significance.

How to describe the statistical significance of your study, with examples

In the first paper from my PhD I ran some statistical tests to see if different staining techniques (basically dyes) increased how well you could see cells in cow tissue using micro-CT scanning (a 3D imaging technique).

In your methods section you should mention the statistical tests you conducted and then in the results you will have statements such as:

Between mediums for the two scan protocols C/N [contrast to noise ratio] was greater for EtOH than the PBS in both scanning methods (both p < 0.0001) with mean differences of 1.243 (95% CI [confidence interval] 0.709 to 1.778) for absorption contrast and 6.231 (95% CI 5.772 to 6.690) for propagation contrast. … Two repeat propagation scans were taken of samples from the PTA-stained groups. No difference in mean C/N was found with either medium: PBS had a mean difference of 0.058 ( p = 0.852, 95% CI -0.560 to 0.676), EtOH had a mean difference of 1.183 ( p = 0.112, 95% CI 0.281 to 2.648). From the Results section of my first paper, available here . Square brackets added for this post to aid clarity.

From this text the reader can infer from the first paragraph that there was a statistically significant difference in using EtOH compared to PBS (really small p-value of <0.0001). However, from the second paragraph, the difference between two repeat scans was statistically insignificant for both PBS (p = 0.852) and EtOH (p = 0.112).

By conducting these statistical tests you have then earned your right to make bold statements, such as these from the discussion section:

Propagation phase-contrast increases the contrast of individual chondrocytes [cartilage cells] compared to using absorption contrast. From the Discussion section from the same paper.

Without statistical tests you have no evidence that your results are not just down to random chance.

Beyond describing the statistical significance of a study in the main body text of your work, you can also show it in your figures.

In figures such as bar charts you’ll often see asterisks to represent statistical significance, and “n.s.” to show differences between groups which are not statistically significant. Here is one such figure, with some subplots, from the same paper:

Figure from a paper showing the statistical significance of a study using asterisks

In this example an asterisk (*) between two bars represents p < 0.05. Two asterisks (**) represents p < 0.001 and three asterisks (***) represents p < 0.0001. This should always be stated in the caption of your figure since the values that each asterisk refers to can vary.

Now that we know if a study is showing statistically and research significance, let’s zoom out a little and consider the potential for commercial significance.

Commercial and Industrial Significance

What are commercial and industrial significance.

Moving beyond significance in relation to academia, your research may also have commercial or economic significance.

Simply put:

Commercial significance: could the research be commercialised as a product or service? Perhaps the underlying technology described in your study could be licensed to a company or you could even start your own business using it.
Industrial significance: more widely than just providing a product which could be sold, does your research provide insights which may affect a whole industry? Such as: revealing insights or issues with current practices, performance gains you don’t want to commercialise (e.g. solar power efficiency), providing suggested frameworks or improvements which could be employed industry-wide.

I’ve grouped these two together because there can certainly be overlap. For instance, perhaps your new technology could be commercialised whilst providing wider improvements for the whole industry.

Commercial and industrial significance are not relevant to most studies, so only write about it if you and your supervisor can think of reasonable routes to your work having an impact in these ways.

How are commercial and industrial significance measured?

Unlike statistical and research significances, the measures of commercial and industrial significance can be much more broad.

Here are some potential measures of significance:

Commercial significance:

How much value does your technology bring to potential customers or users?
How big is the potential market and how much revenue could the product potentially generate?
Is the intellectual property protectable? i.e. patentable, or if not could the novelty be protected with trade secrets: if so publish your method with caution!
If commercialised, could the product bring employment to a geographical area?

Industrial significance:

What impact could it have on the industry? For instance if you’re revealing an issue with something, such as unintended negative consequences of a drug , what does that mean for the industry and the public? This could be:

Reduced overhead costs
Better safety
Faster production methods
Improved scaleability

How to describe the commercial and industrial significance of a study, with examples

Commercial significance.

If your technology could be commercially viable, and you’ve got an interest in commercialising it yourself, it is likely that you and your university may not want to immediately publish the study in a journal.

You’ll probably want to consider routes to exploiting the technology and your university may have a “technology transfer” team to help researchers navigate the various options.

However, if instead of publishing a paper you’re submitting a thesis or dissertation then it can be useful to highlight the commercial significance of your work. In this instance you could include statements of commercial significance such as:

The measurement technology described in this study provides state of the art performance and could enable the development of low cost devices for aerospace applications. An example of commercial significance I invented for this post

Industrial significance

First, think about the industrial sectors who could benefit from the developments described in your study.

For example if you’re working to improve battery efficiency it is easy to think of how it could lead to performance gains for certain industries, like personal electronics or electric vehicles. In these instances you can describe the industrial significance relatively easily, based off your findings.

For example:

By utilising abundant materials in the described battery fabrication process we provide a framework for battery manufacturers to reduce dependence on rare earth components. Again, an invented example

For other technologies there may well be industrial applications but they are less immediately obvious and applicable. In these scenarios the best you can do is to simply reframe your research significance statement in terms of potential commercial applications in a broad way.

As a reminder: not all studies should address industrial significance, so don’t try to invent applications just for the sake of it!

Societal Significance

What is the societal significance of a study.

The most broad category of significance is the societal impact which could stem from it.

If you’re working in an applied field it may be quite easy to see a route for your research to impact society. For others, the route to societal significance may be less immediate or clear.

Studies can help with big issues facing society such as:

Medical applications : vaccines, surgical implants, drugs, improving patient safety. For instance this medical device and drug combination I worked on which has a very direct route to societal significance.
Political significance : Your research may provide insights which could contribute towards potential changes in policy or better understanding of issues facing society.
Public health : for instance COVID-19 transmission and related decisions.
Climate change : mitigation such as more efficient solar panels and lower cost battery solutions, and studying required adaptation efforts and technologies. Also, better understanding around related societal issues, for instance this study on the effects of temperature on hate speech.

How is societal significance measured?

Societal significance at a high level can be quantified by the size of its potential societal effect. Just like a lab risk assessment, you can think of it in terms of probability (or how many people it could help) and impact magnitude.

Societal impact = How many people it could help x the magnitude of the impact

Think about how widely applicable the findings are: for instance does it affect only certain people? Then think about the potential size of the impact: what kind of difference could it make to those people?

Between these two metrics you can get a pretty good overview of the potential societal significance of your research study.

How to describe the societal significance of a study, with examples

Quite often the broad societal significance of your study is what you’re setting the scene for in your Introduction. In addition to describing the existing literature, it is common to for the study’s motivation to touch on its wider impact for society.

For those of us working in healthcare research it is usually pretty easy to see a path towards societal significance.

Our CLOUT model has state-of-the-art performance in mortality prediction, surpassing other competitive NN models and a logistic regression model … Our results show that the risk factors identified by the CLOUT model agree with physicians’ assessment, suggesting that CLOUT could be used in real-world clinicalsettings. Our results strongly support that CLOUT may be a useful tool to generate clinical prediction models, especially among hospitalized and critically ill patient populations. Learning Latent Space Representations to Predict Patient Outcomes: Model Development and Validation

In other domains the societal significance may either take longer or be more indirect, meaning that it can be more difficult to describe the societal impact.

Even so, here are some examples I’ve found from studies in non-healthcare domains:

We examined food waste as an initial investigation and test of this methodology, and there is clear potential for the examination of not only other policy texts related to food waste (e.g., liability protection, tax incentives, etc.; Broad Leib et al., 2020) but related to sustainable fishing (Worm et al., 2006) and energy use (Hawken, 2017). These other areas are of obvious relevance to climate change… AI-Based Text Analysis for Evaluating Food Waste Policies

The continued development of state-of-the art NLP tools tailored to climate policy will allow climate researchers and policy makers to extract meaningful information from this growing body of text, to monitor trends over time and administrative units, and to identify potential policy improvements. BERT Classification of Paris Agreement Climate Action Plans

Top Tips For Identifying & Writing About the Significance of Your Study

Writing a thesis? Describe the significance of your study in the Introduction and the Conclusion .
Submitting a paper? Read the journal’s guidelines. If you’re writing a statement of significance for a journal, make sure you read any guidance they give for what they’re expecting.
Take a step back from your research and consider your study’s main contributions.
Read previously published studies in your field . Use this for inspiration and ideas on how to describe the significance of your own study
Discuss the study with your supervisor and potential co-authors or collaborators and brainstorm potential types of significance for it.

Now you’ve finished reading up on the significance of a study you may also like my how-to guide for all aspects of writing your first research paper .

Writing an academic journal paper

I hope that you’ve learned something useful from this article about the significance of a study. If you have any more research-related questions let me know, I’m here to help.

To gain access to my content library you can subscribe below for free:

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New study reveals impact of baseline choice on 2022 Yangtze River Valley heat wave extremity

by Chinese Academy of Sciences

In the summer of 2022, China's Yangtze River Valley (YRV) endured an unprecedented heat wave, severely affecting human society and ecosystems. Traditionally, the extremity of such hot events has been evaluated against a fixed historical baseline (e.g., 1979–2022), suggesting record-breaking magnitudes. However, recent research underscores the significance of the chosen baseline in quantifying these extremes.

A study published on June 7 in Environmental Research Letters examines how the use of a fixed versus a 10-year moving baseline alters the perceived extremity of the 2022 heat wave. The findings indicate that using a moving baseline, which accounts for recent climatic adaptation, record-breaking daily hot extremes were confined to the Sichuan Basin in the upper reaches of the YRV.

"Fixed baselines compare extremes to a static historical period (e.g., 1981–2010), capturing the continuous warming trend and increasing the perceived magnitude of extremes," explained Lan Li, the study's lead author and a Ph.D. candidate at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics (IAP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. "In contrast, moving baselines consider time-evolving climatology and societal adaptation to warming, offering a nuanced understanding of extremes."

The research revealed that while fixed baselines showed record-breaking daily hot extremes across the upper and middle reaches of the YRV in 2022, moving baselines identified such extremes only in the Sichuan Basin, with a magnitude of 2.52 standard deviations. Furthermore, this event was not the most extreme historically, as China has faced approximately 13 events of greater magnitudes since 1971.

Future projections suggest that under high-emission scenarios, extreme hot events similar to those in the Sichuan Basin in 2022 could occur every 2–12 years between 2081 and 2100, affecting up to 25% of continental China with magnitudes exceeding 5 standard deviations. However, with a moving baseline, the projected changes in extremity are minimal, implying that continuous adaptation to warming could mitigate future risks.

"The moving baseline assumes prompt adaptation by humans and ecosystems to background warming," noted Prof. Tianjun Zhou, the study's corresponding author and a professor at IAP. "However, adaptation alone, such as improving infrastructure and health systems, is insufficient. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is crucial. Climate change adaptation and mitigation must work in tandem to address global warming effectively."

Journal information: Environmental Research Letters

Provided by Chinese Academy of Sciences

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Open access
Published: 23 June 2024

Mapping and predicting open defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET study

Natnael Kebede 1 ,
Amare Mebrat Delie 2 ,
Eyob Ketema Bogale 3 ,
Tadele Fentabel Anagaw 3 ,
Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh 4 ,
Eneyew Talie Fenta 2 ,
Destaw Endeshew 5 ,
Habitu Birhanu Eshetu 6 ,
Ousman Adal 7 &
Abiyu Abadi Tareke 8

BMC Public Health volume 24 , Article number: 1671 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

244 Accesses

Metrics details

Introduction

There has been extensive research conducted on open defecation in Ethiopia, but a notable gap persists in comprehensively understanding the spatial variation and predictors at the household level. This study utilizes data from the 2021 Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia (PMA-ET) to address this gap by identifying hotspots and predictors of open defecation. Employing geographically weighted regression analysis, it goes beyond traditional models to account for spatial heterogeneity, offering a nuanced understanding of geographical variations in open defecation prevalence and its determinants. This research pinpoints hotspot areas and significant predictors, aiding policymakers and practitioners in tailoring interventions effectively. It not only fills the knowledge gap in Ethiopia but also informs global sanitation initiatives.

The study comprised a total weighted sample of 24,747 household participants. ArcGIS version 10.7 and SaT Scan version 9.6 were used to handle mapping, hotspots, ordinary least squares, Bernoulli model analysis, and Spatial regression. Bernoulli-based model was used to analyze the purely spatial cluster detection of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. Ordinary Least Square (OLS) analysis and geographically weighted regression analysis were employed to assess the association between an open defecation and explanatory variables.

The spatial distribution of open defecation at the household level exhibited clustering (global Moran’s I index value of 4.540385, coupled with a p-value of less than 0.001), with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Spatial analysis using Kuldorff’s Scan identified six clusters, with four showing statistical significance (P-value < 0.05) in Amhara, Afar, Harari, Tigray, and southwest Ethiopia. In the geographically weighted regression model, being male [coefficient = 0.87, P-value < 0.05] and having no media exposure (not watching TV or listening to the radio) [coefficient = 0.47, P-value < 0.05] emerged as statistically significant predictors of household-level open defecation in Ethiopia.

The study revealed that open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia varies across the regions, with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis highlights male participants lacking media exposure as substantial predictors of open defecation. Targeted interventions in Ethiopia should improve media exposure among males in hotspot regions, tailored sanitation programs, and region-specific awareness campaigns. Collaboration with local communities is crucial.

Peer Review reports

Open defecation refers to the practice of defecating outside in the open environment, rather than in a designated toilet or latrine. It is a significant public health issue as it contributes to the spread of diseases and poses environmental and social challenges [ 1 ]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 892 million people globally practice open defecation, representing about 11% of the global population [ 2 ]. The prevalence of open defecation in Africa was estimated at 24%, with significant variations between countries and regions [ 3 ]. In sub-Saharan Africa, the prevalence of open defecation was higher than the regional average, with an estimated 27% of the population practicing open defecation in 2019 [ 3 , 4 ]. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of open defecation at the household level was reported to be around 35–40% based on recent community-based studies [ 5 , 6 ].

Open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia has been linked to numerous adverse consequences, including an increased prevalence of waterborne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid fever, leading to significant public health burdens [ 6 ]. Additionally, the economic impact of open defecation is substantial, as it contributes to healthcare costs, decreased productivity due to illness, and the expense of addressing environmental contamination [ 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

The causes of open defecation variation among areas can be attributed to a combination of factors including socio-economic status, cultural beliefs, access to sanitation facilities, and geographic location. In some areas, lack of awareness about the health risks associated with open defecation may contribute to its prevalence, while in others, limited resources and infrastructure play a significant role. Additionally, social norms and taboos around sanitation practices can also influence the prevalence of open defecation in different communities. Understanding these variations is crucial for developing targeted interventions to address the issue at the household level [ 10 , 11 , 12 ].

Previous Studies Highlight Age, Gender, Occupation, Education, Media Exposure, Residence, Wealth Status, and Other Factors as Key Predictors of Open Defecation [ 9 , 13 , 14 ]. Despite existing research [ 15 , 16 ] on open defecation in Ethiopia, there is a gap in understanding spatial variation and predictors at the household level. Despite ongoing efforts to improve sanitation, open defecation remains prevalent in Ethiopia and similar countries, such as Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Studies indicate significant health risks, including increased incidence of diarrheal diseases and malnutrition [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. This study addresses a critical gap in the literature on open defecation in Ethiopia by identifying hotspots and predictors at the household level using 2021 Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia data. While previous research has explored open defecation in Ethiopia, there is limited understanding of its spatial distribution and specific household-level drivers. Employing geographically weighted regression analysis, this study accounts for spatial heterogeneity, offering a nuanced understanding of geographical variations in open defecation prevalence and determinants. This research pinpoints hotspot areas with heightened open defecation rates and identifies significant predictors within these regions, aiding policymakers in designing effective, targeted interventions.

Materials and methods

Study design.

In the PMA-ET 2021 study, a community-based cross-sectional design was employed.

The study utilized a two-stage cluster approach with residential areas (urban and rural) and sub-regions as strata, ensuring representation across all 12 geographic regions of Ethiopia. Notably, 95% of the target population resides in four key regions: Addis Ababa, Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP. To address regions with less than 5% of the target population, a sixth synthetic region denoted as “other” was created. Due to population distribution and resource constraints, regional representative samples were taken exclusively in the four major regions.

Data source

The sampling design comprised 321 Enumeration Areas, aiming to achieve a national-level margin of error below 2%, below 3% for urban and rural estimates, and below 5% at each of the four regional levels. This ensured robust and precise estimates of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. The secondary data for this analysis were obtained from PMA-ET of 2021 which was found in the PMA portal ( https://www.pmadata.org/ _ 2021) (Fig. 1 ).

Map of the study area (Ethiopia) Shapefile source: CSA, 2021; URL: https://africaopendata.org/dataset/ethiopia- shapefiles

The study population comprised all households in Ethiopia. A weighted total of 24,747 participants in households were included in the analysis, encompassing all variables of interest. Participants in households whose age below 18 with missing information on open defecation were excluded,

Study variables

Dependent variable.

The outcome variable in this study was open defecation at the household level, classified dichotomously as “Yes/No”. Individuals who reported defecating in an open area during the interview were categorized as “Yes”, while those who did not were categorized as “No”. This classification provided a clear distinction between households practicing open defecation and those employing alternative sanitation methods, facilitating the analysis of factors associated with this open defecation behavior.

Independent variables

Age was considered a continuous variable to assess its influence on open defecation behaviors. Education status, categorized as no education, primary, secondary, or higher education, aimed to evaluate the impact of educational attainment on sanitation practices. Residence, categorized as urban or rural, was explored to understand how the living environment influences open defecation prevalence. Additionally, the wealth index, categorized as poor, middle, or rich, provided insights into socioeconomic factors associated with open defecation practices. Finally, media exposure, labeled as Yes or No, was included to assess the role of mass media in shaping attitudes and behaviors towards sanitation, contributing to understanding the complex interplay between socio-demographic factors and open defecation at the household level [ 9 , 13 , 14 ].

Data management and statistical analysis

Spatial autocorrelation analysis.

The data underwent cleaning using STATA version 17.0 software and Microsoft Excel. For data analysis, Arc GIS 10.7 and SaTScan 9.6 were utilized. To assess the spatial distribution of open defecation at the household level, the Global Moran’s I statistic was employed [ 20 , 21 ]. A Moran’s I value nearing − 1 indicates dispersed open defecation in Ethiopia, close to + 1 suggests clustering and a value of zero signifies a random distribution, and if Moran’s I value zero shows randomly distributed and a statistically significant Moran’s I ( p < 0.05) leads to rejection of the hypothesis [ 22 ].

Incremental autocorrelation analysis

A line graph was generated to evaluate spatial autocorrelation across various distances, illustrating Z-scores and their corresponding distances. Z-scores indicate both the extent of spatial clustering and its statistical significance. Peaks in Z-scores pinpoint distances where clustering-promoting spatial processes are most pronounced. These peak distances provide crucial guidance for tools incorporating Distance Band or Distance Radius parameters, assisting in selecting an optimal threshold or radius. This information proves valuable for tools, including those utilized in hotspot analysis, that rely on such parameters for effective spatial analysis [ 23 ].

Hotspot and cold spot analysis

The study utilized Gettis-Ord Gi* statistics to analyze spatial autocorrelation differences in the study area, specifically targeting open defecation. These statistics helped identify hotspot areas, indicating significant spatial clustering. The z-score was calculated to confirm the statistical significance of clustering, with the p-value set at < 0.05, considering 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence intervals. [ 24 , 25 , 26 ].

Spatial interpolation

The spatial interpolation technique is used to predict open defecation for unsampled areas based on sampled clusters [ 27 ]. Deterministic and geostatistical interpolation methods were applied in this study. To evaluate these interpolation methods, we conducted a geostatistical analysis, identifying the technique with the lowest mean predicted error (MPE) and root mean square predicted error (RMSPE) as the most fitting for predicting open defecation. Smaller MPE and RMSPE values suggest a closer alignment between predicted and observed values, indicating the precision and efficacy of the selected interpolation technique [ 28 ].

Spatial scan statistics

This study employed Bernoulli-based spatial Kuldorff’s Scan statistics within SaTScan version 9.6.1 software to identify the geographical locations with statistically significant spatial windows for open defecation [ 29 ].

The scanning window, moving across the study area identified cases with open defecation as well as controls with no open defecation, fitting the Bernoulli model. The default maximum spatial cluster size, set at < 50% of the population, served as an upper limit [ 30 ]. Identification of the most likely clusters relied on p-values and likelihood ratio tests derived from 999 Monte Carlo replications. Secondary clusters were generated using non-overlapping options in SaTScan version 9.6.1, and the mapping of clusters and attributes of open defecation, produced by SaTScan, was accomplished using ArcGIS software version 10.7.

Spatial regression

Exploratory Regression was employed to identify a model adhering to the assumptions of the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method, focusing on models with high Adjusted R 2 values. The OLS regression model, being global, estimates a single coefficient per explanatory variable across the entire study region. The explanatory regression is utilized to verify the assumptions of spatial regression, incorporating specific tests. The Jarque-Bera test assessed normality assumptions for residuals, and the statistically significant Koenker (BP) statistic indicated inconsistencies in the modeled relationships, possibly attributable to non-stationarity or heteroscedasticity. Multicollinearity, assessed through the Variance Inflation Factor, ensured the absence of redundancy among predictor variables, with coefficients displaying the expected sign and statistical significance, along with robust Adjusted R2 values.

A geographically weighted regression model

Gives local parameter estimates to reflect variations over space in the association between an outcome and predictor variables [ 31 ]. The geographically weighted regression model utilized the aggregated proportion of open defecation and all relevant predictor variables for each cluster. The evaluation of geographical heterogeneity for each coefficient involved comparing the AIC between the GWR model and the global OLS regression model. Model comparison, utilizing the corrected Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) and Adjusted R-squared, was performed for both the OLS (global model) and GWR (local) model. The determination of the best-fit model for local parameter estimates hinged on selecting the model with the lowest value and a higher adjusted R-squared (Ref).

Socio-demographic characteristics and proportion of open defecation

The mean age of participants was mean ± SD (24.29 + 19.23). The majority of the participants resided in rural areas, accounting for 17,567 (70.99%). Regarding educational background, 20,361(82.8%) had no primary education, and 9,423 (38.08%) belonged to the poor wealth status category. Furthermore, over half of the study participants 12,863 (51.98%), reported having no media exposure through watching TV or listening to the radio. The overall prevalence of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia was 20.08% (19.59, 20.58) (Table 1 ).

Spatial analysis result

Spatial autocorrelation (global moran’s i) and incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis.

At a distance of 346,550 m, the presence of statistically significant z-scores indicates a pronounced influence of spatial factors promoting clustering. The incremental spatial autocorrelation analysis revealed ten distance bands, with clustering becoming apparent starting at 207,048 m. This suggests that the spatial distribution of open defecation is not random and is influenced by geographic proximity (Fig. 2 ). The global Moran’s I index value of 4.540385, coupled with a p-value of less than 0.001, indicates a statistically significant clustering of the data. The Z-score of 6.9 further supports this, suggesting that the probability of this clustering occurring by random chance is less than 1%. This robust statistical evidence confirms the presence of a spatial pattern in the data, highlighting the need for further investigation into the underlying factors driving this clustering phenomenon (Fig. 3 ).

Incremental spatial autocorrelation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

Spatial autocorrelation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

Hot spot and cold spot regions for open defecation at household level in Ethiopia

The hotspot analysis conducted reveals distinct regions characterized by either high or low statistically significant coverage of open defecation. Hotspot regions, indicating high-risk areas for open defecation, include Amhara, Afar, Harari, and certain parts of Dire_Dawa. These areas exhibit a concentration of households engaging in open defecation, highlighting the urgent need for targeted interventions to address sanitation issues in these regions., Conversely, cold spot regions, identified as areas with statistically significant lower rates of open defecation, encompass Addis Ababa, certain parts of the Oromia region, some areas in southwest Ethiopia, and certain parts of the South Nation Nationality and People Region (SNNP). Understanding the factors contributing to the lower prevalence of open defecation in these areas could offer valuable insights for developing strategies to replicate success elsewhere (Fig. 4 ).

Hot spot analysis of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia using 2021 PMA-ET

This study utilized the ordinary Kriging spatial interpolation method to predict open defecation in unobserved areas due to its lower Mean and root-mean-square error compared to other interpolation methods. Inverse distance weighted spatial interpolation emerged as the optimal method, displaying the lowest mean predicted error (MPE: -1.30322) and Root Mean Square predicted Error (RMSP: 0.32558) in comparison to other methods. The analysis using inverse distance weighted in the 2021 PMA-ET predicted an increase in open defecation, transitioning from green to red-colored areas. (Table 2 ). Illustrate that Somali, Afar, Tigray, and some parts of Amhara regions were predicted as areas with higher open defecation compared to other regions (Fig. 5 ).

Interpolation of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia PMA-ET 2021. Red represents areas with high predicted open defecation, while green indicates areas with lower predicted open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia

The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis revealed the identification of 6 spatial clusters, with 4 clusters proving statistically significant at a p-value < 0.05. The primary cluster, represented by the green-colored ring spatial window, was predominantly situated in the Afar region and the eastern part of Amhara (Fig. 6 ). This spatial window, located at 11.514995 N, 41.570628 E with a radius of 199.77 km and a Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 28.124204, exhibited a relative risk (RR) of 91.86 at p < 0.001. This indicates that areas within the spatial window were 91.86 times more likely to have open defecation compared to those outside the window.

In addition, the remaining three spatial windows with tourmaline yellow, blue, and red colors were secondary clusters. The tourmaline yellow color spatial window covers the northern part of southwest Ethiopia region this spatial window was centered at 7.341302 N, 35.348832 E with a 23.12 km radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 10.31 relative risk (RR: 307.85), at p < 0.001. The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis showed that the area within the spatial window had a 307.85 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window. The blue color spatial window covers the Harari region this spatial window was centered at 9.165198 N, 42.082079 with a 46.97-kilometer radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 10.18 relative risk (RR: 20.63), at p < 0.001. The spatial Kuldorff’s Scan analysis also showed that areas within the spatial window had 20.63 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window. Whereas, The red color spatial window covers Tigray and the western part of Amhara regions this spatial window was centered at 13.261531 N, 36.464257 E with 212.98 km radius and Log-Likelihood ratio (LLR) of 8.51 relative risk (RR: 8.72), at p < 0.05. It showed that areas within the spatial window had an 8.72 times higher risk of open defecation outside the window (Table 3 ).

Spatial SaTScan analysis of open defecation at household level in Ethiopia, PMA-ET 2021

Spatial regression analysis

Factors affecting spatial variation in open defecation were assessed. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) model accounted for approximately 25.0% of the variation (Adjusted R square = 0.25) in open defecation, and all assumptions of the OLS method were satisfied.

The robust probability was employed to assess the statistical significance of coefficients, considering the significant Koenker (BP) statistic and observing that all coefficients were statistically significant ( p < 0.01). Additionally, the Joint Wald statistic was found to be statistically significant ( p < 0.01), indicating the overall significance of the entire model. Notably, there is no evidence of multicollinearity among explanatory variables, as the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) < 10) (Table 4 ). The Koenker test yielded statistical significance (Koenker (BP) Statistics = 20.33, p-value < 0.001).

Geographically weighted regression (GWR) analysis

In the Geographically weighted Regression model predictor variables male participants who had no media exposure (not watching either TV or radio) were statistically significant predictors spatially for open defecation at the household level. Moreover, it would be beneficial to assess the interaction effects between the predictor variable and other contextual factors to gain a comprehensive understanding of the drivers of open defecation in different geographical contexts.

The coefficients associated with male participants who had no media exposure exhibited spatial variation, ranging from − 2.81 to 1.26. This range signifies both negative and positive effects on open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. Notably, areas such as some parts of Addis Ababa, Harari, some part of Amhara, some parts of Oromia, some parts of SNNP, and some parts of Gambella and Afar regions displayed a robust and positive relationship, male participants, had no media exposure, and increased open defecation (Figs. 7 and 8 ).

Geographically varying values of coefficients per cluster for predictor male participants, PMA-ET 2021

Geographically varying values of coefficients per cluster for predictor participants had no media exposure, PMA-ET 2021

The Geographically Weighted Regression emerged as the superior model, with an AIC of -7.97, surpassing the 57.53 of the OLS model. The GWR model provided a better explanation by the predictor variables for open defecation, achieving an adjusted R2 value of 49.0%, compared to the OLS adjusted R2 value of 25.0% (Tables 4 and 5 ).

Open defecation is the act of excreting outdoors, away from designated sanitation facilities such as toilets or latrines. This practice poses significant public health concerns due to its role in disease transmission and its impact on environmental and social factors. This study aimed to explore spatial variation and predictors of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. This study revealed the overall proportion of open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia was 20.08% (19.59, 20.58). Comparable studies in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania report similar trends, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions. Common predictors include poverty, rural residency, and lack of education [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Divergences arise in the effectiveness of sanitation policies and community engagement efforts across countries. These findings can guide regional policymakers in designing tailored strategies to combat open defecation, promoting better health outcomes. A study conducted in India found that the prevalence of open defecation was much higher at around 40% [ 11 ], indicating a greater challenge in addressing this issue compared to Ethiopia. On the other hand, some African countries such as Rwanda have made significant progress in reducing open defecation through targeted interventions and community engagement [ 32 ]. These variations underscore the importance of considering regional nuances and tailoring interventions to specific cultural and socioeconomic contexts when addressing open defecation challenges globally. In addition, a contrast study in Nigeria found a higher prevalence of open defecation at 25.5% [ 33 ]and a study in Ghana reported a lower prevalence of open defecation at 15% [ 34 ]. The differences in open defecation rates between countries can be attributed to various factors such as socio-economic conditions, cultural practices, access to sanitation facilities, and government policies. Furthermore, studies in countries like Rwanda and Senegal documented lower prevalence rates, with household-level open defecation ranging from 5–10% [ 35 ]. These variations may be attributed to differences in sanitation infrastructure, cultural practices, and socioeconomic factors across countries. However, despite these differences, all studies underscore the persistent challenge of open defecation across Africa and emphasize the importance of targeted interventions to improve sanitation practices [ 36 , 37 ].

The Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis identified significant hotspots, indicating high levels of open defecation in specific regions found in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and some parts of Dire Dawa. The Kriging spatial interpolation predicted higher open defecation in Somali, Afar, Tigray, and some parts of Amhara regions. Comparisons with previous studies indicate similarities between identified hotspots within Ethiopia and those reported globally or within African countries [ 3 , 7 , 9 , 38 ]. The validation of identified hotspots within Ethiopia through comparisons with previous studies not only highlights the urgency and importance of addressing sanitation challenges in these regions but also draws parallels with global and African trends. This emphasizes the need to improve public health outcomes and promote sustainable development. [ 39 ]. However, the presence of these consistencies also underscores the complexity of factors contributing to open defecation, necessitating further research to unravel the underlying dynamics comprehensively.

The geographically weighted regression model revealed that predictor variables male participants who had no media exposure (not watching either TV or radio) were statistically significant predictors spatially for open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia. The findings from this study align with previous research conducted worldwide on open defecation determinants. Studies conducted in other African countries have also identified socio-cultural factors such as gender roles and access to information as influential predictors of open defecation [ 4 , 40 , 41 ]. Studies in Ghana [ 42 ] and Nigeria [ 43 ] utilized similar methodologies, indicating consistent findings regarding the influence of gender and media exposure on open defecation practices. Conversely, research in India [ 7 ] highlighted different predictors, such as income levels and access to sanitation facilities, showcasing contextual variations in determinants of open defecation.

These findings emphasize the necessity of context-aware approaches in tackling global sanitation challenges. While some predictors remain consistent internationally, others display significant variation, indicating the need for tailored solutions. Addressing gender dynamics and enhancing media accessibility emerge as pivotal strategies for reducing open defecation rates, resonating not only in Ethiopia but also worldwide. This aligns with prior research highlighting socio-cultural factors’ influence, reinforcing the importance of interventions promoting gender equality and information accessibility, as advocated by the World Health Organization. [ 44 , 45 ]. This finding resonates with global research, including studies in other African countries, emphasizing socio-cultural factors like gender roles and access to information as influential determinants. Addressing these factors through targeted interventions aligns with WHO’s sanitation policy, advocating for promoting gender equality and enhancing information accessibility to reduce open defecation rates globally.

Limitations of the study

The “Mapping and Predicting Open Defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET Study” has several limitations, including potential biases in self-reported data, limited geographic coverage, and the challenge of accounting for seasonal variations. Additionally, the predictive model may not fully capture local cultural and socioeconomic factors influencing sanitation practices.

The study revealed that open defecation at the household level in Ethiopia varies across the region’s regions, with significant hotspots identified in Amhara, Afar, Harari, and parts of Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis highlights male participants lacking media exposure as significant predictors of open defecation. To address the issue of open defecation in Ethiopia, targeted interventions should focus on improving media exposure among male participants in hotspot regions. Tailored sanitation programs and region-specific awareness campaigns are essential to effectively combat open defecation in these areas. Collaboration with local communities is crucial for implementing sustainable sanitation solutions and fostering behavior change initiatives.

The practical implication of the study

The study’s findings emphasize the need for targeted sanitation policies in Ethiopia, focusing on regions like Amhara, Afar, Harari, and Dire Dawa. Geographically weighted regression analysis reveals that male participants and media exposure are key predictors. Thus, gender-sensitive approaches and media campaigns are crucial for addressing open defecation in these hotspots.

Data availability

All the necessary data are included in the manuscript. The detailed information was found within the PMA report and the data set was by requesting permission through the website https://datalab.pmadata.org/dataset.

Abbreviations

Adjusted Odds Ratio

Enumeration Areas

Mean predicted error

South Nation and Nationalities people

Root mean square predicted error

Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia organization for giving the PMA datasets and authorizing us to conduct this research.

No funding was received for this study.

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Department of Health Promotion, School of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia

Natnael Kebede

Department of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Injibara University, Injibara, Ethiopia

Amare Mebrat Delie & Eneyew Talie Fenta

Department of Health Promotion and Behavioral Science, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Eyob Ketema Bogale & Tadele Fentabel Anagaw

Department of Health System and Policy, Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Science, University of Gonder, Gonder, Ethiopia

Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh

Department of Adult Health Nursing, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Destaw Endeshew

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Habitu Birhanu Eshetu

Department of Emergency Nurse, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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Natnael Kebede, Amare Mebrat Delie, Eyob Ketema Bogale, Tadele Fentabil Anagaw, Misganaw Guadie Tiruneh, Eneyew Talie Fenta, Destaw Endeshew, Habitu Birhanu Eshetu, Ousman Adal, and Abiyu Abadi Tareke contributed to the Conceptualizations of the study, Methodology, and, Statistical analysis. The author(s) read and approved the manuscript.

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Ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of the Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia (PMA-ET) organization dataset for research. The nationally representative survey, conducted by the Addis Ababa University School of Public Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Institute for Population and Reproductive Health at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, provided data accessible through the website https://datalab.pmadata.org/dataset . Authorization was obtained via an approval letter, and the data were used exclusively for this study, maintaining confidentiality and adhering to IRB-approved procedures. No personal or household identifiers were disclosed, and ethical guidelines were strictly followed, as outlined in the PMA report. Informed consent from all subjects and/or their legal guardian. Permission was sought from all levels for the study involving individuals under 18 years old. The legal guardian received comprehensive information about the study’s purpose, data collection procedures, and potential risks/benefits. Informed written consent was obtained from caretakers, representing each student’s family. A child participated only with caretaker agreement, and if a child opted out, their decision was respected, irrespective of caretaker consent. Participants were informed that participation was voluntary. All methods and materials were carried out under relevant guidelines and regulations.

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Kebede, N., Delie, A.M., Bogale, E.K. et al. Mapping and predicting open defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET study. BMC Public Health 24 , 1671 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19222-1

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Livien Yin: Thirsty

Livien yin: thirsty august 21, 2024 – february 2, 2025, the artist’s first solo museum exhibition merges archival research with contemporary and historical subjects to create speculative portraits of asian american communities across time.

The Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University is pleased to present Livien Yin: Thirsty , the first solo museum exhibition of Brooklyn-based Chinese-American artist and Stanford MFA ’19 alum Livien Yin . On view from August 21, 2024 to February 2, 2025 , the exhibition features new and recent paintings by Yin that reflect their research-driven approach to creating imaginative reconstructions of contemporary subjects alongside historical Asian Americans and their environments. Livien Yin: Thirsty is one of three 2024 exhibitions of the Asian American Art Initiative (AAAI)—a cross-disciplinary, institutional commitment at Stanford University dedicated to the study of artists and makers of Asian descent—curated by AAAI co-founder, Associate Curator Aleesa Pitchamarn Alexander with Kathryn Cua , curatorial assistant for the AAAI. “This exhibition perfectly exemplifies the interdisciplinary scope of the Asian American Art Initiative, as Livien Yin received their MFA from Stanford in 2019; has been inspired by archival material in Stanford Special Collections; and now makes their institutional debut at the Cantor with their first solo museum exhibition” says Veronica Roberts, John and Jill Freidenrich Director at the Cantor , “The museum is so proud to shepherd in this full-circle moment for Yin and celebrate their work.” Aleesa Pitchamarn Alexander, AAAI co-director and Robert M. and Ruth L. Halperin Associate Curator of Modern and Contemporary Art, comments: "Livien Yin stands out as one of the most exciting young artists working today, and we are thrilled to be presenting their inaugural museum solo show. Their innovative approach to interweaving personal stories with historical narratives, particularly highlighting the presence of Asian Americans in the Bay Area, enhances our understanding of ourselves and the world around us. Supporting an artist at this pivotal stage in their career aligns with the mission of the Asian American Art Initiative, and we are honored that Yin has chosen to collaborate with us on this project." Featuring Yin’s evocative painting series Paper Suns —which reexamines narratives about Chinese migration to the U.S. during the era of the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882-1943)—alongside new works capturing the enduring intergenerational connections within the Asian diaspora, the exhibition pays tribute to the radical resilience of Asian American networks across time. Yin’s paintings create spaces of possibility, unfixing the past while focusing on everyday practices of transformation often ignored or suppressed within historical narratives. Developed over several years, Paper Suns takes the form of fictional portraits inspired by the Chinese-born “paper sons and daughters” who entered the U.S. by obtaining forged documents stating they were children of U.S. citizens. Drawing from archival sources, including those in Stanford Special Collections , Yin’s canvases stage speculative histories in the absence of extant visual documentation, using the gaps in the historical record as fertile ground to envision the joys, pleasures, and pains of these individuals—capturing the indescribable and ephemeral elements of the so-called “paper” identities.

In Coaching Notes (2021, 2024), for example, Yin captures the historical significance of seemingly mundane acts. Specifically, the means by which the “paper sons and daughters'' clandestinely memorized details of their forged backgrounds—from village maps to family trees—outlined on paper notes which were smuggled in everyday food items like fruit, pork buns, and peanuts, as the artist’s compositions zoom in on the individuals’ hands and the papers themselves. By contrast, Dreaming Host (2022) zooms out to investigate the context and political resonances of a public as opposed to private event, as Yin’s painting reimagines the enigmatic figure known only as the “Chinese Beauty,” who often dozed off during her appearance at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. By enlisting a friend dressed in contemporary attire to portray the woman succumbing to sleep before a backdrop of expectant onlookers in period clothing, Yin invites viewers to consider the implications of this widely circulated incident. In doing so, Yin suggests that the “Chinese Beauty” may have feigned sleep as an act of defiance in the face of exploitation. Yin’s newest works extend their exploration of Asian American history by poignantly chronicling cross-generational connections. Portraying their friends and collaborators in vibrant, intimate portraits, the artist crafts a visual tapestry highlighting the transnational experience of assimilation, the rediscovery of ancestral knowledge, and the sharing of critical histories of defiance. By foregrounding their community, Yin reveals the networks necessary for propagating shared wisdom and compassion across generations. Juxtaposing a scene of the artist and a friend in contemporary garb playing pool against a backdrop of men in mid-century dress, Manang (2024) exemplifies the intergenerational conceit of Yin’s recent work. Paying tribute to the history of the International Hotel (I-Hotel) and its significance in Asian American activism in the Bay Area, this painting draws inspiration from a farewell party at the Lucky M Pool Hall, a famous hangout spot for the I-Hotel residents, before its closure. Primarily housing low-income elderly Filipino and Chinese men—many of whom were lifelong bachelors due to immigration bans on Asian women—the I-Hotel became a symbol of resistance for Asian Americans when its future was threatened by eviction. Yin’s blending of timelines and figures—current friends and community ancestors—reflects and celebrates the enduring impact of the I-Hotel’s legacy. Amid a far more contemporary scene of moving boxes and a suitcase, The Comma Between (2024) similarly features a friend of the artist, seen shortly after relocating to a temporary living situation. A mirror perched atop the suitcase offers a second view of their friend’s profile. Reflecting on the process of bifurcation, redefinition, and growth, this work encapsulates the artist’s own evolving and increasingly nuanced definition of home, rooted in friendship and proximity to loved ones.

ABOUT LIVIEN YIN Livien Yin (b. 1990, Boston, MA; lives and works in Brooklyn, NY) received their MFA in Art Practice at Stanford University and their BA in Studio Art at Reed College. Recent solo exhibitions include Ka-la-fo-ne-a , Friends Indeed, San Francisco (2022) and Paper Suns , The New Gallery, Calgary (2021). Notable group exhibitions include Expanding the Collections , New-York Historical Society (2023); The Descendants , curated by Melanie Lum, Micki Meng, and Kevin Poon at K11 MUSEA, Hong Kong (2023); and Wonder Women , curated by Kathy Huang at Jeffrey Deitch, New York and Los Angeles (2022). Yin has completed residencies at Skowhegan School of Painting & Sculpture, Denniston Hill, Shandaken Projects, Silver Art Projects and Headlands Center for the Arts, among others. Their work is in the permanent collections of the Cantor Arts Center, Stanford University; New-York Historical Society; Imina Paula Museum; Brazil; and ICA Miami. ABOUT THE ASIAN AMERICAN ART INITIATIVE: Based at the Cantor Arts Center, the Asian American Art Initiative (AAAI) is dedicated to the study of artists and makers of Asian descent. Co-founded by Aleesa Pitchamarn Alexander, Robert M. and Ruth L. Halperin Associate Curator of Modern and Contemporary Art, and Marci Kwon, Assistant Professor of Art History at Stanford, and announced in January 2021, the AAAI encompasses a range of activities, including collecting and exhibiting works of Asian American and Asian diaspora artists; preserving archival materials; fostering undergraduate and graduate education; and cultivating community collaboration and dialogue through public programming. The AAAI aims to establish Stanford as a leading academic and curatorial center for the study of Asian American and Asian diaspora artists. Rather than a discrete identity category, the AAAI approaches the term “Asian American” as a diverse and relational term that signifies the interplay of social inclusion, exclusion, and racialization, as well as connections among East, Southeast, and South Asia; the Pacific Islands; and the Americas. The AAAI strives to foster innovative, interdisciplinary research into the work by Asian American and Asian diaspora makers. ABOUT THE CANTOR ARTS CENTER: Serving the Stanford campus, the Bay Area community, and visitors from around the world, the Cantor Arts Center provides an outstanding cultural experience for visitors of all ages. Founded when the university opened in 1891, the historic museum was expanded and renamed in 1999 for lead donors Iris and B. Gerald Cantor. The Cantor’s collection spans 5,000 years and includes more than 41,000 works of art from around the globe. The Cantor is an established resource for teaching and research on campus. Free admission, tours, lectures, and family activities make the Cantor one of the most visited university art museums in the country.

EXHIBITION CREDITS: We gratefully acknowledge major support for Livien Yin: Thirsty provided by Pamela and David Hornik. Sustained support generously provided by the Halperin Exhibitions Fund.

VISIT THE MUSEUM Cantor Arts Center 328 Lomita Drive at Museum Way Stanford, CA T: 650-723-4177 https://museum.stanford.edu/ Wednesday – Sunday 11:00am – 5:00pm FREE ADMISSION PRESS CONTACTS Cultural Counsel Evan Lenox-Samour, Associate Director [email protected] Hannah Kay, Account Executive [email protected]

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New ‘Detective Work’ on Butterfly Declines Reveals a Prime Suspect

Agricultural insecticides were a key factor, according to a study focused on the Midwest, though researchers emphasized the importance of climate change and habitat loss.

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Four monarch butterflies on a plant. They have black bodies and orange wings with strips of black and flecks of white around the outer edges.

By Catrin Einhorn

What’s driving ominous declines in insects?

While a growing body of research shows decreases in many insect populations, it has been hard for scientists to disentangle the possible causes. Are insects suffering from habitat loss as natural areas are plowed and paved? Is climate change doing them in? What about pesticides?

The latest insight comes from a study on butterflies in the Midwest, published on Thursday in the journal PLOS ONE . Its results don’t discount the serious effects of climate change and habitat loss on butterflies and other insects, but they indicate that agricultural insecticides exerted the biggest impact on the size and diversity of butterfly populations in the Midwest during the study period, 1998 to 2014.

Especially detrimental, the researchers found, was a class of widely used insecticides called neonicotinoids that are absorbed into the tissues of plants.

“It’s a story about unintended consequences,” said Scott Swinton, a professor of agricultural economics at Michigan State University and one of the study’s authors. “In developing technologies that were very effective at controlling soybean aphid and certain other agricultural pests, non-target species that we care about, butterflies in particular, have been harmed.”

Europe largely banned neonicotinoids in 2018, citing risks to bees. The new findings come as wildlife officials in the United States weigh whether to place monarch butterflies, which range coast to coast, on the endangered species list. (They have already found such protections to be warranted but said they were precluded by higher-priority needs.)

In addition to delighting humans and pollinating plants, butterfly species are a critical food source for other animals, notably birds, during their life stage as caterpillars. In fact, research has linked some bird declines to insect declines.

Are Butterflies Wildlife? Depends Where You Live.

A legal quirk leaves officials in at least a dozen states with little or no authority to protect insects. That’s a growing problem for humans.

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Published: 29 May 2023

Facilitators and barriers to collaboration between pre-hospital emergency and emergency department in traffic accidents: a qualitative study

Hasan Jamshidi 1 ,
Reza Khani Jazani 2 ,
Ali Khani Jeihooni 3 ,
Ahmad Alibabaei 4 ,
Shahram Alamdari 5 &
Majid Najafi Kalyani 6

BMC Emergency Medicine volume 23 , Article number: 58 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Death caused by traffic accidents is one of the major problems of health systems in low- and middle-income countries. Rapid handover of the traffic accident victims and proper collaboration between the pre-hospital and emergency departments (EDs) play a critical role in improving the treatment process and decreasing the number of accidental deaths. Considering the importance of the collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments, this study was designed to investigate the facilitators and barriers of collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments in traffic accidents.

This research is a qualitative study using content analysis. In order to collect data, semi-structured interviews were used. Seventeen subjects (including pre-hospital and emergency department personnel, emergency medicine specialists, and hospital managers) were selected through purposive sampling and were interviewed. After transcribing and reviewing interviews, data analysis was performed with the qualitative content analysis approach.

The participants consisted of 17 individuals (15 persons in pre-hospital and emergency departments with at least three years of work experience, one emergency medicine specialist and one hospital manager) who were selected by purposive sampling. The interviews were analyzed and three main categories and seven sub-categories were extracted. The main categories included “individual capabilities”, “development of mutual understanding”, and “infrastructures and processes”.

Proper and practical planning and policymaking to strengthen facilitators and eliminate barriers to collaborate between pre-hospital and emergency departments are key points in promoting collaboration between these two important sectors of health system and reducing the traffic accident casualties in Iran.

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Traffic accidents kill about 1.2 million people and injure or disable 20 to 50 million individuals annually, accounting for 25% of the world’s deaths and 22% of the world’s disabilities. They are also the major challenge facing the global health system [ 1 ], as well as the health systems in low and middle income countries. Iran with 28,000 deaths per year has the first rank in the world in terms of the frequency of fatalities related to driving [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Road accidents in Iran are 20 times the world average and the second leading cause of death [ 3 ]. In Iran, the pre-hospital emergency department is responsible for providing primary health care and delivering the injured from traffic accidents to the emergency department, where usually one-third of its beds are occupied by road accident victims [ 5 , 6 ]. The process of traffic victims’ handover is illustrated in Fig. 1 .

The process of traffic victims’ handover in Iran

Initially, emergency medical technicians (EMTs) would be present at the accident scene and perform basic resuscitation measures on the victims of traffic accidents.

Then, the injured are handed over to the nurse in charge of triage in the hospital’s emergency department.

After being admitted to the hospital, the injured are visited by an emergency medicine specialist and the necessary measures are taken.

In the event of an accident, intra-departmental and inter-departmental collaboration is of great importance, and the providing effective services requires the collaboration of all health system staff [ 7 , 8 ]. According to a number of studies, one of the factors causing high mortalities in traffic accidents is the lack of proper collaboration between pre-hospital departments and emergency departments in many developing countries [ 9 ]. Accelerating patient handover, facilitating the continuation of treatment process, reducing mortality, and increasing satisfaction are the results of effective collaboration between pre-hospital departments and emergency departments [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Despite the great importance of collaboration and its significant impacts on reducing mortalities of road accidents [ 14 ], few quantitative studies have been conducted in this field [ 15 , 16 ]. A majority of studies conducted in Iran have also focused on the quantity and causes of delay in starting pre-hospital care or management factors [ 17 ]. Erie et al. reported the lack of proper collaboration between emergency department staff and other organizations as one of the challenges experienced by pre-hospital emergency staff and believed that they need to collaborate with physicians, nurses, midwives, and psychotherapists to promote care in patient handover [ 18 ]. The promotion of pre-hospital and emergency department collaboration requires identifying their challenges and problems. In this regard, identifying the experiences of the personnel involved in this process seems to be a great contribution. A comprehensive understanding of all aspects of this phenomenon is needed to identify facilitators or barriers affecting the collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments. Since neither quantitative studies nor one or more questionnaires are sufficient to approach such an in-depth understanding, the present qualitative study was conducted to identify facilitators and barriers of collaboration between the pre-hospital and emergency departments.

Materials and methods

Methodology and population of the study.

The present study is a qualitative research based on the content analysis approach. This study was conducted on 17 healthcare professionals affiliated with Fasa University of Medical Sciences including seven emergency medical technicians (EMTs), six nurses (triage and emergency department nurses), two general physicians, one emergency medicine specialist, and one hospital manager. The data were collected from two pre-hospital emergency centers in Fasa City, and Valiasr hospital emergency department in Fasa, Fars, Iran. This major hospital is a trauma center receiving more than 2000 traffic accident victims annually.

The criteria for entering the study were having at least 3 years of work experience, having rich experience, and willingness to participate in the study. Purposive sampling initiated in 2015 and continued with theoretical sampling and individual in-depth individual interviews until data saturation was reached.

Data collection and analysis

Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were used to collect the data. All interviews began with an open question, such as “Talk about a day at work and your collaboration with the emergency department staff.“ and some guiding questions like “Please give me an example.“ were also used to further clarify the topic. During the interviews, follow-up questions were asked to clarify the concepts. On average, the interviews lasted for 50 min. After explaining the purpose and the method of the interview and obtaining the participants’ informed consent regarding the recording of their speeches, the interviews were recorded and then transcribed verbatim by the researchers. The interviews were conducted by three qualitative research experts. The data were then reviewed several times to reach an overall understanding.

Two of the three researchers reviewed the data independently using standard content analysis methods, extracting semantic units from the interview statements (including words, sentences, and paragraphs), and coded them based on their similarities and differences. According to continuous thinking, interpretation, and comparison of data, key categories and themes were extracted and primary categories were identified. The final categories were extracted by summarizing the concepts and codes and according to the differences or similarities of the initial categories [ 19 ].

The interview was developed for this study has previously been published [ 20 ].

The validity of this study was obtained by using continuous comparison methods and observation by the research team and external observers. Credibility was obtained through researcher’s long-term engagement, the combination of data collection, repeated reviews, supervisor’s reviews, and continuous comparison of data. External member checks were used to achieve dependencies. Manuscripts and notes were handed to two associated professors, who approved the confirmability of the findings. Finally, the transferability of the present study was approved due to the description of the rich data [ 19 , 21 ]. Some ethical considerations included confidentiality of information, written informed consent form for interviews and interview records, and the right to withdraw from the study whenever the participants wanted, were considered. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences.

The participants in this study were 17 individuals (13 people in pre-hospital and emergency departments with at least three years of work experience, two general physicians, one emergency medicine specialist, and one hospital manager) who were selected through purposive sampling. The average age of the participants was 35 years and their average work experience was eight years. According to the data analysis, three main categories (individual capabilities, development of mutual understanding, and infrastructures and processes) were extracted. Table 1 summarizes the three main categories and seven sub-categories we derived, along with a representative quotation for each of them (Table 1 ).

1. Individual capabilities

“Individual capabilities” was the first extracted category and consisted of two subcategories: “individual knowledge” and “individual experience.” The individual capabilities provide opportunities for staff to be more scientifically and empirically efficient and to demonstrate better interactive responsiveness in inter-sectorial collaboration and patient delivery to facilitate the collaboration process.

Individual knowledge.

The results indicated that the more successful the individuals were in acquiring knowledge individually, the more effectively they played their role in inter-sectorial collaboration. Higher levels of knowledge and being scientifically updated provide the basis for more effective and facilitated collaboration. Having undergraduate or higher educational records had provided the knowledge for these staff. In this regard, one of the physicians from emergency department stated, “When trained emergency staff handover a patient, they well-express the patient’s history and problems so that the recipient feels comfortable. In fact, personnel’s high levels of education make the patient handover less difficult.“

Another emergency medical technician from the pre-hospital emergency department said, “The trained personnel in the triage department ask many questions regarding the condition of the injured, the mechanism of the injury, and the patient’s affected organs. They also check symptoms. In this way, I feel comfortable when delivering the injured to them.“

Individual experience.

The results indicate that the more experienced the staff are, the more effective the inter-sectorial collaboration is, and that the higher level of experience as a facilitator provides the basis for more effective collaboration.

For instance, one emergency department nurse, with eight years of work experience mentioned, “I am more comfortable with someone with better and longer work experience because he or she knows better what is important when handing over a traffic accident injured.“

The most important foundations for the emergence of inter-sectorial collaboration were studying scientific books related to the field, having theoretical knowledge, and practical and field experiences.

2. Development of mutual understanding

The development of the mutual understanding was the second category containing three subcategories: “common educational program”, “sharing experiences”, and “empathic behaviors”. Developing mutual understanding provides opportunities for scientific, skillful, attitudinal and behavioral closeness of personnel and facilitates the collaboration process and vice versa.

Common educational programs.

The participants considered their joint programs important and emphasized on its effective role in facilitating collaboration. One emergency medical technician quoted, “The emergency department holds a monthly educational class on topics like trauma or transportation. We have more understanding and collaboration with the hospital staff who participate in these classes”. Another participant also noted, “The personnel who participate in joint workshops have a better collaboration because of a greater understanding of each other’s problems.”

From the participants’ point of view, strengthening the areas of developing joint educational programs, including joint classes and workshops, plays a key role in facilitating collaboration between the pre-hospital and emergency departments.

Sharing experiences.

Sharing experiences also facilitates collaboration. One of the emergency department staff said, “Staff who only have a working experience in a hospital triage cannot understand the current state of a person who has just been injured in an accident and is to be handed over; however, those who have experience in both pre-hospital and emergency departments better understand this condition.“

From the participants’ perspective, sharing experiences through having joint operational maneuvers and familiarizing personnel with the difficulties and complexities of work in both departments are crucial in facilitating collaboration between the pre-hospital and emergency departments.

Empathic behaviors.

Empathic behaviors, mutual understanding, and creating a friendly atmosphere in the work environment were other facilitators of collaboration, which were emphasized by the participants. The results indicated that respectful, professional, and friendly behaviors make inter-sectorial collaboration more effective. In these places, which are filled with engagement and friendship, solving possible shortcomings and problems are done with collective effort, and individual challenges are less likely to happen.

Regarding the positive role of mutual respect among staff, as an effective factor in reducing job stress and facilitating collaboration, one of the emergency department participants stated, “There is more collaboration between those who respect each other.“

Concerning the familiarity and the professional and friendly behaviors of the staff in these two departments, as another important factor facilitating collaboration, one nurse from the emergency department claimed, “When the staff are friendly and sympathetic, there is no conflict. This is not a problem for the patient. Our friendship allows us to deliver and admit patients in a shorter time since we do not pay attention to trivial matters. If there are some unaccomplished tasks, the emergency department staff will take care of them so that everything works better.” Another participant said, “There is much more collaboration between friends than between those who do not know each other.“

In the busy and stressful conditions of the emergency room and hospital, professional, respectful, and friendly behaviors along with reduced tension and conflict increase collaboration and mutual understanding.

3. Infrastructures and processes

Infrastructures and processes were the third category and the most important factor influencing collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments. The availability or unavailability of specific infrastructures and work processes was one of the facilitators or barriers to inter-sectorial collaboration. This category was sub-classified as “adequate and similar equipment” “and “deficiencies in work processes.“

Adequate and similar equipment.

The availability of appropriate communication facilities was important since entering accidents scenes to the end of the patient transportation process. The lack of equipment and communication standards between the pre-hospital departments and emergency departments was a noticeable barrier to collaboration. The lack of wireless communication between the ambulance and the hospital as well as the lack of a direct telephone line from the pre-hospital emergency headquarters to the hospital was another example of such inadequacies.

One EMT from the pre-hospital emergency department said, “I do not have the opportunity to directly connect to the hospital from the accident scene. I cannot report the number of injured and the type of injuries to the hospital from the accident scene for them to be prepared. Thus, the onset of their treatment is delayed”. According to the participants, the lack of communication equipment for coordination between the pre-hospital departments and emergency department was a problem that seriously disrupted the patient’s rapid transport to the hospital and preparedness for collaboration.

Regarding the importance of the equipment, since pre-hospital and hospital emergency departments are managed separately in Iran, and given that pre-hospital emergency staff sometimes have to supply and replace the equipment consumed for the injured in the hospital emergency room, the existence of sufficient facilities and equipment needed by the injured and the availability of similar equipment in both sectors are important factors facilitating collaboration among staff. In this regard, one emergency medical technician asserted, “Having enough equipment in the emergency room of the hospital removes the collaboration problems; whenever I take a patient, there are enough empty beds and backboards, so I hand over the injured easily and the emergency room staff prepare a backboard for me. In this way, there is no conflict”.

The adequacy and uniformity of equipment and consumables, sufficient number of emergency experts, and recovery beds in the emergency room were important factors facilitating the handover of road accident victims.

Defects and disorganizations.

Patient handover and evolution are among the most important pillars of interpersonal collaboration. However, the inadequacy of processes such as documentation, development of clinical guidelines, handover of the injured from traffic incidents, delivery of consumables as well as time constraints played the role of a barrier for optimal collaboration.

One of the participants from the pre-hospital emergency department stated, “The form containing the written emergency report and patient’s history does not contain a number of important issues. For example, no blood sugar level is included for a patient with a low level of consciousness. Besides, all patients’ information is not recorded”.

The defects in the current pre-hospital emergency forms were due to the absence of some important records and patient information, and inconsistent reporting during patient handovers caused disruptions in collaboration.

Another case was the lack of coding regarding work processes and clinical guidelines. One of the nurses working in the emergency department noted, “In general, the hospital does not have a specific protocol for the delivery of emergency patients taken by ambulance, even the beds are not classified according to the triage level to locate, for example, red and green patients for further diagnoses”.

The absence of a defined protocol or a specific person in charge of admitting injuries imposes extra waiting on technicians, prolongs the delivery time, interferes with personnel duties in these two sectors, and negatively affects collaboration. Another problem in the rapid handover of injured patients was replacing pre-hospital emergency equipment consumed for the patient at the accident scene and during the delivery by emergency department equipment.

One of the emergency medical technicians from the pre-hospital emergency sector mentioned, “There is no one in charge of receiving the supplies and delivering the consumed equipment to us. I have to wait for a letter to the pharmacy. At the pharmacy, I can receive the commodity after hearing complaints and questions like: Who wrote the letter? Why do you want it? For whom was it used? It is a waste of time; I cannot answer the questions posed by the pharmacy staff since my focus was on saving the patient!“ Another participant asserted, “Another barrier to collaboration is the delivery of equipment. I myself have to go to the pharmacy and waste a lot of time to receive them, since no one is in charge of doing the same task or the equipment could be available in the triage ward so that we do not waste our time.“

Incomplete delivery of consumables, as well as wasting technician’s time in the hospital, and the creation of an environment full of tension is another barrier to collaboration between the pre-hospital department and emergency department.

A time limit is set for patient delivery by the pre-hospital emergency staff. This means that the personnel have to deliver injured patients from the pre-hospital emergency department to the emergency department staff within 10 min. The requirement to comply with this time limit has posed a lot of stress on the pre-hospital emergency staff and interrupted their collaboration with the hospital staff. An emergency medical technician states, “They have set a maximum of 10 minutes for me to stay at the hospital. When it takes longer, I will receive an alert. If the patient is in critical condition with multiple traumas, I need double-checking because I have to explain many points to the doctor and nurses. Sometimes, I have a heart attack patient, so I have to stay longer and help him to be relocated and handed over; however, I cannot collaborate appropriately with the triage department since my 10 minutes is over and I am stressed out to get back to the station early.“

Data analysis revealed the facilitators and barriers to the collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments in the case of traffic incidents in Iran. They were classified into three categories: individual capabilities, development of mutual understanding, and infrastructures and processes. These categories represent the significant role of individual and organizational factors in creating the facilitators and barriers to collaboration.

The participants believed that the staff who were more successful in acquiring knowledge and experience, had better collaboration. Higher education and more hands-on experience created more effective collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments. These findings were consistent with Bost’s et al.’s findings indicating that the knowledge, experience, and capability of personnel are important factors affecting collaboration [ 22 ]. Oen et al. also pointed out the personnel’s lack of knowledge as the cause of patient handover problems and as one of the challenges facing collaboration [ 14 ]. One of the challenges to collaboration was the lack of experience, as Ace and Apkar noted [ 23 , 24 ].

The findings indicated that the development of mutual understanding along with a joint educational program, sharing experiences, and the occurrence of empathic behaviors were among the facilitators of collaboration as emphasized by the participants. In line with these findings, Jensen et al. also reported that the development of mutual understanding improves the quality of collaboration in patient delivery [ 25 ]. The results of the study conducted by Bruce et al. also highlighted the positive role of joint educational programs in reducing the risks of patient handover [ 26 ]. The participants stated that the existence of shared knowledge and experiences helps to better understand shared experiences with patients, the workplace, and medical interventions at the accident scene and hospital, leading to improved collaboration.

One example of mutual understanding is empathic behaviors. This factor contributed significantly to increase collaboration. Professional, friendly, supportive behaviors and previous knowledge about each other would increase encouragement, trust and mutual relationship among colleagues. In this case, the collaboration is facilitated and problems are solved with a better and faster collective effort. The findings of this study are confirmed by those obtained by Beh Nia et al., who believed that poor intragroup communication and mistrust are challenges to collaboration [ 27 ]. Dawson et al. also described staff encouragement as a positive factor in improving patient handover between pre-hospital emergency and emergency department medical staff [ 9 ]. Other researchers have also emphasized on the critical role of trust in facilitating and enhancing collaboration and reducing mistakes [ 28 , 29 ].

The results indicated that if infrastructures were provided and the processes were defined and formulated, they will facilitate collaboration; otherwise, they prevent collaboration. Establishing a timely, accurate, and professional communication is the basis of establishing a mutual collaboration. The results of this study showed that pre-hospital emergency personnel suffered from lack of communication facilities and believe that this deficiency affects patient care, reporting, and coordination. In a qualitative study, Khademian et al. investigated the effective factors in improving teamwork in a trauma center. They also announced the inefficiency of the information sharing system as a barrier to optimal teamwork [ 30 ]. Studies by Miyers et al. highlighted the relationship and coordination between pre-hospital emergency information systems and other relevant information systems to provide appropriate pre-hospital emergency services [ 31 ]. The role of communication equipment as one of the most influential components in the performance of Iran’s pre-hospital emergency department is similar to the results found by Adent. In his study, the preferred key feature of the French pre-hospital emergency department was introduced to be the well-suited communication equipment system [ 32 ]. On the other hand, technology has been served the health systems in different countries. A review of pre-hospital emergency systems in developed countries shows that online medical communication is currently one of the popular features used and plays a fundamental role in providing services to far-reaching areas, that is, the principle of equality in access to services and communication acceleration. In Iran, however, the technological progress in the pre-hospital emergency departments is not similar to that observed in the developed countries and does not have such features [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ].

In the case of other infrastructures, the availability of equipment and the similarity of equipment and supplies in the pre-hospital and emergency departments was one of the most influential factors for inter-sectorial collaboration. Mock et al. found the significant effect of physical resources on the care provided for traffic accidents [ 12 ]. In Vitkaitis’ study, the most important problems were emergency services in Lithuania, old ambulances, and the lack of integrated standards for medical education, which was emphasized as one of the factors affecting the poor performance of emergency medical services in this country [ 37 ]. These results are in line with the findings of the current study, indicating that pre-hospital and emergency department personnel are considered as specialists and capital in each country and their time is valueless. If they have access to sufficient infrastructure and facilities, they will have better collaboration, services, and will be more successful in satisfying patients.

According to the findings, the infrastructures and processes play an important role in effective collaboration; plus, their inadequacy causes problems in proper collaboration. Deficiencies such as lack of programming, specific processes for patient handover, equipment, reporting, and documentation are considered to be important barriers to effective collaboration. Accordingly, there is no specific protocol for admitting patients to the hospital and this had a negative impact on inter-sectorial collaboration. Bahadori et al. studied collaboration in crises and called detailed processes to achieve maximum collaboration [ 38 ]. As Bost et al. noted, clinical handover of patients is an important process that can help or prevent the safe transfer of patients to health systems [ 22 ]. Poor intragroup communication, mistrust, and lack of teamwork processes are among challenges facing collaboration [ 27 ]. Mizell et al. also assumed the standardization of handover procedures and training interdisciplinary issues as one of the important factors in enhancing collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments [ 39 ]. In Vitkaitis’ study, the lack of unified standards was considered as one of the negative factors regarding the performance of emergency medical services in Lithuania [ 37 ]. This finding was in line with the results of this study. Complete documentation and reporting are the major factors in the handover of traffic accident victims between the pre-hospital and emergency departments. The lack or shortage of necessary equipment and infrastructures for collecting and presenting patient information has posed challenges to inter-sectorial collaboration.

Limitations

The present study was a qualitative study with the aim of identifying the facilitators and barriers of collaboration between pre-hospital and emergency departments to handover the injured from traffic accidents in Iran. One of the limitations of this study was the qualitative feature of it; therefore, the results cannot be generalized to other emergency centers. Another limitation was the small sample size we used in this study. Moreover, the data collection was limited to a specific region, which cannot be indicative of other emergency centers in the whole country.

More quantitative and qualitative studies with a larger sample size are suggested in other emergency centers in other provinces of the country in order to better identify the facilitators and barriers to collaboration using the experiences of other staff across the country.

The current study identified the main facilitators and barriers to the traffic accidents injured delivery from pre-hospital emergency sectors to the hospitals in Iran. The results of this study indicate that individual capabilities such as knowledge and experience, development of mutual understanding through joint educational programs, sharing experiences, empathic behaviors, efficient infrastructures and processes such as the existence of specific work processes, documentation and paying attention to its prerequisites, and the availability of adequate and similar equipment are essential components in improving and facilitating collaboration between the pre-hospital and emergency departments. Ignoring the mentioned factors are barriers resulting in increased mortality rates and injuries caused by road accidents. Considering the undeniable effects of collaboration on the quality of medical services provided to traffic accident victims and the important challenges of this stage, issues related to the patient handover should be concerned as a part of the pre-hospital and emergency staff educational programs. Health managers and policy makers should take measures to develop policies and programs to strengthen facilitators and solve the challenges of establishing an appropriate collaboration framework. Empowering facilitators and removing barriers can provide positive and effective grounds for establishing collaboration in order to improve health services for road accident victims.

Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This study is part of a PhD thesis approved by the Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences. Our warm thanks go to the Research committee of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, as well as for participations in the study.

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Department of Nursing, School of Nursing, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran

Hasan Jamshidi

Department of Health in Disaster and Emergencies, School of Health, Safety and Environment, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Reza Khani Jazani

Nutrition Research Center, Department of Public Health, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Ali Khani Jeihooni

School of Health, Safety and Environment, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Ahmad Alibabaei

Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Obesity Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Shahram Alamdari

Department of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

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Contributions

HJ, RKJ, AKHJ, AA, SA and MNK assisted in conceptualization and design of the study, oversaw data collection, conducted data analysis and drafted the manuscript. HJ, RKJ and MNK conceptualized and designed the study, assisted in data analysis and reviewed the manuscript. HJ, RKJ, AKHJ, AA, SA and MNK assisted in study conceptualization and reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Reza Khani Jazani .

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This study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science (Ethical Code: IR.SBMU.RETECH.REC.1396.1150). Informed consent was taken from all the participants. All methods were carried out in accordance the declarations of Helsinki. There was an emphasis on maintaining privacy in keeping and delivering the information accurately without mentioning the names of the participants. The participants were given the right to leave the interview at any time, and they were promised to have access to the study results.

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Jamshidi, H., Jazani, R.K., Khani Jeihooni, A. et al. Facilitators and barriers to collaboration between pre-hospital emergency and emergency department in traffic accidents: a qualitative study. BMC Emerg Med 23 , 58 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-023-00828-4

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Received : 01 September 2022

Accepted : 22 May 2023

Published : 29 May 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-023-00828-4

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What is the Significance of the Study?
The significance of the study is a section in the introduction of your thesis or paper. It's purpose is to make clear why your study was needed and the specific contribution your research made to furthering academic knowledge in your field. In this guide you'll learn: what the significance of the study means, why it's important to include ...
Understanding the Filipino Millennial Generation.pdf
Significance of the Study This paper in particular will thoroughly discuss the existing Filipino millennial culture aided by observations and narratives from subjects concerned and field experts. ... (2016, as cited in Natividad, 2016), in their global research study called "The Truth About the Youth", conducted a survey of 18 countries ...
Frontiers
Taken together, it can be assumed that the sociodemographic characteristics of our study are similar to the Filipino Facebook population. Based on the CD-RISC-10 quartiles for community sample provided by Campbell-Sills et al. (2009), the mean resilience score (24.83) of the current sample belongs to the lowest 25%. This implies that the ...
What is the Significance of a Study? Examples and Guide
The most obvious measure of a study's long term research significance is the number of citations it receives from future publications. The thinking is that a study which receives more citations will have had more research impact, and therefore significance, than a study which received less citations.
(PDF) Resilience of Philippine Folklore: An Enduring Heritage and
Re silience of Philippine Folklore: An Enduring Heritage and Legacy for the. 21st Century. By: Edgar R. Eslit, Ph.D., CSASS. Abstract: This qualitative study a nalyzed 10 popular folklores in the ...
PDF Correlates of Filipino Students' Perspectives on ...
This descriptive-correlational research involved randomly selected 367 college students at the National University. The impetus for the study is the exclusion of Filipino language subjects in the tertiary levels on the onset of K-12 program. According to the results of the study, using Filipino language as a
Target participant
about research significance of the study: the outcomes of this study are expected to provide benefits to the following: students: the study aims to uncover. Skip to document. University; ... The target participants that are included are the Filipino teacher and the 7th grade students at Laboratory Integrated School. By including a diverse range ...
Research Tagalog: How to Write the Significance of the Study
Are you struggling to write the significance of the study for your research paper in Tagalog? Watch this video to learn how to craft a clear and compelling statement that explains the purpose ...
5 kahalagahan ng pag aaral significance of the study
10/25/2020. 100% (8) View full document. 5. Kahalagahan ng Pag-aaral(Significance of the Study), inilalahad ang significance ng pagsasagawa ng pananaliksik ng paksa ng pag-aaral. Tinutukoy dito ang maaaring maging kapakinabangan o halaga ng pag-aaral sa iba‟t ibang indibidwal, pangkat, tanggapan, institusyon, propesyon, didiplina o larangan. 6.
Explicating the culinary heritage significance of Filipino kakanin
Filipino kakanin are local rice or root crop delicacies included in the daily consumption of Filipinos as snacks in between meals; however, the traditional methods and ingredients utilized with this kakanin are gradually fading away because of modernization. All things considered, as a starting point to look at Filipino rice-based kakanin recipes. This research aimed to explicate the culinary ...
Explicating the culinary heritage significance of Filipino kakanin
Section snippets Selection and study site. The subject of the research is Filipino kakanin in the Philippines. Polistico (2016, p. 157) defined kakanin as "native rice cake/native rice and root crop delicacies." Each region in the Philippines has its kakanin to offer. Filipinos consume this kakanin daily since its ingredients are accessible (Besa and Dorotan, 2014).
New study reveals impact of baseline choice on 2022 Yangtze River
A study published on June 7 in Environmental Research Letters examines how the use of a fixed versus a 10-year moving baseline alters the perceived extremity of the 2022 heat wave. The findings ...
Doing, being, becoming and belonging in forging professional identity
Participants placed importance on collaboration and partnership, working to develop and belong to a shared team identity. A sense of belonging provided participants with the confidence and voice to promote the profession and challenge others' beliefs. ... Two participants in this research study appeared comfortable and not precious about ...
Mapping and predicting open defecation in Ethiopia: 2021 PMA-ET study
Introduction There has been extensive research conducted on open defecation in Ethiopia, but a notable gap persists in comprehensively understanding the spatial variation and predictors at the household level. This study utilizes data from the 2021 Performance Monitoring for Action Ethiopia (PMA-ET) to address this gap by identifying hotspots and predictors of open defecation. Employing ...
Livien Yin: Thirsty
Primarily housing low-income elderly Filipino and Chinese men—many of whom were lifelong bachelors due to immigration bans on Asian women—the I-Hotel became a symbol of resistance for Asian Americans when its future was threatened by eviction. ... The AAAI aims to establish Stanford as a leading academic and curatorial center for the study ...
Research Made Easy: Significance of the Study (With Examples)
Vlog Title: Research Made Easy: Significance of the Study (With Examples)| English & Tagalog | JC ArchivesThis video will help you understand importance of s...
Butterflies Are in Decline. New Research Points to Insecticides.
For the new study, researchers integrated multiple data sets and used statistical analysis to make comparisons between different potential drivers of decline across 81 counties in five states.
Determining the Importance of In-Flight Treadmill Running Capabilities
Determining the Importance of In-Flight ... these modalities do not include a treadmill. Recent research suggests that greater in-flight running intensity and volume attenuate decrements in aerobic capacity and strength; however, this has not been experimentally confirmed. The Exploration Exercise Treadmill Requirements study is currently ...
Facilitators and barriers to collaboration between pre-hospital
Methodology and Population of the study. The present study is a qualitative research based on the content analysis approach. This study was conducted on 17 healthcare professionals affiliated with Fasa University of Medical Sciences including seven emergency medical technicians (EMTs), six nurses (triage and emergency department nurses), two general physicians, one emergency medicine ...

Significance of the Study – Examples and Writing Guide

Significance of the Study

Types of Significance of the Study

Theoretical Significance

Practical Significance

Significance for Future Research

How to Write Significance of the Study

Significance of the Study in Research Paper

Significance of the Study In Thesis

Significance of the Study in Research Proposal

Examples of Significance of the Study

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How To Write Scope and Delimitation of a Research Paper (With Examples)

Table of Contents

Where Should I Put the Scope and Delimitation?

Why Should I Write the Scope and Delimitation of My Research Paper?

What Is the Difference Between Delimitation and Limitation?

How To Write Scope and Delimitation: Step-by-Step Guide

1. Review Your Study’s Objectives and Problem Statement

2. State the Key Information To Explain Your Study’s Coverage and Boundaries

a. The Main Objective of the Research

b. Independent and Dependent Variables Included

c. Subject of the Study

d. Timeframe and Location of the Study

e. Brief Description of the Study’s Research Design and Methodology

3. Indicate Which Variables or Factors Are Not Covered by Your Research

Examples of Scope and Delimitation of a Research Paper

a. Example 1

b. Example 2

2. Scope and Delimitation Examples for Qualitative Research

Tips and Warnings

2. Use key phrases when writing your research’s scope

3. Use key phrases when writing factors beyond your research’s delimitations

4. Don’t forget to ask for help

5. Make it brief

Frequently Asked Questions

2. The Scope and Delimitation should consist of how many paragraphs?

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