unpublished master dissertation

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Adapted from American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Formatting:

• Italicize the title
• Identify whether source is doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis in parentheses after the title

See Ch. 10 pp. 313-352 of APA Manual for more examples and formatting rules

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Citation guides

All you need to know about citations

How to cite a master's thesis in APA

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To cite a master's thesis in a reference entry in APA style 6th edition include the following elements:

• Author(s) of the thesis: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J. D.) of up to seven authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&). For eight or more authors include the first six names followed by an ellipsis (…) and add the last author's name.
• Year of publication: Give the year in brackets followed by a full stop.
• Title of the master's thesis: Only the first letter of the first word and proper nouns are capitalized.
• URL: Give the full URL where the document can be retrieved from.

Here is the basic format for a reference list entry of a master's thesis in APA style 6th edition:

Author(s) of the thesis . ( Year of publication ). Title of the master's thesis (Master's thesis). Retrieved from URL

If the thesis is available from a database, archive or any online platform use the following template:

• Author(s) of the thesis: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J. D.) of up to 20 authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&). For 21 or more authors include the first 19 names followed by an ellipsis (…) and add the last author's name.
• Title of the Master's thesis: Only the first letter of the first word and proper nouns are capitalized.
• Publication number: Give the identification number of the thesis, if available.
• Name of the degree awarding institution: Give the name of the institution.
• Name of Platform: Give the name of the database, archive or any platform that holds the thesis.
• URL: If the thesis was found on a database, omit this element.

Here is the basic format for a reference list entry of a master's thesis in APA style 7th edition:

Author(s) of the thesis . ( Year of publication ). Title of the Master's thesis ( Publication number ) [Master's thesis, Name of the degree awarding institution ]. Name of Platform . URL

If the thesis has not been published or is available from a database use the following template:

• Location: Give the location of the institution. If outside the United States also include the country name.

Author(s) of the thesis . ( Year of publication ). Title of the master's thesis (Unpublished master's thesis). Name of the degree awarding institution , Location .

If the thesis is not published, use the following template:

Author(s) of the thesis . ( Year of publication ). Title of the master's thesis [Unpublished master's thesis]. Name of the degree awarding institution .

APA reference list examples

Take a look at our reference list examples that demonstrate the APA style guidelines for a master's thesis citation in action:

A master's thesis found in an online platform

Bauger, L . ( 2011 ). Personality, passion, self-esteem and psychological well-being among junior elite athletes in Norway ( Master's Thesis ). Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/29a9/ef96c34e577211246b83b11813a2585033c5.pdf

Bauger, L . ( 2011 ). Personality, passion, self-esteem and psychological well-being among junior elite athletes in Norway [ Master's Thesis , University of Tromsø ]. Semantic Scholar . https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/29a9/ef96c34e577211246b83b11813a2585033c5.pdf

An unpublished master's thesis

Aube, K. E . ( 2019 ). A comparison of water main failure prediction models in San Luis Obispo, CA ( Unpublished master's thesis ). Cal Poly , San Luis Obispo, CA .

Aube, K. E . ( 2019 ). A comparison of water main failure prediction models in San Luis Obispo, CA [ Unpublished master's thesis ]. Cal Poly .

This citation style guide is based on the official Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association ( 6 th edition).

More useful guides

• APA Referencing: Theses
• Citation Help for APA: Master's Thesis or Project
• APA Thesis, dissertation or exegesis?

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APA Citation Style, 7th Edition: Dissertations & Thesis

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Citing Dissertations & Theses in APA Format

Dissertations & Theses

Dissertations and theses are formatted the same way in APA 7th edition. Theses are generally the culminating work for a master's or undergraduate degree and dissertations are often original research completed by doctoral students. Here are examples of a dissertation & a thesis, and how they would be formatted: 

Examples: 

Dissertation found in Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global: 

Reference:  

Banks, B. (2020). Addressing institutional racism in healthcare: A case study (Publication No. 28154307) [Doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota]. Proquest Dissertations and Theses Global. 

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):  

(Banks, 2020).

In-Text Citation (Direct Quote):

(Banks, 2020, p. 157).

Master's thesis from a University scholarship database: 

Sears, L. B. (2017). The public voice and sustainable food systems: Community engagement in food action plans [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of Kansas.  https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/26899  

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Sears, 2017). 

(Sears, 2017, p. 24). 

Carrie Forbes, MLS

Pages Referenced

Citation information has been adapted from the APA Manual (7th Edition). Please refer to page 333 of the APA Manual (7th Edition) for more information.

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Reference Page Examples - Dissertations or Theses

• Published Dissertation or Thesis
• Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

 A dissertation or thesis is considered published when it is available from a database such as ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

If the database or archive requires users to log in before they can view the dissertation or thesis, meaning the url will not work for readers, end the reference with the database name., author, a. a. (year).  title of dissertation  (publication no. xxxxxxxxx). [doctoral dissertation or masters thesis, name of, institution that awarded the degree]. name of source i.e. proquest dissertations and theses global. url for, the dissertation or thesis., d'arcangelis, g. s. (2009).  the bio scare: anthrax, smallpox, sars, flu and post-9/11 u.s. empire  (order no.,            3388146). [doctoral dissertation, university of california los angeles]. proquest dissertations and theses,            global. , * ** remember: each source listed on the reference page must correspond to at least one in-text citation in the body of the paper; each in-text citation must correspond to a source listed on the reference page., when a dissertation or thesis is unpublished, include the description “[unpublished doctoral dissertation]” or “[unpublished master’s thesis]” in square brackets after the dissertation or thesis title., in the source element of the reference, provide the name of the institution that awarded the degree., author, a. a. (year).  title of dissertation  [unpublished doctoral dissertation or unpublished, masters thesis], name of institution that awarded the degree. , johnson, b. (2005). balanced scorecard applications  [unpublished master's thesis]. worthington university..

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General Rule:

Author, A. A. (year). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis  (Publication No. #) [Doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis, Name of Institution Awarding the Degree]. Name of Database.

Davis, P. M. (2010). Access, readership, citations: A randomized controlled trial of scientific journal publishing . (Publication No.   3429815 )  [Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University].  ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.  

Author, A. A. (year). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis  [Doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis, Name of Institution]. Name of Website. URL

Buckman, A. (1997). MOOSE Crossing: Construction, community, and learning in a networked virtual world for kids [Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology]. DSpace@MIT.  https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/33821

Author, A. A. (year). Title of doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis  [Unpublished doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis]. Name of Institution.

Long, R.P. (1972). A study of instructional objectives and methods for interpersonal communication. [Unpublished master’s thesis]. West Virginia University.

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A thesis is an unpublished document produced by student as part of the requirements for the degree. They come at various levels (e.g. Honours, Masters, PhD, etc). Check with your lecturer before using a thesis for your assignment.

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APA Style (7th Edition) Guide: Dissertation/Thesis

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If you access a dissertation or thesis in the database ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, in an archive or in an institutional repository it is considered published. If the publication number is available place it after the title in parentheses. The phrase Doctoral dissertation, Master's thesis or Undergraduate thesis and the name of the university are placed in square brackets, then the name of the database, archive or repository. Only include the URL at the end if the reader will be able to access the document directly.

Kabir, J. M. (2016). Factors influencing customer satisfaction at a fast food hamburger chain: The relationship between customer

       satisfaction and customer loyalty [Doctoral dissertation, Monterey University]. Academic Excellence Archive.

       https://www.exampleurl.edu/12345/67890/Kabir.pdf

       satisfaction and customer loyalty (Publication No. 10169573) [Doctoral dissertation, Wilmington University]. ProQuest

       Dissertations & Theses Global.

If you access a dissertation or thesis in print form or it does not have an online version or the online version is not publicly available, consider it unpublished.

Lopez, L. (2019). Leadership perceptions and practices of high school leaders [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of

Puerto Rico at Mayaguez.

Lopez, L. (2019). Leadership perceptions and practices of high school leaders [Unpublished master’s thesis]. University of

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Citation Help for APA, 7th Edition: Master's Thesis, Dissertation, or Capstone Project

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Introduction

When creating references for dissertations, theses, and projects, you will need to determine the correct reference type to follow. Dissertations, theses, and projects are generally divided into two separate groups; those that are published and those that are unpublished.

In most cases, unpublished projects are those that are in print and available only from the degree-granting institution. On the other hand, published projects are those that are available in a database, a university archive, or a personal website. 

Variations - URLs?

Some URLs may be long and complicated. APA 7th edition allows the use of shorter URLs. Shortened URLs can be created using any URL shortener service; however, if you choose to shorten the URL, you must double-check that the URL is functioning and brings the reader to the correct website. 

Common URL Shortner websites include:

More Information

For more information about URLs, see Section 9.36 on page 300 of APA Manual, 7th edition. 

NOTE:  Check your instructor's preference about using short URLs. Some instructors may want the full URL. 

Variations - DOIs?

Some DOIs may be long and complicated. APA 7th edition allows the use of shorter DOI numbers. Shortened DOIs can be located at the International DOI Foundations, shortDOI Service . 

More Information:

For more information about DOIs, see Section 9.36 on page 300 of APA Manual, 7th edition. 

NOTE: Check your instructor's preference for using short DOIs. Some instructors may want the full DOI. 

Variations - Live Hyperlinks?

Should my urls be live.

It depends. When adding URLs to a paper or other work, first, be sure to include the full hyperlink. This includes the http:// or the https://. Additionally, consider where and how the paper or work will be published or read. If the work will only be read in print or as a Word doc or Google Doc, then the URLs should not be live (i.e., they are not blue or underlined). However, if the work will be published or read online, then APA advises to include live URLs. This would allow the reader to click on a link and go to the source.   

For more information, see Section 9.35 on pages 299-300 of the APA Manual, 7th edition. 

NOTE: Check your instructor's preference about using live URLs. Some instructors may not want you to use live URLs. 

Print Master's Thesis, Dissertation, or Project

When creating references for dissertations, theses, and projects, you will need to determine the correct reference type to follow. Dissertations, theses, and projects are generally divided into two separate groups; those that are published and those that are unpublished. In most cases, unpublished projects are those that are in print and available only from the degree-granting institution. 

Panasuk, K. N. (2008). What variables appear to work in stress management programs in the workplace and how effective are

these  programs  [Unpublished master’s final project]? The College of St. Scholastica.

Author: Panasuk, K. N.

Begin the reference with the author's last name first. then, add the initials for the first and middle names (if the middle name or middle initial is provided). add a period after each initial, and if there is a middle initial, add a space between the initials., year of publication: (2008)..

Next, in parentheses, list the year of publication, which appears on the title page or the title verso page (back side of title page). Follow the parentheses with a period.   

Title & Subtitle of the Book: What variables appear to work in stress management programs in the workplace and how effective are these programs [Unpublished master's final project]?

Next, add the title and subtitle of the master's thesis, dissertation, final applied project, or capstone. The title and subtitle are separated by a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle and all proper nouns.  Italicize the title and subtitle. Do not add a period immediately after the title. Instead, add brackets with the type of project (Master's project, doctoral dissertation, etc.) you are referencing. Before the type of project add "Unpublished". When choosing wording to describe the project, use the language the degree-granting institution uses to describe the project (e.g., Master's thesis, Doctoral dissertation, Final Applied Project, Capstone Project, Clinical Project, etc.). Add a period after the brackets. If the title has a question mark or exclamation mark, replace the period after the brackets with the proper punctuation mark used in the title.   

Source Information: The College of St. Scholastica.

Complete the reference with the source information, which is the full name of the college or university awarding the degree. add a period after the institution's name.  more information:.

For more information about master's theses, dissertations, or capstone projects, Section 10.6 on pages 333-334 in the APA Manual, 7th edition.

Parenthetical Citation Example:

 (Panasuk, 2008)

Narrative Citation Example:

Panasuk (2008) identified ...

For more information about author format within parenthetical and narrative citations, see Section 8.17 and Table 8.1 on page 266 of the APA Manual, 7th edition. 

Master's Thesis Published in a Commercial Database (like ProQuest Dissertations & Theses)

When creating references for dissertations, theses, and projects, you will need to determine the correct reference type to follow. Dissertations, theses, and projects are generally divided into two separate groups; those that are published and those that are unpublished. In most cases, published projects are those that are available in a database, a university archive, or a personal website. 

Skallet, S. (2016). Environmental approval duration estimating model for improved linear energy construction project schedules  (Publication No.

10125148)  [Master's capstone project, The College of St. Scholastica]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. 

Author: Skallet, S.

Begin the reference with the author's last name first. then, add the initials for the author's first and middle names (if a middle name or middle initial is provided). add a period after each initial, and if there is a middle initial, add a space between the initials.     year of publication: (2016)..

Next, in parentheses, add the year of publication, which appears on the title page or the title page verso (back side of title page). Follow the parentheses with a period.   

Title & Subtitle of the Book:  Environmental approval duration estimating model for improved linear energy construction project schedules  (Publication No. 10125148) [Master's capstone project, The College of St. Scholastica].

Next, add the title and subtitle (if there is a subtitle) of the capstone, final applied project, thesis, or dissertation. Separate the title and subtitle with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle and all proper nouns. Italicize the title. Do NOT add a period after the title.

After the title, in parentheses, add the publication number (normally found in the record of the project within ProQuest). Before the publication number put "Publication No." Do NOT add a period after the parentheses. 

After the publication number, add brackets with the type of project (Master's thesis, Master's capstone project, doctoral dissertation, etc.) you are referencing. Use the language described by the degree-granting institution to describe the project. Then, add a comma and the name of the institution. Add a period after the brackets.      

Source Information: ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. 

Complete the reference with the commercial database where you found the masters thesis/project. end with a period.    more information:  .

For more information on Master's Theses/Projects, see Section 10.6 on pages 333-334 in the APA Manual, 7th edition.

 (Skallet, 2016)

Skallet (2016) argued ...

Dissertation Published Online

Adame, A. (2019). Fully immersed, fully present: Examining the user experience through the multimodal presence scale and virtual reality gaming

variables [Master's thesis, California State University San Bernardino]. CSUSB ScholarWorks Electronic Theses, Projects, &

Dissertations.  https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/918/

Author: Adame, A. 

Begin the reference with the author's last name first. Then, add the initials of the author's first and middle names (if a middle name or middle initial is provided). Add a period after each initial, and if there is a middle initial, add a space between the initials. 

Year of Publication: (2019). 

Next, in parentheses, add the year of publication, which appears on the title page or the title verso page (back side of the title page). Follow the parentheses with a period. 

Title & Subtitle of the Book: Fully immersed, fully present: Examining the user experience through the multimodal presence scale and virtual reality gaming variables [Master's thesis, California State University San Bernardino]. 

Next, add the title and subtitle (if there a subtitle present) of the thesis or project. Separate the title and subtitle with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle as well as proper nouns. Italicize the title and subtitle. Do NOT add a period after the title. Instead, after the title, add brackets with the type of project (Master's thesis, doctoral dissertation, etc.) you are referencing. Use the language described by the degree-granting institution to describe the project. Then, add a comma and the name of the institution. Add a period after the brackets.   

Source Information: CSUSB ScholarWorks Electronic Theses, Projects, & Dissertations.  https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/918/

Complete the reference with the name of the website or archive where you found the project. After the name of the website or archive, add a period. Then, add the URL to the project. 

For more information about Master's Theses or Projects, see Section 10.6 on page 333 and example 66 on page 334 in the APA Manual, 7th edition. 

(Adame, 2019)

Adame (2019) distinguished between ...

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How do I cite a dissertation in MLA style?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

A dissertation is a unique type of source. It is a finished, stand-alone work written under the auspices of an institution. In a change from the previous edition of the MLA Handbook ,    we do not distinguish between published and unpublished dissertations. To cite a dissertation, include in the entry the author, title, and date of publication as core elements. As an optional element, list the institution granting the degree and a description of the work.

Njus, Jesse. Performing the Passion: A Study on the Nature of Medieval Acting . 2010. Northwestern U, PhD dissertation.

If you accessed the dissertation through an online repository, include this fact as the title of the second container:

Njus, Jesse. Performing the Passion: A Study on the Nature of Medieval Acting . 2010. Northwestern U, PhD dissertation.  ProQuest , search.proquest.com/docview/305212264?accountid=7432.

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Formatting your References

Once you type your references on the reference page, you will need to put in a hanging indent and double-space the entire reference list. In Microsoft Word, highlight the references from A to Z, then find the paragraph function in the Word ribbon. Select Hanging under Indentation and Double under spacing. See the Formatting your References tab for instructions on doing this on a Mac or in Google Docs.

Abbas, D. D. F. (2020). Manipulating of audio-visual aids in the educational processes in Al-Hilla University College. International Journal of Psychosocial Rehabilitation, 24 (3), 1248-1263. https://doi.org.db12.linccweb.org/10.37200/ijpr/v24i3/pr200875

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Thesis/dissertation – apa reference list, capitalization.

• The document title is in sentence case – Only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. Always capitalize the first word, the first word after a colon or a dash.
• The title of the thesis or dissertation is in title case – Each word in the name is capitalized, except for articles (a, an, the), prepositions (against, between, in, of, to), conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet), and the infinitive 'to'.

Thesis/Dissertation – Unpublished/Print version

For papers written in United States list City and State. For countries outside United States list City and Country.

Author , A . A . ( Year ). Title of dissertation/thesis  (Unpublished doctoral dissertation [OR] Unpublished master's thesis). Academic Institution , City , State [OR] Country .

• Considine, M. (1986). Australian insurance politics in the 1970s: Two case studies . (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
• Kassover,A. (1987). Treatment of abusive males: Voluntary vs. court-mandated referrals (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Nova University, Fort Lauderdale, FL. 

Thesis/Dissertation – From a commercial database (e.g., ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database)

Author , A ( Year ). Title of dissertation/thesis (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from Name of database . ( Accession or Order Number )

Cooley, T. (2009).  Design, development, and implementation of a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): The Hartford Job Corps Academy case study (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3344745)

Thesis/Dissertation – Institutional Database (i.e. University website)

For U.S. thesis do not include university or locations. Include the university and location (City and Country) for a non-U.S. online thesis.

Author , A . A . ( Year ). Title of dissertation/thesis (Doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis). Retrieved from http:// url.com

• Adams, R. J. (1973). Building a foundation for evaluation of instruction in higher education and continuing education (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/
• Barua, S. (2010). Drought assessment and forecasting using a nonlinear aggregated drought index  (Doctoral dissertation, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia). Retrieved from http://vuir.vu.edu.au/1598

Thesis/Dissertation – Web

For U.S. thesis do not include locations. Include the location (City and Country) for a non-U.S. online thesis.

Author , A . A . ( Year ). Title of dissertation/thesis (Doctoral dissertation/Master's thesis, Institution issuing degree). Retrieved from http:// www.url.com

• Bruckman, A. (1997). MOOSE Crossing: Construction, community, and learning in a networked virtual world for kids (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Retrieved from http://www-static.cc.gatech.edu/~asb/thesis

APA 6th Referencing Style Guide

• APA referencing style
• In-text citation
• Reference list
• TV, film & video
• Tables, figures & images
• Conferences

Thesis, dissertation or exegesis?

Theses and dissertations from online sources, theses and dissertations in hardcopy format.

• Personal communications
• Lecture notes
• Social media
• Computer software & mobile applications
• Legislation & cases
• Standards & patents
• Specific health examples
• Exhibition catalogue

Terminology

Thesis and dissertation can mean different things, depending on which institution the work is from.  For study purposes and for your APA reference you need to know the level of the work.

• Always check the title page, or subsequent pages, to determine exactly what the work is
• Use the information there for your APA reference

At Auckland University of Technology (and other NZ universities)

Thesis is either for a doctoral or a master's degree.

Dissertation is either for a master's or a bachelor's degree with honours.

Exegesis is the written component of a practice-based thesis where the major output is a creative work;  e.g. a film, artwork, novel.

In some other parts of the world such as North America, a dissertation may be for a doctoral degree and a thesis for a master's degree.  

See Section 7.05  in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th edition .

Reference format for a thesis from a commercial database:

Reference format for a thesis from an institutional repository:

A Doctoral dissertation (USA) from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database

Reference list entry:

• Include the name of the database and the order number of the document
• Use this style for theses retrieved from a commercial database

Thesis from a NZ institutional repository :

• Include the full URL for the thesis/dissertation and the full name of the degree-granting institution/university
• Also include the location of the university, if outside the United States.

In-text citations guide  

Reference format for unpublished thesis/dissertation:

• Give the correct full name of the university, not its abbreviation or brand name.
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Reference List: Other Print Sources

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style  can be found here .

Important Note: Because the 7 th edition of the APA Publication Manual heavily emphasizes digital and electronic sources, it does not contain explicit instructions for certain less-common print sources that earlier editions covered. For this reason, some of the examples below have been adapted from the instructions for sources with similar attributes (e.g., the conference proceedings example is derived from the instructions the 7 th edition manual gives for citing edited collections). Every example below that has been adapted in this way is accompanied by a note explaining how it was adapted.

Please also note: While this resource contains many examples of citations for uncommon print sources that we think are helpful, it may not account for every possibility. For even more examples of how to cite uncommon print sources, please refer to the 7 th edition of the APA Publication Manual.

Entry in a Dictionary, Thesaurus, or Encyclopedia with a Group Author

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide specific guidance on how to cite physical reference works such as dictionaries, thesauruses, or encyclopedias. Therefore, this citation, as well as the one for an individual author of an entry in a reference work, is modeled on that of a chapter in an edited book or anthology, both which are similar in format to reference works.

Institution or organization name. (Year). Title of entry. In Title of reference work (edition, page numbers). Publisher name.

Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (1997). Goat. In Merriam Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10 th ed., pp. 499-500). Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.

Entry in a Dictionary, Thesaurus, or Encyclopedia with an Individual Author

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of entry. In F. M. Lastname (ed.), Title of reference work (edition, page numbers). Publisher.

Tatum, S. R. (2009). Spirituality and religion in hip hop literature and culture. In T. L. Stanley (ed.), Encyclopedia of hip hop literature (pp. 250-252). Greenwood.

Work Discussed in a Secondary Source

Provide the source in which the original work was referenced:

Nail, T. (2017). What is an assemblage? SubStance , 46 (1), 21-37. http://sub.uwpress.org/lookup/doi/10.3368/ss.46.1.21

Note: Provide the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Deleuze and Guattari’s work is cited in Nail and you did not read the original work, list the Nail reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation: 

Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of the assemblage (as cited in Nail, 2017)….

Dissertation Abstract

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide specific guidance on how to cite dissertation abstracts. Therefore, this citation models that of a journal article, which is similar in format.

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation. Dissertation Abstracts International , Vol., Page.

Angeli, E. L. (2012). Networks of communication in emergency medical services. Dissertation Abstracts International, 74 , 03(E).

Dissertation or Master’s Thesis, Published

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation/thesis (Publication No.) [Doctoral dissertation/Master’s thesis, Name of Institution Awarding the Degree]. Database or Archive Name.

Angeli, E. L. (2012). Networks of communication in emergency medical services (Publication No. 3544643) [Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Note: If the dissertation or thesis is not published in a database, include the URL of the site where the document is located.

Dissertation or Master’s Thesis, Unpublished

Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of dissertation/thesis [Unpublished doctoral dissertation/master’s thesis]. Name of Institution Awarding the Degree. 

Samson, J. M. (2016). Human trafficking and globalization [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

Federal or State Statute

Name of Act, Public Law No. (Year). URL

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, Publ. L. No. 111-148, 124 Stat. 119 (2010).  https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-111publ148/pdf/PLAW-111publ148.pdf

Report by a Government Agency or Other Organization

Organization Name. (Year). Title of report. URL

United States Government Accountability Office. (2019). Performance and accountability report: Fiscal year 2019 . https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/702715.pdf

Report by Individual Authors at Government Agency or Other Organization

Lastname, F. M., & Lastname, F. M. (Year). Title of report . Organization Name. URL

Palanker, D., Volk, J., Lucia, K., & Thomas, K. (2018). Mental health parity at risk: Deregulating the individual market and the impact on mental health coverage . National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/About-NAMI/Publications-Reports/Public-Policy-Reports/Parity-at-Risk/ParityatRisk.pdf  

Conference Proceedings

The 7 th edition of the APA manual does not provide guidance on citing conference proceedings. Therefore, this citation models that of an edited collection, which is similar in format.

Lastname, F. M., & Lastname, F. M. (Eds.). (Year). Title of Proceedings . Publisher. URL (if applicable)

Huang, S., Pierce, R., & Stamey, J. (Eds.). (2006). Proceedings of the 24 th annual ACM international conference on the design of communication . ACM Digital Library. https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1166324&picked=prox

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Chicago Style / How to Cite a Thesis/Dissertation in Chicago/Turabian

How to Cite a Thesis/Dissertation in Chicago/Turabian

Academic theses and dissertations can be a good source of information when writing your own paper. They are usually accessed via a university’s database or a third party database, or found on the web. The main difference between a thesis and a dissertation is the degree type they are submitted for:

• Thesis—A document submitted to earn a degree, such as a master’s degree, at a university.
• Dissertation—A document submitted to earn an advanced degree, such as a doctorate, at a university.

This guide will show you how to create notes-bibliography style citations for theses and dissertations in a variety of formats using the 17th edition of the  Chicago Manual of Style.

Guide Overview

• Citing a thesis or dissertation from a database
• Citing a thesis or dissertation from the web
• Citing an unpublished thesis or dissertation

Citing a Thesis or Dissertation from a Database

Citation structure.

1. First name Last name, “Title” (master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published), page number, Database (Identification Number).

Bibliography:

Last name, First name. “Title.” Master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published. Database (Identification Number).

Citation Example

1. Kimberly Knight,  “Media Epidemics: Viral Structures in Literature and New Media” (PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2011), 17, MLA International Bibliography (2013420395).

Knight, Kimberly.  “Media Epidemics: Viral Structures in Literature and New Media.” PhD diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 2011. MLA International Bibliography (2013420395).

Citing a Thesis or Dissertation from the Web

1. First name Last name, “Title” (master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published), page number, URL.

Last name, First name. “Title.” Master’s thesis or PhD diss., University Name, year published. URL.

1. Peggy Lynn Wilson, “Pedagogical Practices in the Teaching of English Language in Secondary Public Schools in Parker County” (PhD diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2011), 25, https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/11801/1/Wilson_umd_0117E_12354.pdf.

Wilson, Peggy Lynn. “Pedagogical Practices in the Teaching of English Language in Secondary Public Schools in Parker County.” PhD diss., University of Maryland, College Park, 2011. https://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/1903/11801/1/Wilson_umd_0117E_12354.pdf.

Citing an Unpublished Thesis or Dissertation

In rare cases, you may need to cite a thesis or dissertation that has not yet been published. This is particularly the case if you want to cite your own work or the work of a colleague.

1. First name Last name, “Title” (unpublished manuscript, Month Day, Year last modified), format.

Last name, First name. “Title.” Unpublished manuscript, last modified Month Day, Year. Format.

1. John Doe, “A Study of Generic Topic” (unpublished manuscript, June 19, 2021), Microsoft Word file.

Doe, John. “A Study of Generic Topic.” Unpublished manuscript, last modified June 19, 2021. Microsoft Word file.

Chicago Formatting Guide

Chicago Formatting

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Citation Examples

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Dissertation Formatting Guidance

The following resource shares some best practice guidance for dissertation formatting. 

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The following resource shares some best practice guidance for dissertation formatting. Please note that some of the elements outlined below are required and will be reviewed by the FAS Registrar's Office as part of Harvard Griffin GSAS policies on formatting . 

Language of the Dissertation

The language of the dissertation is ordinarily English, although some departments whose subject matter involves foreign languages may accept a dissertation written in a language other than English.

Most dissertations are 100 to 300 pages in length. All dissertations should be divided into appropriate sections, and long dissertations may need chapters, main divisions, and subdivisions.

Page and Text Requirements

• 8½ x 11 inches, unless a musical score is included
• At least 1 inch for all margins
• Body of text: double spacing
• Block quotations, footnotes, and bibliographies: single spacing within each entry but double spacing between each entry
• Table of contents, list of tables, list of figures or illustrations, and lengthy tables: single spacing may be used

Fonts and Point Size

Use 10-12 point size. Fonts must be embedded in the PDF file to ensure all characters display correctly. 

Recommended Fonts

If you are unsure whether your chosen font will display correctly, use one of the following fonts: 

If fonts are not embedded, non-English characters may not appear as intended. Fonts embedded improperly will be published to DASH as is. It is the student’s responsibility to make sure that fonts are embedded properly prior to submission. 

Instructions for Embedding Fonts

To embed your fonts in recent versions of Word, follow these instructions from Microsoft:

• Click the File tab and then click Options .
• In the left column, select the Save tab.
• Clear the Do not embed common system fonts check box.

For reference, below are some instructions from ProQuest UMI for embedding fonts in older file formats:

To embed your fonts in Microsoft Word 2010:

• In the File pull-down menu, click on Options .
• Choose Save on the left sidebar.
• Check the box next to Embed fonts in the file.
• Click the OK button.
• Save the document.

Note that when saving as a PDF, make sure to go to “more options” and save as “PDF/A compliant”

To embed your fonts in Microsoft Word 2007:

• Click the circular Office button in the upper left corner of Microsoft Word.
• A new window will display. In the bottom right corner select Word Options . 
• Choose Save from the left sidebar.

Using Microsoft Word on a Mac:

Microsoft Word 2008 on a Mac OS X computer will automatically embed your fonts while converting your document to a PDF file.

If you are converting to PDF using Acrobat Professional (instructions courtesy of the Graduate Thesis Office at Iowa State University):  

• Open your document in Microsoft Word. 
• Click on the Adobe PDF tab at the top. Select "Change Conversion Settings." 
• Click on Advanced Settings. 
• Click on the Fonts folder on the left side of the new window. In the lower box on the right, delete any fonts that appear in the "Never Embed" box. Then click "OK." 
• If prompted to save these new settings, save them as "Embed all fonts." 
• Now the Change Conversion Settings window should show "embed all fonts" in the Conversion Settings drop-down list and it should be selected. Click "OK" again. 
• Click on the Adobe PDF link at the top again. This time select Convert to Adobe PDF. Depending on the size of your document and the speed of your computer, this process can take 1-15 minutes. 
• After your document is converted, select the "File" tab at the top of the page. Then select "Document Properties." 
• Click on the "Fonts" tab. Carefully check all of your fonts. They should all show "(Embedded Subset)" after the font name. 
•  If you see "(Embedded Subset)" after all fonts, you have succeeded.

Body of Text, Tables, Figures, and Captions

The font used in the body of the text must also be used in headers, page numbers, and footnotes. Exceptions are made only for tables and figures created with different software and inserted into the document.

Tables and figures must be placed as close as possible to their first mention in the text. They may be placed on a page with no text above or below, or they may be placed directly into the text. If a table or a figure is alone on a page (with no narrative), it should be centered within the margins on the page. Tables may take up more than one page as long as they obey all rules about margins. Tables and figures referred to in the text may not be placed at the end of the chapter or at the end of the dissertation.

• Given the standards of the discipline, dissertations in the Department of History of Art and Architecture and the Department of Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and Urban Planning often place illustrations at the end of the dissertation.

Figure and table numbering must be continuous throughout the dissertation or by chapter (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, 2.2, etc.). Two figures or tables cannot be designated with the same number. If you have repeating images that you need to cite more than once, label them with their number and A, B, etc. 

Headings should be placed at the top of tables. While no specific rules for the format of table headings and figure captions are required, a consistent format must be used throughout the dissertation (contact your department for style manuals appropriate to the field).

Captions should appear at the bottom of any figures. If the figure takes up the entire page, the caption should be placed alone on the preceding page, centered vertically and horizontally within the margins.

Each page receives a separate page number. When a figure or table title is on a preceding page, the second and subsequent pages of the figure or table should say, for example, “Figure 5 (Continued).” In such an instance, the list of figures or tables will list the page number containing the title. The word “figure” should be written in full (not abbreviated), and the “F” should be capitalized (e.g., Figure 5). In instances where the caption continues on a second page, the “(Continued)” notation should appear on the second and any subsequent page. The figure/table and the caption are viewed as one entity and the numbering should show correlation between all pages. Each page must include a header.

Landscape orientation figures and tables must be positioned correctly and bound at the top so that the top of the figure or table will be at the left margin. Figure and table headings/captions are placed with the same orientation as the figure or table when on the same page. When on a separate page, headings/captions are always placed in portrait orientation, regardless of the orientation of the figure or table. Page numbers are always placed as if the figure were vertical on the page.

If a graphic artist does the figures, Harvard Griffin GSAS will accept lettering done by the artist only within the figure. Figures done with software are acceptable if the figures are clear and legible. Legends and titles done by the same process as the figures will be accepted if they too are clear, legible, and run at least 10 or 12 characters per inch. Otherwise, legends and captions should be printed with the same font used in the text.

Original illustrations, photographs, and fine arts prints may be scanned and included, centered between the margins on a page with no text above or below.

Pages should be assigned a number except for the Thesis Acceptance Certificate. Preliminary pages (abstract, table of contents, list of tables, graphs, illustrations, and preface) should use small Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, etc.). All pages must contain text or images.  

Count the title page as page i and the copyright page as page ii, but do not print page numbers on either page .

For the body of text, use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) starting with page 1 on the first page of text. Page numbers must be centered throughout the manuscript at the top or bottom. Every numbered page must be consecutively ordered, including tables, graphs, illustrations, and bibliography/index (if included); letter suffixes (such as 10a, 10b, etc.) are not allowed. It is customary not to have a page number on the page containing a chapter heading.

Check pagination carefully. Account for all pages.

Thesis Acceptance Certificate

A copy of the Thesis Acceptance Certificate should appear as the first page. This page should not be counted or numbered. The DAC will appear in the online version of the published dissertation. The author name and date on the DAC and title page should be the same. 

The dissertation begins with the title page; the title should be as concise as possible and should provide an accurate description of the dissertation. The author name and date on the DAC and title page should be the same. 

Do not print a page number on the title page. It is understood to be page  i  for counting purposes only.

Copyright Statement

A copyright notice should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page and include the copyright symbol ©, the year of first publication of the work, and the name of the author:

© [ year ] [ Author’s Name ] All rights reserved.

Alternatively, students may choose to license their work openly under a  Creative Commons  license. The author remains the copyright holder while at the same time granting up-front permission to others to read, share, and (depending on the license) adapt the work, so long as proper attribution is given. (By default, under copyright law, the author reserves all rights; under a Creative Commons license, the author reserves some rights.)

Do  not  print a page number on the copyright page. It is understood to be page  ii  for counting purposes only.

An abstract, numbered as page  iii , should immediately follow the copyright page and should state the problem, describe the methods and procedures used, and give the main results or conclusions of the research. The abstract will appear in the online and bound versions of the dissertation and will be published by ProQuest. There is no maximum word count for the abstract. 

• double-spaced
• left-justified
• indented on the first line of each paragraph
• The author’s name, right justified
• The words “Dissertation Advisor:” followed by the advisor’s name, left-justified (a maximum of two advisors is allowed)
• Title of the dissertation, centered, several lines below author and advisor
• Table of Contents

Dissertations divided into sections must contain a table of contents that lists, at minimum, the major headings in the following order:

• Front Matter
• Body of Text
• Back Matter

Front and Back Matter

Front matter includes (if applicable):

• acknowledgements of help or encouragement from individuals or institutions
• a dedication
• a list of illustrations or tables
• a glossary of terms
• one or more epigraphs.

Back matter includes (if applicable):

• bibliography
• supplemental materials, including figures and tables
• an index (in rare instances).

Supplemental Material

Supplemental figures and tables must be placed at the end of the dissertation in an appendix, not within or at the end of a chapter. If additional digital information (including audio, video, image, or datasets) will accompany the main body of the dissertation, it should be uploaded as a supplemental file through ProQuest ETD . Supplemental material will be available in DASH and ProQuest and preserved digitally in the Harvard University Archives.

Harvard Library Office for Scholarly Communication

• Graduate College
• Thesis and Dissertation

Contact the NAU Office of Graduate & Professional Studies

Graduate thesis and dissertation.

All NAU theses and dissertations are published electronically through ProQuest . The Office of Graduate & Professional Studies partners with Cline Library to make all NAU theses and dissertations accessible through our institutional repository.

Electronic Thesis & Dissertation (ETD) Deadlines

*Please note that final submission deadlines are not flexible; students who upload their thesis or dissertation to ProQuest after 11:59pm MST on the term deadline will not be approved for the term conferral date.

ETD Information and Guidelines Accordion Closed

• Thesis dissertation processes and deadlines: Students
• Thesis and dissertation processes and deadlines: departments
• Thesis and Dissertation Committee Roadmap
• ETD information
• Log into ProQuest
• ProQuest contact information

Graduate & Professional Studies Formatting Guidelines Accordion Closed

• ETD Format-Checklist
• Sample Dissertation Title Page
• Sample Thesis Title Page
• Journal format guidelines

ProQuest Copyright Resources Accordion Closed

• Copyright and Your Dissertation or Thesis
• Copyright Laws Around the World

Office of Graduate & Professional Studies

Mailing address, social media.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

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• PMC11121359

Exploring Factors Influencing Caregiver Burden: A Systematic Review of Family Caregivers of Older Adults with Chronic Illness in Local Communities

Jin young choi.

1 Graduate School of Nursing, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea; moc.latipsohlig@33okkoan

Seon Heui Lee

2 Department of Nursing Science, College of Nursing, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoero, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea

3 College of Nursing, CHA University, 120, Pocheon 11160, Republic of Korea

Associated Data

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

This study aimed to systematically review and analyze factors contributing to caregiver burden among family caregivers of older adults with chronic illnesses in local communities. Specific objectives included exploring the characteristics of older adults with chronic illness and caregiver burden through an extensive literature review and identifying factors influencing caregiver burden in this population. Using Korean (RISS, KISS, and KoreaMed) and international (EMBASE, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library) databases, this study employed systematic search methods to identify relevant literature. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were systematically applied in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, focusing on studies that addressed caregiver burden among family caregivers of older adults with chronic illnesses in local communities. Following the database search, 15,962 articles were identified. After eliminating duplicates and applying the selection criteria, 18 studies were included in this review. These studies, representing various countries, contribute to a diverse dataset covering caregiver and care-recipient characteristics, including age, sex, chronic conditions, and various caregiver burden assessment tools. This systematic review provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence caregiver burden among family caregivers of older adults with chronic illness in local communities. These findings emphasize the need for integrated nursing interventions and community efforts to address the welfare concerns of this population and support their caregivers.

1. Introduction

The proportion of the population aged 65 or over is increasing worldwide. By 2050, more than two billion of the world’s population will be aged 65 years or older. The Elderly Welfare Act stipulates that individuals aged 65 years and older should be considered older adults, whereas the National Basic Living Security Act adopts the same age threshold as defined in the Elderly Welfare Act. The aged population is defined as individuals aged 65 years or older, according to the OECD [ 1 ]. Similarly, the World Report on Aging and Health defines older adults as individuals aged 65 years or older. In Europe, the most rapidly aging region, this proportion will exceed 30% [ 1 ]. The average life expectancy of humans has increased worldwide, which has led to rapid aging. In Korea, 18.4% of the population was aged 65 years or older in 2023; this proportion is expected to exceed 20.6% by 2025, entering a super-aged society, and 30% by 2035 [ 2 ]. With the increase in the older adult population, many older people suffer from chronic diseases and difficulties in life owing to physical, mental, and social deterioration. Older people experience certain health problems, such as cancer, hip fracture, stroke, and dementia, at higher rates than younger people and are more likely to have comorbid conditions that lead to higher care and support needs [ 3 ]. Comorbidity refers to the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions in a patient. Individuals with comorbidities demonstrate higher rates of hospital admission, prolonged hospitalization, and increased utilization of long-term care services. Consequently, this contributes to elevated medical expenses and imposes a substantial economic burden [ 4 ]. In Korea, 74.3% of all deaths are due to chronic diseases, and the prevalence of major chronic diseases is increasing. Cancer, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, diabetes, and chronic lower respiratory disease are the top five leading causes of death in Korea, indicating that decline in function due to aging and active management of chronic diseases are becoming critical issues [ 5 ].

The global phenomenon of an aging population has the dual effect of increasing the number of older people with physical and mental disabilities requiring care and the number of caregivers required for older people with disabilities [ 6 ]. As the population ages, the number of chronically ill older people living in communities increases, leading to prolonged caregiving, resulting in sleeplessness, fatigue, and emotional instability among family caregivers [ 7 ].

Home care has been recognized as having a stressful impact on caregivers’ health and quality of life. Caregivers often feel unprepared for their new roles, which can lead to distress and the deterioration of their physical, mental, and social health. These negative effects have been described in terms of burden, strain, and stress. Informal care is defined as the provision of unpaid assistance to individuals with varying degrees of dependency and is typically administered by family members. This mode of care constitutes 80–90% of dependency support and is predominantly administered within the home setting. The number of informal caregivers across various European nations ranges from 20% to 44% of the total population. In the conventional care paradigm, women predominantly undertake the bulk of unpaid caregiving responsibilities, comprising approximately 80% of informal caregivers globally, with comparable figures observed in Europe. Notably, women aged 45–60 have emerged as primary providers of informal care across all European countries [ 8 ]. Caregiver burden refers to the negative emotions and strain experienced by caregivers as a result of caring for patients with chronic illnesses. It is a negative outcome of the caregiving experience, exacerbated by the multiple roles and responsibilities that caregivers fulfill [ 9 ]. Consequently, numerous studies have been conducted on the caregiving burden of community-dwelling older adults with chronic diseases. In addition, interventions for older adults with chronic diseases and their families are being conducted. Community services, such as community-based chronic disease management initiatives, are being deployed to alleviate the caregiving burden among caregivers of individuals with chronic disease. These programs also aim to address chronic disease management on a national scale. To identify the various negative effects of caregiving, this study examines the concepts of depression, stress, caregiver burden, and exhaustion [ 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 ].

Previous research on caregiver burden and stressors has identified demographic, clinical, and psychological characteristics as factors that influence caregiver stress [ 6 , 7 , 9 , 10 ]. In terms of demographic characteristics, (1) female caregivers were more likely to have higher stress, (2) longer duration of illness was associated with higher caregiver stress, (3) dementia and stroke were the most common types of illness associated with caregiver stress, and (4) higher caregiver-related demographic stress was associated with higher caregiver stress. Meanwhile, spouses, sons, and daughters-in-law were more likely to have higher caregiver stress in terms of their relationship with the patient. In terms of clinical-related characteristics, (1) caregivers experienced more stress as functional status declined and cognitive decline increased; (2) caregivers of individuals with neurobehavioral symptoms experienced more stress; and (3) caregivers’ psychological characteristics, such as distress, depression, and social support, contributed to caregiver stress. Caregiver burden was found to be negatively correlated with positive concepts, such as caregiver social support, and positively correlated with negative concepts, such as depression and distress [ 11 ]. Furthermore, caregiver burden was higher when patient depression was severe; caregiver pain was greater because of the patient’s neuropsychiatric behavioral symptoms, and caregiver depression was severe. Psychiatric behavioral symptoms encompass prevalent non-cognitive functional neuropsychiatric manifestations subsequent to stroke, including depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, and psychotic disorders [ 12 ]. Previous research on caregiving has focused on caregiving issues, with a particular focus on dementia. In addition, several studies have been conducted on the caregiving burden of older adults living in institutions such as nursing homes and daycare centers or using social services. However, research that systematically identifies the caregiving burden on family caregivers of community-dwelling older adults with chronic diseases is lacking. Therefore, this study’s primary aim was to meticulously examine and systematically assess the factors that influence caregiving burden experienced by caregivers tasked with managing chronic illnesses in their communities. The goal was to identify the specific determinants contributing to this burden, with the overarching objective of establishing a foundation for the development of interventions aimed at alleviating caregiver stress.

Purpose of the Present Study

This study aimed to systematically review factors related to family caregiver burden in community-dwelling older adults with chronic diseases and calculate the effect size of each factor to verify statistical significance. The objectives of this study were as follows:

• (1) To identify characteristics of chronically ill community-dwelling older adults and their family caregivers’ burden through a systematic review.
• (2) To identify factors affecting caregiving burden of family caregivers of community-dwelling older adults with chronic diseases through a systematic review.

2.1. Research Design

This study was a systematic review of family caregiver burden among community-dwelling chronically ill older adults to identify and analyze factors associated with caregiver burden.

2.2. Data Sources

This study employed a systematic review method to search the literature using RISS, KISS, KoreaMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE (Ovid-MEDLINE), CINAHL, and the Cochrane Library to identify studies on caregiving burden factors for family caregivers of community-dwelling chronically ill older adults. The search terms were set as follows: (i) Community OR communities OR community care OR Long-term care OR community-dwelling OR home-dwelling OR community-based, (ii) aged OR old OR older OR elderly OR elderly people OR elderly person OR older people OR elderly population OR older person OR older patients OR older adults OR aging population OR aging OR silver OR elderly human OR impaired elderly OR disability OR disabled elderly OR frail elderly OR frail elderly person, (iii) caregiver OR caregivers OR spouse OR spousal caregiver OR carers OR care providers OR caregiving OR family carers OR family caregiver OR family caregivers OR informal carers OR informal caregiver OR informal caregivers OR primary caregiver, (iv) burden OR burdened OR care burden OR caregiver burden OR care-giving burden OR caregiver burden OR caregiver burdens OR burden of caregivers OR stress OR distress OR powerlessness OR burnout OR feelings of burden OR burden of care.

2.3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Inclusion criteria for studies included in the systematic review were as follows: (1) Older adults with chronic diseases living in the community, (2) family caregivers caring for older people, and (3) caregiving burden of family caregivers. Conversely, exclusion criteria for studies were as follows: (1) Participants did not belong to the older adult population residing within the community; (2) participants were older adults diagnosed with dementia; (3) caregivers for the older adults were not family members; (4) the study did not focus on caregiving burden experienced by family caregivers; (5) the language used in the study was neither Korean nor English; (6) the study was a duplicate of previously conducted research; (7) the study pertained to animal subjects; (8) the study did not align with appropriate study criteria (e.g., limited to green or gray literature). The inclusion criteria were delineated based on the PIO framework, wherein “P” denotes the population, “I” signifies the intervention of interest, and “O” represents the outcome, as elucidated in the corresponding abstract [ 13 ]. In the initial phase of a systematic review, formulating a research question is paramount, as it marks the commencement of the PIO process [ 14 ].

The research inquiry centered on the question, “What are the factors contributing to caregiving burden among family caregivers of older adults with chronic illnesses residing in the local community?”. In this context, “P” denoted “family caregivers providing care to older adults aged 65 and above with chronic illnesses residing in the local community”, “I” represented “factors related to caregiving burden of older adults with chronic illnesses”, and “O” encapsulated “caregiving burden experienced by family caregivers of older adults with chronic illnesses residing in the local community”.

2.4. Selection Process and Data Extraction

Data retrieval was conducted over a period of three days, commencing on 16 January 2023. To select studies for inclusion, all retrieved studies were reviewed according to the predefined selection and exclusion criteria, and duplicated studies were removed using a bibliographic management program (EndNote 20). After removing duplicate literature in the first round of selection and exclusion, we excluded literature that was unrelated to the research topic by looking at the title and abstract. If it was difficult to judge whether a study was suitable for selection, we checked the text to make a decision. In the second selection/exclusion process, the full text of the literature selected in the first step was reviewed, and literature suitable for the research topic of this study was selected. Two researchers independently evaluated the literature search and selection processes. In the process of selecting literature, if the opinions of the researchers were not in agreement, consensus was reached through discussion. Data extracted from the literature included the number of participants, caregiving burden instruments, factors related to older people with chronic diseases at home, and factors related to family caregivers.

3.1. Selected Documents

Our search retrieved 3396 studies from MEDLINE, 8140 studies from EMBASE, 806 studies from the Cochrane Library, 3164 studies from CINAHL, and 456 studies from domestic electronic databases, for a total of 15,962 studies. Twelve manual searches were included, 4768 duplicate searches were removed, and 11,206 study titles and abstracts were reviewed. Among these studies, those focusing on dementia (2297), psychological diseases (1332), non-burden and other topics (4085), children (1147), and formal caregivers or workers (1747) were excluded. After excluding 11,182 studies unrelated to the research topic, 24 were initially selected. After reviewing the full text of the 24 studies, six were excluded: One study with the same title, one study with the full text in Spanish, two review articles, and two studies with only an abstract. Therefore, 18 studies were selected as eligible for inclusion in the systematic review ( Figure 1 ).

FLOW CHART of selected studies.

3.2. General Characteristics of Selected Studies

The 18 studies reviewed were conducted in the United States ( n = 2), Singapore ( n = 2), India ( n = 2), Taiwan ( n = 2), Saudi Arabia ( n = 1), Sweden ( n = 1), Spain ( n = 1), Israel ( n = 1), Indonesia ( n = 1), Japan ( n = 1), China ( n = 1), Canada ( n = 1), Pakistan ( n = 1), and South Korea ( n = 1). The Zarit Burden Inventory was the most commonly used instrument to assess caregiver burden (11 instruments, 61%), followed by the short version of the Zarit Burden Interview (two instruments, 11%), the 24-item Chinese Caregiving Burden Inventory (1 instrument, 5.6%), Japanese version of the Zarit Burden Interview (J-ZBI) (one instrument, 5.6%), Caregiver Burden Scale (one instrument, 5.6%), Burden Scale (one instrument, 5.6%), and Perceived Caregiver Burden Scale (one instrument, 5.6%).

The mean age of participants ranged from 45 to 102 years, with prevalent chronic ailments, including cancer, hypertension, diabetes, musculoskeletal disorders, and stroke. Family caregivers (informal caregivers) ranged in age from 18 to 80 years, and 69.7% were women. In the selected studies, family caregivers were children and spouses of older people, with an average caregiving duration of more than five years ( Table 1 ).

Methodological and content-specific variables of the selected studies.

3.3. Key Elements Identified through Selected Studies

3.3.1. family caregiver burden assessment tool.

Seven instruments used to assess caregiving burden of family caregivers with chronic conditions were identified in the selected studies. Caregiving burden was measured using the ZBI in 11 studies and the short version of the ZBI in two studies. In addition, the 24-item Chinese Caregiving Burden Inventory, J-ZBI, Caregiver Burden Scale, Burden Scale, and Perceived Caregiver Burden Scale were each used in one study. The ZBI is one of the most widely used instruments in clinical and research settings for assessing caregiver burden. Developed in 1980, the ZBI serves as a tool to gauge perceived burden experienced by caregivers and encompasses domains such as caregiver health, personal and social life, financial status, emotional well-being, and interpersonal relationships. Initially comprising a 29-item self-report questionnaire, it was condensed into a 22-item version (ZBI-22) in 1985. Further modifications resulted in the creation of a brief 12-item version and a concise 4-item screening version [ 33 ]. The 22-item ZBI is the most widely used tool. Caregivers read each interview question, and responses were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4 points. Scores range from 0 to 21 for little or no burden, 21 to 40 for mild-to-moderate burden, 41 to 60 for moderate-to-severe burden, and 61 to 88 for severe burden. The average range of caregiver burden scores for family caregivers in the selected studies was between mild and moderate ( Table 2 ).

Assessment categories for caregiver burden.

3.3.2. Care Recipient Variables Affecting Caregiving Burden

Table 3 presents statistically significant variables along with caregiving burden. Dependent care burden was found to increase with the age of the care recipient. In addition, decreased ability to perform activities of daily living and increased functional dependency were associated with increased dependent care burden.

Care recipient variables significantly related to caregiver burden.

Furthermore, caregiving burden is related to type of chronic disease. Cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson’s disease, and urinary incontinence significantly increase caregiving burden. Presence of behavioral problems in the care recipient was a predictor of a higher caregiving burden. In addition, mental issues such as cognitive decline, depression, and sleep disorders in older people were identified as factors that increased caregiver burden ( Table 3 ).

3.3.3. Caregiver Variables That Affect Caregiving Burden

Table 4 summarizes caregiver variables that were significantly related to caregiver burden. Married caregivers, older caregivers, and female caregivers were more burdened. In addition, higher education level was related to a higher burden on caregivers, and children felt less burden of care in relation to older adults. Lower self-reported health status of caregivers was associated with greater caregiving burden, and unemployed caregivers felt more burdened than employed caregivers. Longer caregiving hours were also a factor that increased caregiving burden; caregivers with higher levels of social and family support reported lower caregiving burden ( Table 4 ).

Caregiver variables significantly associated with caregiver burden.

4. Discussion

This study aimed to identify characteristics of older adults with chronic diseases living in the community and to analyze factors affecting caregiving burden of family caregivers who support these individuals through a systematic literature review. Furthermore, the study aimed to provide basic data to inform the development of interventions to reduce caregiving burden.

Compared to previous studies on factors that affect caregiving burden for family caregivers of older adults in long-term care, characteristics of older adults included sex, age, educational level, and degree of impairment of physical and daily functioning, which was the most important factor in determining the burden of support. In the case of sex, although the results were not consistent among researchers when caring for an older person with dementia, the burden of supporting an older female person was higher than that of supporting an older male person. In addition, the higher the dependence of older people on others for daily life activities owing to impaired physical function, the higher the burden on caregivers [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. The dependence of older people on others for daily life activities was investigated as an influential factor in caregiving burden, and it was found that the more severe the functional impairment, the greater caregiving burden [ 39 , 40 ]. Mental impairment in older people has also been found to be a strong factor in caregiver burden [ 34 , 37 , 38 , 41 ], and cognitive impairment in older people has been reported to be more burdensome than physical impairment [ 42 , 43 ].

With regard to caregiving burden, the main influencing factors were caregiver sex, age, health status, number of secondary caregivers, hours of caregiving per day, education, and monthly income. In terms of sex, female caregivers experience higher levels of burden than male caregivers [ 37 , 40 , 44 , 45 ], and caregiving burden increased with age [ 37 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. The health of the caregiver is a variable that can be both a result and a cause of caregiving; the poorer the health of the caregiver, the higher the caregiving burden [ 34 , 36 , 37 , 41 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Studies on caregiving hours almost consistently report that longer average daily caregiving hours increase caregiver burden [ 34 , 35 , 48 , 49 , 52 , 53 ]. The results of this study are consistent with previous findings on factors affecting caregiver burden among family caregivers of older adults receiving long-term care.

The findings also support existing research suggesting that the number of caregiving tasks and the duration of caregiving, both economic and instrumental, have a significant negative impact on family caregivers of older adults with chronic illness. Most of the current literature on caregiver burden focuses on individuals with dementia. Research on caregiving for older adults with dementia supports these findings by showing that the disease status of older adults, age, health status of the caregiver, and education level are significant predictors of caregiver burden.

This study targeted patients with cancer, hypertension, diabetes, musculoskeletal diseases, and stroke, which are relatively common diseases that most people experience during the aging process, rather than older adults with diseases such as dementia, the severity of which is socially recognized and has been primarily covered in existing research. There were no differences in disease type or severity [ 54 ]. The inability to perform activities of daily living has been reported to increase the burden on family caregivers of a wide range of patients, including those with dementia and stroke [ 55 ]. Patients with geriatric diseases are chronically slow to recover and require long-term care. Children living with older people often take responsibility for caring for these individuals. However, because older adults with geriatric diseases show fewer personality, cognitive, and emotional disorders or problem behaviors than those with dementia, it was expected that severity of disease and period of caregiving would have different effects on caregiver burden.

While societal attention has been focused on family caregivers of older adults with conditions such as dementia, there is a lack of understanding regarding older adults with a wide range of chronic diseases that occur with aging. There is a need for research that differentiates the caregiving experiences of family caregivers according to the type and severity of geriatric illnesses to reduce the burden on family caregivers [ 54 ]. Therefore, differentiated types of services should be developed based on these findings.

Considering the factors related to caregiver burden based on previous studies and the results of this study, we found that problematic behaviors and cognitive levels affect caregiver burden. As a cerebrovascular disease, Parkinson’s disease and bed conditions persist, and cognitive impairment and problem behaviors worsen, leading to other symptoms, such as sleep disturbances, that increase caregiver burden. To reduce the burden on family caregivers, various programs are required to improve cognitive function and reduce problematic behaviors, particularly those suitable for older people with chronic diseases living at home.

In addition, it is necessary to make efforts to reduce caregiver dependency by identifying the level of daily life functioning of older people, as assisting with daily life activities creates a significant burden on family caregivers.

Health status was identified as a significant factor that influenced family caregivers. Therefore, a system that simultaneously manages the health status of not only those receiving care but also family caregivers and that provides human resource support, counseling, and education on health problems is required.

In addition, prolonged support delivered by family caregivers can deteriorate their quality of life due to impacts on social activities, leisure activities, and lifestyle changes. Therefore, to reduce caregiving time of family caregivers, it is necessary not only to continue to provide daycare and short-term care facilities for older people with chronic diseases but also to stimulate the participation of family members, reorganize roles, and communicate smoothly. Systematic management is necessary to ensure that self-help groups for family caregivers operate continuously. Therefore, caregivers require substantial and continuous economic support.

4.1. Limitations

This study examined family caregivers of older adults with chronic diseases; however, it was not possible to analyze differences in caregiving experiences according to the type and severity of disease. Considering the increase in the number of older adults with various geriatric diseases, verifying the caregiving experiences of family caregivers according to the type and severity of disease is recommended. It is also recommended that future studies compare the care burden factors of institutionalized and homebound older people and develop care programs or protocols for homebound older people.

The limitations of this study include the high heterogeneity of the studies included in the literature review and the difficulty in interpreting the internal stress of family caregivers because of the predominance of quantitative studies. Therefore, future studies should adopt qualitative approaches. Furthermore, the current findings should be interpreted with caution, as continuous and long-term follow-up studies are required to reflect changes in the degree of chronic disease morbidity in the aging population. The absence of an examination of studies that yielded negative results may introduce bias into the research outcomes and limit thorough comprehension and interpretation of the findings. Another limitation pertains to the inability to address publication bias completely within the limitations of this study.

4.2. Implications for Practice and Suggestions for Future Research

Considering the diverse factors identified in this study, healthcare professionals should adopt personalized approaches to enhance the well-being of caregivers and older individuals. Community-based support initiatives are crucial, and collaboration between healthcare practitioners and policymakers is recommended to develop programs that offer practical assistance, emotional support, and education to caregivers. Future research should delve deeper into the specific effectiveness of tailored interventions to mitigate the caregiver burden. Comparative studies exploring the outcomes of various community support programs can provide valuable insights into best practices.

5. Conclusions

In an upcoming super-aged society, the care of older patients with various chronic diseases living with their families will be the center of discussion; therefore, discussions to support older people with these diseases and their families should continue. It is necessary to understand the impact of each unique disease characteristic on the caregiving burden of family caregivers more comprehensively, to provide specialized support tailored to caregiving burden characteristics, and to provide more realistic medical and non-medical alternatives. As caregiving burden for older patients with chronic diseases is no longer a problem for individuals, healthcare workers should consider the application of integrated nursing interventions that can promote the health of not only patients but also family caregivers simultaneously. In addition, to solve the welfare problems of older people suffering from chronic diseases in the future, efforts in the social community, in which the government, community, and family seek appropriate role sharing, are urgently required.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the Gachon University Research Fund 2023 (GCU-202303870001).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: J.Y.C. and S.H.L.; methodology: J.Y.C.; software: J.Y.C.; validation: J.Y.C., S.Y. and S.H.L.; formal analysis: J.Y.C.; investigation: J.Y.C.; resources: S.H.L.; data curation: J.Y.C.; writing—original draft preparation: J.Y.C. and S.Y.; writing—review and editing: S.Y. and S.H.L.; visualization: J.Y.C.; supervision: S.H.L.; project administration: S.H.L.; funding acquisition: S.H.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This was a literature review that did not involve human participants. Hence, there is no applicable requirement for IRB (Institutional Review Board) approval or related statements.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all the participants involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Burke O. Long papers

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Personal papers of Burke O. Long, chiefly professional files. There are articles, manuscripts, drafts, proofs, personal and professional correspondence, course syllabi, unpublished lectures, and conference papers. Also included are copies of his senior project (1961) and dissertation (1967), non-current research files, successful grant applications, and professional activity reports.

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Burke O. Long graduated from Randolph-Macon College, earned his master's and doctorate degree from Yale University. He joined the Bowdoin College faculty in 1968 and was promoted to professor of religion in 1979. A biblical scholar, he authored or edited numerous publications. In 2002 he was elected William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Religion and the Humanities Emeritus.

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Burk O. Long Papers, George J. Mitchell Department of Special Collections & Archives, Bowdoin College Library, Brunswick, Maine https://archivesspace.bowdoin.edu/repositories/2/resources/261 Accessed May 28, 2024.

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Theses & Dissertations

Examining the role of artificial intelligence (ai) in transforming print journalism in uganda..

Robert Mukasa , Aga Khan University

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Executive Masters in Media Leadership and Innovation (EMMLI)

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David Aduda

Graduate School of Media and Communications

This study provides an analysis of the current state of artificial intelligence adoption in two privately funded print media houses in Uganda: The Observer and Daily Monitor." The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) into journalism has been touted as a transformative force with several advantages and disadvantages, including improvements in workflow efficiency, content accuracy, and audience engagement. Despite this potential, the adoption of AI in Ugandan print journalism has been slow, due to challenges such as limited access to technological resources and a lack of AI literacy among journalists. Using the Technology Acceptance Model as a guiding framework, the study aimed to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the state of AI adoption in Ugandan print newsrooms. The research focused on three objectives that examined the state of AI adoption, identified key drivers of adoption trends and barriers, and assessed its impact on the newsroom workflow efficiency. The significance of this research is multi-layered, impacting not just news organizations but also journalists, policymakers, technology providers, academia, and the public. The findings offer actionable insights that can guide news organizations in modernizing their production processes. The study contributes to policy AI-related initiatives, assists tech companies in customizing AI solutions for Uganda, and provides academia with a reference for future research on AI's role in journalism. The research methodology incorporated a mixed-methods approach, merging both qualitative and quantitative research techniques. The study found that while AI adoption stands at a modest 25 per cent in newsrooms, there is a central understanding of AI's purpose among journalists. However, the adoption of AI technologies remains limited, primarily driven by individual journalists rather than a unified organizational approach. This situation is contrasted with more advanced news organizations globally, where automated journalism powered by AI is more prevalent. The research highlighted the predominant use of AI in tasks such as fact-checking, content generation, and transcription, with a significant majority of journalists relying on free AI tool subscriptions due to financial constraints. Despite regular interaction with AI tools among the respondents, the impact on journalistic quality is varied, underlining the need for increased awareness, training, and institutional support for effective AI utilization in the news industry. A key recommendation is for the leadership of both newsrooms to proactively drive the AI integration process. The implementation of AI in these newsrooms should be guided by the AI Readiness Index (AIRI), a framework developed by AI Singapore (AISG). This framework, as outlined by Grasso (2022), evaluates an organization's preparedness for adopting AI across four pillars and nine dimensions.

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Mukasa, R. (2024). Examining the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in transforming print journalism in Uganda. (Unpublished master's dissertation). Aga Khan University, East Africa.

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A Furious, Forgotten Slave Narrative Resurfaces After Nearly 170 Years

John S. Jacobs was a fugitive, an abolitionist — and the brother of the canonical author Harriet Jacobs. Now, his own fierce autobiography has re-emerged.

By Jennifer Schuessler

One day in 1855, a man walked into a newspaper office in Sydney, Australia, with an odd request.

The man, later described as a “man of color” with “bright, intelligent eyes” and an American accent, was looking for a copy of the United States Constitution.

The text was procured, along with a recent book on the history of the United States. Two weeks later, the man returned with a nearly 20,000-word text of his own, bearing a blunt title: “The United States Governed by Six Hundred Thousand Despots.”

The first half offered an account of the author’s birth into slavery in North Carolina around 1815, his escape from his master, his years on a whaling ship and then his departure from “the land of the free” for the shores of Australia, where he went to work in the gold fields.

The second half was a long, blistering condemnation of the country he had left behind, in particular its revered founding document.

“That devil in sheepskin called the Constitution of the United States,” the man wrote, is “the great chain that binds the north and south together, a union to rob and plunder the sons of Africa, a union cemented with human blood, and blackened with the guilt of 68 years.”

The newspaper published the narrative anonymously, in two installments, attributing it only to “A Fugitive Slave.” How it was received is unknown.

The man’s words then sat, unread and forgotten, until a few years ago, when an American literary scholar came across them while digging around one night in an online newspaper database.

Now, it is being published for the first time in 169 years by the University of Chicago Press, under its unflinching original title, with the author’s name — John Swanson Jacobs — emblazoned on the cover.

The rediscovery of a long-forgotten slave narrative would be notable enough. But this one, scholars who have seen it say, is unique for its global perspective and its uncensored fury, from a man living far outside the trans-Atlantic network of white abolitionists who often limited what the formerly enslaved could write about their experiences.

And it comes with an uncanny twist: Jacobs was the brother of Harriet Jacobs, whose 1861 autobiography, “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,” the first published slave narrative written by a formerly enslaved African American woman, is now seen as a cornerstone of the 19th-century literary canon.

Today, John Jacobs is remembered mostly as a footnote to his sister’s story. But Jonathan D.S. Schroeder, the scholar who rediscovered the narrative, said he hopes the book will restore Jacobs to history, placing him in the tradition of Black radicalism from David Walker’s incendiary “Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World” from 1829 to the Black Lives Matter movement today.

The narrative is a “spectacular performance of autobiographical freedom,” Schroeder argues. And it raises a deeper question: How would other formerly enslaved people — including Jacobs’s more famous sister — have told their stories if they had been truly able to write freely?

A Homegrown American Genre

Slave narratives have been called the United States’ only homegrown literary genre, if also a complicated one. Well into the 20th century, they were dogged by questions about their authenticity, and the degree to which they had been shaped, or even fabricated, by white editors.

But today, the roughly 200 known to survive are prized both as direct testimony of enslavement and as the seedbed of a literary tradition that stretches from Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth to Toni Morrison and Colson Whitehead (whose novel “The Underground Railroad’ was partly inspired by Harriet Jacobs’s book ).

Schroeder came upon John Jacobs’s 1855 narrative by an odd back door. Back in 2017, he was fresh out of graduate school in English, and trying to turn his Ph.D. dissertation about the history of nostalgia into a book.

Today, we may think of nostalgia, a term coined in the 1680s by a Swiss physician, as a pleasantly wistful state. But it originated as a medical diagnosis , which was often applied to despondent prisoners, soldiers and others seen as “irrationally” homesick, including enslaved people .

One night, after a day of working on a job application, Schroeder was digging around on the internet, trying to blow off “stress anxiety.” He had been reading the 2004 biography of Harriet Jacobs by Jean Fagan Yellin and was fascinated by the fact that both her brother and her son, Joseph, had gone to Australia — “physically pretty much the farthest away from America you could get,” as Schroeder put it.

Joseph died in Melbourne, apparently by suicide, around 1860. Had the cause of death been listed as “nostalgia,” Schroeder wondered? Looking for more information, he started plugging various spellings (and misspellings) of both men’s names into Trove , a database of digitized Australian newspapers.

Almost immediately, two articles popped up, published on subsequent days in April 1855, with the same striking title: “The United States Government by Six Hundred Thousand Despots: A True Story of Slavery.”

“It felt like getting hit by a bolt of lightning,” Schroeder said. But he also didn’t want to get too excited. “I know how often these things turn out to not be what they appear to be.”

The narrative begins with the anonymous author’s birth in Edenton, N.C., where Harriet Jacobs was born. As he read the first installment, Schroeder noticed many other details that lined up with those in Harriet Jacobs’s as-yet unpublished book.

Then, two-thirds of the way through, there was a description of a letter the author had left for his enslaver in 1839, shortly before escaping from their hotel in New York City and fleeing by ship.

“Sir, I have left you not to return,” he wrote. The letter was signed, “No longer yours, John S. Jacob.”

The editors had left a letter off the surname. But this was clearly Jacobs.

“Then, I allowed myself to be hit with the full force of it,” Schroeder said.

The next day, Schroeder contacted Caleb Smith, an English professor at Yale, to ask for advice. Smith, who in 2013 drew headlines for authenticating the earliest known memoir by an imprisoned Black American , from the 1850s, called Jacobs’s narrative an “exciting” find.

“We are accustomed to thinking about slavery in terms of silenced voices, lost stories, lives that left only cryptic traces in the archives,” Smith said in an email. “But the voice here is loud and clear in its rage.”

Manisha Sinha, a leading historian of abolition at the University of Connecticut, called it “a major discovery” and “a wow,” which adds to our understanding of the evolution of Black antislavery activism.

Historians have known John Jacobs as a barely documented player in radical abolitionist circles of the 1840s, who sometimes lectured alongside Frederick Douglass, his neighbor in Rochester, N.Y.

In 1851, Douglass broke with the white abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, rejecting his view of the Constitution as an irredeemable “covenant with death.” But unlike Douglass, Sinha said, “Jacobs doesn’t give up on his radical indictment of the United States.”

Scattered in the Archives

Schroeder, now 43 and teaching at the Rhode Island School of Design, was initially uncertain what to do with the discovery. A literary agent recommended he research a full biography to publish alongside the text. So Schroeder transformed himself from an interpretive literary scholar into an old-fashioned archive hound.

Today, many scholars of slavery emphasize the silences and biases of the archive. “It’s important to know that the records you are looking at weren’t set up to preserve the life of the person you are writing about, and often quite the opposite,” Schroeder said.

Most scholars had assumed that Yellin, who spent three decades researching Harriet Jacobs, had tracked down most of what could be found about the Jacobs family. (Yellin died in 2023 .) But Schroeder found many previously unnoticed records, including a forgotten oil portrait from 1848 that he believes depicts John.

In Boston, he uncovered court documents describing Jacobs’s great-grandparents’ attempt to escape slavery in the 1790s. In London, he found ship logs that allowed him to trace Jacobs’s wanderings after he left Australia for London in 1856.

From his base in London, Jacobs spent the next 15 years working on ships carrying sugar from the Caribbean, oranges from the Black Sea, cotton from Egypt. He also helped finish the trans-Atlantic telegraph line and, in 1869, sailed to Bangkok on a gunboat delivered as a present for the new king of Siam.

Jacobs, Schroeder writes, “lived a life that was even more incredible than his narrative.” But his traces, he said, were “scattered to the wind.”

In 1860, as Harriet’s book was about to appear, John decided to republish his own narrative. Before a voyage to Brazil, he entrusted the text to a London magazine called Leisure Hour.

The editors chopped it nearly in half , excising most of its political arguments and turning it into a more conventional tale of suffering and escape. And gone was the original title, with its blast at the 600,000 American “despots” who owned fellow human beings.

“They cut out the radical contract that Jacobs asks the reader to submit to,” Schroeder said, “which is to pay attention not to enslaved people in pain, but to the people and laws that create the pain.”

Brother and Sister

John Jacobs died in 1873, a few months after returning to the United States. Today, few of the literary pilgrims who go to Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Mass., to visit Harriet’s grave are likely to pause over the small marker set into the grass nearby, labeled simply “Brother.”

But Schroeder hopes his research will prompt a rethinking of the siblings’ interconnected stories.

Harriet’s book, which includes harrowing descriptions of sexual abuse, borrowed conventions from the sentimental novel, to better appeal to the target audience of antislavery Northern white women. John’s narrative, Schroeder writes, is “unsentimental to its core.” But were their stories originally intended to be so different?

Both siblings, Schroeder writes, began thinking about their books in the period when they lived together in Rochester, in the late 1840s, and possibly “intended for their stories to be read together.” And in the late 1850s, Schroeder writes, John seemed to encourage Harriet, who visited London, to publish her book there.

In her biography, Yellin describes how Harriet spent three years trying to get her book published, which meant getting the imprimatur of white benefactors. Twice, she asked Harriet Beecher Stowe for an endorsement, and was rebuffed. When “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl” was finally published in 1861, in Boston, the white editor revised it heavily, and cut a closing tribute to the radical abolitionist John Brown.

At the end of her book, Harriet describes John’s departure for California. What would her finished book have been like, Schroeder wonders, if she had joined him — and then, like him, continued even farther?

“There were invisible constraints on formerly enslaved authors who remained in the United States,” Schroeder said. Without the two versions of John Jacobs’s narrative, “we wouldn’t see that as clearly.”

An earlier version of this article referred incorrectly to the publishing history of Harriet Jacobs’s “Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl.” It is the first published slave narrative written by a formerly enslaved African American woman, not the earliest account of American slavery known to have been written by a woman.

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Jennifer Schuessler is a culture reporter covering intellectual life and the world of ideas. She is based in New York. More about Jennifer Schuessler

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• In Memoriam

Wesbrook Scholar Siavash Salamatian reflects on his multifaceted UBC journey

May 27, 2024

From a high school election volunteer to an undergraduate scholar of Canadian politics, Siavash Salamatian’s time at UBC is a testament to the power of curiosity and perseverance.

Siavash Salamatian (BA'24)

This year, Siavash was granted the prestigious Martha C. Piper Award in Global Citizenship and named a Wesbrook Scholar — two selective designations that are awarded to students with outstanding academic performance and leadership.  

As he prepares to embark on life after graduation with an honours degree in Political Science , Siavash reflected on a path marked by academic excellence, community engagement, and an unwavering “say yes” attitude that has opened the doors to many remarkable opportunities.  

Siavash’s interest in Canadian politics began as a high school student when he volunteered for the South Surrey-White Rock federal by-election in 2017 and later became involved with his local Member of Parliament in North Vancouver.  

That interest carried into his studies at UBC, where he took as many Canadian politics courses as he could. He eventually focused his honours thesis in the subfield and won the Department’s Stewart L. Chambers Memorial Prize for best undergraduate essay on Canadian government and politics for his thesis.

Working on his honours thesis in IKB

Siavash’s thesis examined the rise in the use of the notwithstanding clause, a section in Canada’s Charter of Rights and Freedoms that gives provinces the power to override certain sections of the charter for a period when passing legislation.

While writing his thesis, Siavash built a relationship with not only his supervisor, Professor Gerald Baier , but also other scholars working in the field. He was excited by the opportunity to connect directly with academics across the country and gained access to unpublished datasets to use in his research.

The biggest lesson he learned from completing his honours thesis was that research is not as scary or out of reach as it might seem at first.

“I learned that… once you start doing it, you’ll realize that everyone in the field is just human and they’re also figuring it out,” he said. “Any big step is only really one step away.”

While his professional and academic experiences have been centred on research, policy and politics, Siavash spends his free time taking on new skills and enjoying his hobbies, like earning scuba diving and motorcycle licenses or playing sports.

“If there’s anything that I think has benefits or I’m interested in it, I’ll never say no. I’ll say yes.”

This “say yes” attitude led him to apply for a Wesbrook Scholarship earlier this year. He was drawn in by the potential opportunity to meet other like-minded students across UBC that he hadn’t crossed paths with otherwise.

Winning the awards was an exciting achievement that reinforced all the work that he’s put into his time at UBC, particularly when it comes to research.

“It felt reassuring that the scholarly community thought that I was contributing to something worthwhile,” said Siavash.

After graduation, Siavash plans to spend a few months in France for a language program, then start a full-time role in Ottawa as a ministerial advisor with Canada’s Minister of Energy and Natural Resources.

He hopes to attend law school next year, though he’s not sure yet whether he’d like to pursue a longstanding interest in international law or a more recent one in constitutional law and judicial politics that was sparked by a class with Professor Baier.

Siavash with Prime Minister Justin Trudeau

If there’s one piece of advice that Siavash has for current undergraduate students, it’s to build connections and take advantage of the wealth of knowledge and resources at UBC.

“All the professors in the department are experts in their field and if you want help, or if you want to learn more about something, they’re always willing to help you,” he said.

“If there’s anything that you’re passionate about at UBC, there’s someone that either knows something about it or there are resources to help you make it happen.”

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