how long is a normal research paper

How Long Should a Research Paper Be?

How Long Should A Research Paper Be? An Overview

In short, research paper's average length can range from 1,500 words for research proposals and case studies - all the way to 100,000 words for large dissertations.

Research, by its nature of being complex, requires a careful and thorough elucidation of facts, notions, information, and the like - which is all reflected in its most optimal length.

Thus, one of the critical points that you need to focus on when writing either a complex research paper or a less complex research paper is your objective and how you can relay the latter in a particular context. Say you are writing a book review. Since you will only need to synthesize information from other sources to solidify your claim about a certain topic, you will perhaps use paraphrasing techniques, which offer a relatively lower word count when compared to a full-blown descriptive research paper.

Even when both types of research differ in word counts, they can effectively attain their objectives, given the different contexts in which they are written and constructed. 

Certainly, when asked about how long is a research paper, it surely depends on the objective or the type of research you will be using. Carrying out these objectives will warrant you to do certain paper writing tasks and techniques that are not necessarily long or short when you compare them to other research types. 

At Studyfy, we care for the attainment of your research objectives. We understand that achieving such will contribute to the success of your research completion. While maintaining the ideal word count for a research paper, you are in a meaningful position to understand the various elements that can enrich your paper, even if it looks overwhelming.

How Long Should the Introduction of a Research Paper Be?

The research introduction section most likely occupies approximately 30-40% of the entire research paper.

The introduction of a regular academic paper can total 1750-2000 words depending on the research type and complexity of the research niche or topic. That is why, in writing this section, you must enrich the content of your paper while maintaining readability and coherence for the benefit of your readers.

The introduction houses the background of the study. This is the part of the paper where the entire context of the paper is established. We all know that the research context is important as it helps the readers understand why the paper is even conducted in the first place. Thus, the impression of having a well-established context can only be found in the introduction. Now that we know the gravity of creating a good introduction, let us now ask how long this section should be.

Generally speaking, the paper’s introduction is the longest among all the sections. Aside from establishing the context, the introduction must house the historical underpinnings of the study (important for case studies and ethnographic research), salient information about all the variables in the study (including their relationship with other variables), and related literature and studies that can provide insight into the novelty and peculiarities of the current research project.

To better understand the general composition of your research introduction, you may refer to the breakdown of this section below:

• Context Establishment and Introduction of Key Terms. In this subsection, you will articulate the background (historical, social, economic, psychological, etc.) of the study, including the ecosystem and the niche of your study interest. Furthermore, key terms found as variables in your study must be properly defined operationally and theoretically, if necessary. This comprises 20% of the introduction, or about 350-500 words.
• Related Literature and Studies. This is the subsection where you will criticize and integrate existing literature and studies to highlight the research gap that you intend to fill in. This comprises 25% of the introduction or about 450-600 words.
• Thesis statement. This part of the introduction can only be a paragraph or a couple of sentences, as this needs to be straightforward in relaying the identified research gap of the researchers. This comprises 5% of the introduction or about 90-100 words.
• Objectives or Research Questions. This subsection should outline the aims of the study, especially highlighting the inquiries that concern the relationship between the variables and how the research will progress to fill in the identified gaps. This comprises 5% of the introduction or about 90-100 words.

Theoretical and/or Conceptual Framework. These frameworks, when better assisted with a visual representation, guide the entire research process and provide a structure for understanding the relationship between the variables in the study. This comprises 10% of the introduction or about 180-200 words.

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Elements of Good Research Writing Process– While Maintaining the Ideal Word Count!

• Clarity of Purpose . All types of writing, whether long or short, have its clarity of purpose as the heart of the text. In research, it is manifested through the inclusion of a research question or hypothesis. A good research paper does not repeat these elements without a purpose in mind. Though they can be emphasized throughout the development of the paper, the manner of doing it must be in a logical and purposeful way. 

To guide you in writing process of doing so, you can ask yourself the following questions:

• Is the research question or hypothesis clearly stated?
• Does the introduction provide a clear overview of the purpose of the study?
• Does the purpose of the study repeat purposefully in the latter sections of the paper?
• Does the purpose of the study repeat logically in the latter sections of the paper?

2. Literature Review . When appending related literature and studies to your paper, the question must not revolve around whether you have supplied a lot of these pieces of information, making your article wordy and ideal. While the literature review adds a significant ‘chunk’ to your paper, with some paper formats even allotting a specific section for it, we must carefully consider what and how we can integrate them. It subsequently entails a critical analysis of a piece of literature or study and logically places it beside information that you desire to contest. As they say, a good literature review identifies knowledge gaps, highlights the author’s familiarity with the topic, and provides an overview of the research areas that show a disparity of agreement. In order to have these characteristics, you can ask yourself the following questions:

• Have I integrated relevant literature in my review?
• Have I placed it logically within a specific piece of information based on my presumption?
• Do they identify a concept or piece of information that is otherwise unknown to the field?
• Have I critically analyzed existing research to identify the research gap?

3. Logical Flow. Research will not be whole without its parts. Researchers must know how to tie everything together and ensure that each part is functional in itself and supplements with other parts. When dealing with a large body of text, the logical flow of the paper might be a considerable concern. Along with the confusion brought about by the wordiness and complexity of the topic, your readers might get lost because of incoherence and inconsistencies with the presentation of ideas, leading to them not reading your paper any further. Thus, while ensuring that you get the word count that you want, you might want to ask yourself these questions first:

• Does the introduction progress logically from the general background to the specific research question?
• Do the transition devices between sections and individual paragraphs of the body facilitate a smooth flow of ideas?
• Is there a clear hierarchy of ideas, with each paragraph contributing to the overall argument?
• Have I organized ideas in a way that makes the document easy to track?
• Have I pursued a logical sequence of presenting information?

4. Language Use and Style. Developing an academic language throughout your paper and maintaining a formal style of paper writing are all the more important in research writing process, and mind you, it can also help you increase your word count in a sustainable way! Incorporating this form of language and style into your paper entails more than just adding incoherent or overly manufactured words that may be viewed as fillers.

Strategies and known practices are said to hit multiple objectives without compromising the quality of the paper. You may expand your points by providing detailed explanations, introducing sufficient pieces of evidence that supports your claims, addressing counterargument through the presentation of related literature or studies, or clarifying complex concepts through chunking. To better understand these techniques, some of these questions might be helpful for you:

• Is the language clear and concise?
• Have I avoided unnecessary jargon or complex sentences or paragraphs?
• Have I avoided repetition or redundancy in the document?
• Have I expanded on key points by providing more detailed explanations and examples?
• Have I discussed nuances, variations, or exceptions to your results?
• Have I clarified some complex concepts or theories by chunking them into more detailed explanations?

How Long Should a Paragraph Be in a Research Paper?

For the research paper introduction section, a typical paragraph count will be 12-15, excluding the literature review section. Each subsection has 1-2 individual paragraphs. The mentioned section, on the other hand, can have paragraphs totaling 10-20. The conclusion section, on the other hand, is considered ideal if it has 5-7 paragraphs. 

The paragraph count differs from one research type to another and even from one paper section to another. While it is worth deciding how long should a paragraph be in a research paper, it is more important to take note of the importance of ideas that should be included in each paragraph within a certain section. Take the review of the literature section as an example. The number of literature in the paper is said to be equal to the number of paragraphs allotted for the section. The reason lies in the uniformity of importance these pieces of literature hold, provided that they are closely associated with the research gap. 

Do you feel like you need to pay for a research paper in hopes of finding a model article with the right paragraph count? Look no further, as Studyfy has its in-house research paper writing service that houses professionals and experts for your academic paper writing help. Its reasonable price– no deadline markup nor additional hidden charges– is tantamount to the expertise each writer has put into their work.

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How Long Should a Conclusion Be in a Research Paper?

A concluding section, then, must only comprise 5% of the total word count of the paper, translating to approximately 400 words. This measly allocation may put you into a flimsy situation, especially if you do not know how to manage your vocabulary well and you keep on adding filler words that can sacrifice the importance of this section. Ditch the nonsense and construct your conclusion in a concise yet enriching way.

In concluding a research paper, it is important to always synthesize the big chunks of information examined in the data analysis and discussion. As worn out as the reader may look after reaching this point, the conclusion must act as a “mellow point” for them, entrusting them only with important pointers of the study. Sometimes, the conclusion part of the paper, even though less wordy than its preceding sections, may be difficult to construct, as you still need to have a basis– a scaffold– to refer to, and synthesizing, just like analyzing and evaluating data, is just as hard and laborious.

Through its superb essay writing services , plus applying top-notch quality assurance to academic papers like research articles, Studyfy can help you achieve the best for last with an effective, meaningful, and content-rich conclusion. Your readers will not think twice about using your study as a model for their own works!

How Long is a Research Paper in terms of its Various Types?

As mentioned in the first part of the article, the word count of an academic paper is dependent on the type of research you wish to conduct. While the general word count has been given, we cannot deny the fact that this threshold is only an estimation. There might be a time when you are tasked to create a research article that is different from a standard IMRAD-structured (Introduction, Methodology, Results, Analysis, Discussion) research paper. You are in for a treat, as we will provide you with a cheat sheet for the word count of several types of write-ups in the realm of research:

Research Proposal

Specific Purpose/s: A preliminary outline that contains the research question, minimal literature review, methodology, and significance of the research undertaking.

"Word Count Range: 1500-3000 words"

Review Article

Specific Purpose/s: Review bodies of literature about an overarching topic or niche, analyze a particular section, synthesize according to certain themes, and identify knowledge gaps from the findings.

"Word Count Range: 5000-10,000 words"

Meta-Analysis

Specific Purpose/s: Involves the use of statistical analyses of multiple studies to provide a quantitative synthesis of the evidence.

"Word Count Range: 5000-15,000 words"

Specific Purpose/s: Presents an in-depth and intrusive analysis of a specific case, one which aims to illustrate a broader concept or novel phenomenon.

"Word Count Range: 1500-5000 words"

Conference Paper

Specific Purpose/s: Presents a brief introduction, salient research findings, and implications connected to a given theme by a conference or colloquium.

"Word Count Range: 2000-5000 words"

Dissertation

Specific Purpose/s: Regarded as a terminal scholarly requirement for doctorate students, this is an in-depth discussion of an otherwise original research finding, often written in chapters. It contributes significantly to the body of knowledge of a particular study of interest.

"Word Count Range: 50,000-100,000 words (depending on the institution)"

Are you contemplating buying research papers of different types? Studyfy got your back! Its roster of writers and editing experts leaves no space for errors, ensuring that both quality and quantity– that’s right: content and word count are not compromised. The variety of expertise within ensures that all research and scholarly works are delivered to your liking. Pay less– no hidden charges and markups while you enjoy the best quality of writing with Studyfy.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is the introduction in a research paper.

AThe introduction takes up about 30-40% of the entire paper since the context and research background should be specified and further discussed. For a general academic paper with 4000 words, the introduction must be approximately 1500 words. You can do the math for the rest!

How long is a research paper, considering that there are many of them?

There is no one-size-fits-all guideline in determining the word count of a plethora of research papers in the world. Although there is an accepted word count range for each research type (as presented in the previous section), there are several factors that should likewise be considered in determining the word count: specific guidelines set by the institution you are working with, the complexity of the topic, audience, and depth of analysis. 

Do I have to include all of the prescribed subsections of the introduction to increase the word count?

While the prescribed subsections have significant functions in the research paper introduction, some of them are not required to be included. The decisions depend on the type of research you wish to conduct and the external guidelines that you might need to follow. Some disciplines, such as social sciences, require a research article to have a theoretical framework, whereas others do not. Some research papers follow the standard IMRAD paper format that infuses the literature review section into the introduction, while the Germanic Thesis paper format, for example, regards the former as a separate section.

How do I increase my word count without compromising the quality of my research paper?

The dilemma of choosing quality over quantity has long been debunked: you do not have to choose in the first place. All you need is a set of writing strategies and techniques that will target those two birds using one stone. You may provide more detail to some ambiguous or novel terms. You can add additional works of literature to some concepts that promote abstraction. You may include examples or empirical pieces of evidence to create a more concrete representation of a concept or theory. Lastly, you may use subheadings to efficiently allocate word count for your chosen discussion topics.

Why is it important to track the word count of a research paper?

There are various reasons why we need to do it. Some institutions that publish scholarly journals follow certain guidelines in word count as one of the primary requirements. A specified limit enables researchers to allocate the number of words to several sections of their writing efficiently. Most institutions also use paper length as a predictor of publication cost. The longer the word count is, the costlier the publication will be. Lastly, reading engagement is affected by word count, as readers tend to shy away from reading an article that is long, boring, and insubstantial. 

Can a writing service help me achieve my goals of writing within the right word count range?

Certainly! Studyfy offers several academic services, including writing services and research papers for sale . Understanding your various writing needs, writers can cater to the needed style, word count, formatting, and any other aspects so that you can have the best quality write-up without having to fear extra charges and big markups.

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What is the normal research paper length.

Research papers are popular for frightening students due to the many hours and hard effort needed. Fortunately, there are several ways to assist you through them. One of them is by understanding the basics, like how to conduct research and the standard length of a research paper.

You’ll discover that if you know the research paper length and how much research you’ll have to do, they’re not that unpleasant to undertake.

In this article, you’ll find the general guidelines for the length of an academic research paper. We’ll also look at the research paper paragraph length and how many pages you can fit your research into.

How many words should a research paper be?

First, let’s begin with the average word count of the research.

How many words are sufficient? A thousand? Or a lot more? To be clear, there’s no general answer specific to all fields. Factors like topics chosen, fields of study, and instructions from an academic professional come into play.

However, a research paper can be between 4000 to 6000 words on average. In some fields, that may get up to 8000 or even more.

How long is a research paper in high school?

How many pages is a research paper in high school? Research papers are often called term papers, and most high school instructors expect their pupils to produce 3 to 5 pages of them.

They are usually given during a semester and sometimes may be up to 5 and 7 pages long if they are final papers.

How long is a short research paper?

A short research paper can be between 2000 to 3000 words long. These are often seen in high school research papers mentioned above. In fewer cases, they can be for college studies.

How long is a research paper: length guide

The length of a research paper varies depending on the stage of education, course of study, and departmental guidelines. In addition, of course, the volume of relevant findings and the length of your conclusion and discussion can also play a part. But these are often personal factors.

However, academic pieces like essays are usually shorter than research papers or theses.

Your research paper assignment will often come with straightforward guidelines on the pages or word count range it is expected to fall within.

For instance, you could be given a paper that should fall between 4500–5000 words or 20–25 pages. If you’re not given a specific range or limit, don’t forget to confirm with your instructor.

A research paper is often divided into:

• Introduction : 15% of the final word count.
• Methods : 35% of the final word count.
• Analysis and Results : 30% of the final word count.
• Discussion : 20% of the final word count.

To answer the question, “how long is a typical research paper?” We intend to look at them through various lenses. The ideal length of a research paper should be up to 8000 words. That means without the references and abstract sections, and you should have over 150 sentences and 30 paragraphs.

Although there are no hard and fast rules for choosing the length of individual paragraphs in a research paper, the most common length is between 90 and 130 words. Any paragraph under 90 words is judged insufficient to support an argument, whereas any paragraph above 130 words is seen as over-inflated.

It is also worth noting that the length of the written piece dictates the paragraph lengths. Therefore, when the document is brief, the paragraphs should be similar and vice versa.

On the other hand, a paragraph should include more than four sentences. This is because some topics in specific fields may require lengthier paragraphs to add facts and statistics to your work. And because every section should concentrate on a single concept, the length of a paragraph should be dictated by its supporting ideas.

For example, if an explanation demands detailed evidence in the form of statistics, illustrations, quotations, examples, and definitions, it would naturally be longer.

However, very brief paragraphs also exist in papers of roughly 2,000 words. These can be frequent and large papers of over 10,000 words. The type of paper and course of study often cause these drastic changes.

The average length of a research paper will always differ because of dissimilar types, structures, topics, and instructions. When giving precise specifications for your research paper length, tailor your research to meet its requirements. Remember to avoid adding irrelevant ideas just to beef up your writing. Stick to concise and rich ideas.

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Research Paper Length: What’s the Right Amount?

The purpose of this article is to investigate the question of research paper length, and whether there is a ‘right amount’ that should be aimed for when writing such papers. We will analyze what different sources suggest in terms of ideal page lengths as well as discuss other important factors to consider when determining how long your research paper should be. Furthermore, we will explore strategies authors can use if they are struggling with achieving their desired length within the given constraints set by their instructor or publisher. Finally, we shall draw conclusions on the key points discussed throughout this article regarding appropriate research paper lengths.

I. Introduction

Ii. factors affecting research paper length, iii. recommended word counts for different academic levels and types of writing assignments, iv. strategies to help manage research paper length, v. best practices in reducing the amount of content needed for a quality research paper, vi. conclusion, vii. references.

At the dawn of writing, authors had far less to say than they do today. But with advances in technology and communication, topics can now be explored more deeply and thoroughly. A research paper is an opportunity to explore a particular issue in depth, offering insight into all aspects of that subject.

When writing a research paper for any purpose or field of study, it’s important to adhere to standard conventions regarding length. Research papers typically range from 5-7 pages; however this may vary depending on the professor’s preference as well as specific course requirements.

• Most professors expect , at minimum:
• Five typed pages
• Double spaced text

” ” “ >Font size 12 point Times New Roman font style” ” “ >Include one inch margins on all sides.”

The length of a research paper is highly dependent on the type of research conducted, as well as its complexity. In general, most academic papers should be between 5 to 10 pages long, depending on certain factors.

• The size and scope of your topic – If your topic has a wide range of issues that need to be explored in depth or you have plenty of sources available for researching it then it may require more space than an average essay.
• Whether secondary data needs to be analyzed – If the primary purpose behind writing the paper is analyzing existing data (like surveys or experiments) rather than exploring new topics, then it might take longer because more analysis will be required.
• How much detail is needed – A basic research paper can get away with just summarizing each source while a deeper exploration into the issue requires extensive explanation and discussion which increases page count significantly.

The bottom line here is that there’s no exact answer when asked how long should research papers be; ultimately, this depends upon all these factors combined. However, taking into account both traditional practice and modern trends within academia – going above 10 pages in length would generally not make sense unless absolutely necessary.

Students aiming to succeed in academia should pay careful attention to word counts. Length requirements for writing assignments vary according to academic level and type of work, but there are some general guidelines that students should follow.

• Essays – 2-3 pages (500-800 words)
• Research Papers – 5-7 pages (1250-1750 words)

At the graduate level, expectations become more rigorous. Essay lengths are expected to expand as a student progresses through their program and research papers must be comprehensive enough that they could contribute new knowledge or further discussion on a particular subject matter.

Research papers are an important part of education. They challenge students to take existing knowledge and synthesize it into new insights. But how long should a research paper be?

• For high school, the common length is between 3-5 pages.
• At college level, 6-8 pages is considered the standard.

Though these lengths may vary depending on the course or professor’s requirements .

Once you’ve determined your ideal length, here are some strategies for managing its size:

• Break down larger ideas . Many topics can quickly become too broad if not narrowed down. Subdivide those bigger concepts into more specific categories in order to reduce word count without cutting out any valuable information.

Avoid tangents & repetitive phrases . As you write about each topic within your paper, stay focused! This helps keep content concise while ensuring that all relevant details have been included.

Don’t forget transitions & citations . Transitions help link ideas together so readers don’t feel overwhelmed by nonstop text – plus they add words which also contribute towards meeting page goals ! Don’t forget to include appropriate sources throughout as well; these will come with their own associated citations .

Conducting thorough research and writing a quality paper can be an arduous task. To ensure the best possible outcome, it is important to use certain practices that will help reduce the amount of content needed while still providing a well-rounded result. Here are some tips for achieving this:

• Gather information from reliable sources. Make sure you do your due diligence in researching and verifying facts by using accurate sources such as books, journals, or other published materials found online through trustworthy websites.
• Use concise yet descriptive language. For example, rather than saying “The phenomenon was very complex” say “the phenomenon had intricate components”. Every word should serve its purpose in conveying what needs to be said without taking up too much space.

In this concluding section, we have explored the topic of research paper length. It is often expected that a research paper should be between 10 and 20 pages in length, though some topics may require longer papers or shorter ones depending on their complexity and scope.

Researching for one’s project can take considerable time; however it is important to limit your work so as not to become too tangential within the given subject area. As such, balancing these two facets of writing – thoroughness and conciseness – must be managed carefully in order to create an effective piece of academic work. By using resources like outlines and other supporting documents you are more likely to remain focused throughout your composition process while still gaining insight into the chosen theme(s). Ultimately when presented with a task requiring a researched document the best practice is always adhere closely to instructions: if requested word count limits exist then they should be adhered to as much as possible!

In order to properly cite sources in any research paper, it is essential that all authors use a standardized referencing system. A wide variety of style manuals exist to provide guidance on how best to format references; however, the most commonly used are those published by the American Psychological Association (APA) and Modern Language Association (MLA). Authors should select one manual as their reference guide for consistency throughout their work.

The length of a research paper varies depending on its purpose or audience; however, generally speaking they should be between 5-10 pages long including an abstract and bibliography. The body text should consist of well-developed paragraphs that include strong evidence from reliable resources with accurate citations following the chosen formatting guidelines. Sources need to be recent – no more than five years old – unless using a classical source such as ancient literature.

The research discussed in this article provides evidence that, when it comes to paper length, there is no one-size-fits-all approach. Length of papers should be determined by content and intent rather than rigid rules. Furthermore, when determining the ideal length for a particular project or assignment, careful consideration should be given to the type of audience expected and their level of familiarity with the subject matter being presented. By taking such factors into account during the composition process, authors can craft an effective piece within whatever range best suits their needs.

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How long a Research Paper should be

You might be thinking about what length your research paper must be. You're not all on your own. Students are constantly asking what is the ideal length of their term papers. This issue can be complicated if your instructor hasn't provided you with the maximum page as well as the word count.

Research papers are extremely complex due to the fact that they are academic papers that are based upon your research done on the subject you are researching. This is the reason why our help with writing papers will be helpful for getting that A.

Whatever approach you pick you will need to include an analysis, as well as a conclusion of your results in order to be comprehensive. In taking all of these factors into consideration, students frequently think about how long their research paper ought to be. Let's take a look in detail;

How long should each component of a research paper last?

In general, the ideal length for a research paper is 5 pages for shorter papers as well as 10 pages for lengthy ones. The exact length of your term paper should be decided by your instructor and the guidelines they provide. This will be determined by a variety of elements, such as the size or depth topic.

Factors that determine the length of the Paper

The issue of the length of a research paper is a difficult one to answer since it is based on a variety of aspects. The primary elements to determine the length of your research paper are:

• Your subject for your study
• The variety of topics that emerge from the subject
• Complexity and number of subtopics,
• The extent of your research
• The scope of your discussion and your conclusions.

If all those variables remain the same It is feasible to determine how long a simpler research paper when it is separated into sections, which include the outline introduction, introduction, paragraphs, conclusion, and reference page.

These are the essential elements of an average research paper. Let's examine the length of each section that is required to be.

What is a good outline for a term paper should be

An outline is an essential component of your study paper. It defines the structure of your essay. It organizes the content in your paper's segments.

The outline, however, is not a complete description of the paper. It simply highlights the subjects to be discussed as well as the issues that need to be addressed within those subjects.

A format for an outline should contain the following elements:

• An Introduction
• The issue is being addressed
• A Literature review
• Methodology
• Discussion and results
• Conclusion and recommendation

The brief descriptions of full sentences are available in the five sections which provide the guidelines to write your research. Thus, the outline shouldn't exceed two pages in the case of short research papers, and 4 and 5 pages for longer research papers that range from 15-20 pages.

Optimal Length of a Research Paper Introduction

As we've already mentioned that how long you write your essay is determined by the subject and its content. The same is true for the introduction. In a typical research paper, the introduction should not be more than half of a page.

But, if you're writing a lengthy essay of at least 15 pages, your introduction might be as long as one page or even several paragraphs. Because the majority of research papers that are given to college students at the beginning of their studies aren't long and short, the length of your introduction should not exceed one page.

The length that is recommended for each paragraph in research papers

Although there aren't specific rules that define the length of each paragraph in a document the recommended length should be between 90 to 130 words. Any paragraph that is less than 90 words is considered as being too short to be able to stand on its own and one with more than 130 words is considered to be too argumentative.

However, it is vital to keep in mind that the length of the paragraph will be determined by how long the document is. If the paper is small and the paragraphs are short, they should be brief.

If the research paper is lengthy and the paragraphs must be more extensive. A paragraph must be longer than just four paragraphs. For certain topics, such as childhood obesity, your paragraphs can be extended in order to incorporate the data and statistics into your article.

Since each paragraph should concentrate on one concept The length of each paragraph is determined by the text supporting it.

If your idea needs an extensive amount of information by way of images, illustrations, figures and paraphrases, quotes and definitions, as well as causes and consequences, then the paragraph will be more lengthy.

If the notion of the paragraph is simple and doesn't require much evidence, it can be shortened.

The paragraphs add information and information to an outline. The outline includes topics, subtopics, and guidelines. While the paragraphs provide content and additional explanations.

How Long Should a Conclusion be

Conclusions are an extremely vital aspect of your paper. It is because your role as the writer of your essay is wrapping up all the information you've discussed in your research paper. The length of your conclusion is dependent on the size of your article.

The longer the essay is, the longer the conclusion. The less its length, the smaller the conclusion. The conclusion should not be less than 3 sentences. It could take you a few hours to write these parts of your paper.

Although this may be true, a valid conclusion must have these features.

What makes a good term paper conclusion

• Summary of the subject of your study
• Thesis restatement. The statement you make should not be the same as the one you made in your introduction.
• Write a synopsis of your major aspects. Don't give any information that is new.
• You could also combine your points to elaborate on the importance of your arguments.
• Create a call to action only if it's relevant or important to the content of your document.
• Answer"the "so what" question. It is important to describe the purpose of your essay and the reason why it is important to your readers.

In this way, it's clear that the concluding paragraph is crucial when writing your paper. It is possible to not include all of these however it is crucial to summarize the thesis, your topic, and the major elements of your research paper. Read our guide to writing research papers for more information you can write these pieces.

How much should you keep on the Reference Page?

The length of your reference page depends on the number of sources that you've utilized in your essay. Your essay could be long when you have only a few sources, whereas other papers could be shorter when using many sources.

A quality term paper must include a reference page that lists all sources for your data. If you list your sources using the correct format for references, such as APA and MLA The amount of space on the page isn't absolute.

Frequently asked questions

How long should a high school term paper be , what is the ideal length for a graduate paper , how long should a middle school term paper be , how long should a research paper's literature review be , how to write a term paper quickly .

To begin writing a research paper quickly, choose a topic. Following that, you will conduct research on the topic and work on a thesis. Create an outline to help you write the structure of your paper. Write the paper according to the outline, beginning with an introduction and ending with a conclusion. Finally, proofread your paper to catch any mistakes. Read our checklist for revising your paper to a final draught.

What are the most common formats for research papers ?

You must use a specific formatting style when formatting a research or term paper. MLA, APA, Chicago, and Harvard are the most common research paper formats. Each format specifies the paper's style, spacing, in-text citation style, and reference page style. You can get all of these things done for you if you pay someone to write your homework.

How long is the average academic journal article ?

How long should a research paper take , how long is a short research paper , how long is a typical college research paper , what makes a good research paper , what makes a research paper low quality .

A low-quality study has findings that are uninterpretable, very likely to be incorrect, or have a high risk of bias. As a result, papers with a lot of jargon, poor diction, and bad grammar are usually rejected by publishers.

Is it possible to fail a research paper ?

Can you resubmit a rejected paper , how many pages is a typical journal , how many paragraphs should be in a research paper .

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When it comes to academic writing, one of the most common questions asked is: How long should a research paper be? This question is essential, as the length...

When it comes to academic writing, one of the most common questions asked is: How long should a research paper be? This question is essential, as the length can impact not only the scope but also the quality of the paper. In this article, we'll explore various elements that come into play when deciding the length of a research paper. We'll delve into the components, their specific lengths, and the average time required to compile an excellent research paper.

A research paper is a type of academic paper where the author conducts original research on a specific topic, interprets the findings, and then summarizes, argues, or presents the information. This form of academic writing requires in-depth analysis and a thorough literature review to establish credibility and relevance.

The number of pages in a research paper can vary significantly depending on the level of study, subject matter, and specific requirements set by the course or academic journal. High school papers may range from 5-20 pages, college-level papers from 10-30 pages, and graduate theses can be significantly longer, even reaching 100+ pages for Ph.D. dissertations. The spacing, citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago), and number of words also affect the paper's length.

A research paper typically consists of several key components, each with its importance:

• Title Page: The title page includes the paper's title, author's name, and institutional affiliation. This section is generally short but should be formatted according to the relevant citation style.
• Abstract: The abstract provides a concise summary of the research paper, often limited to 150-250 words, depending on the journal or academic requirements.
• Introduction: The intro presents the background, research question, and thesis statement. It sets the context and outlines the main points of the paper.
• Literature Review: This section reviews existing research related to your topic, offering a critical analysis of previous studies and identifying gaps your research aims to fill.
• Methods Section: The methodology details the procedures for collecting and analyzing data. This part should be explicit enough for another researcher to replicate your study.
• Results Section: Here, the findings of the research are presented in a structured manner, often supported by tables and graphs.
• Discussion Section: The discussion interprets the results, linking them to the research question and existing literature. It may also propose areas for future research.
• Conclusion: This section summarizes the main points and restates the thesis in light of the research findings.
• References Section: The references page lists all cited works in the paper, formatted according to the specific citation style being used.
• Appendices: The appendices provide additional data or material that is supplementary but not essential to the main text.

The length of each component depends on the overall length and complexity of the research paper. As a general guideline, the abstract might be 150-250 words, the introduction and conclusion around 10% of the entire paper each, literature review and methodology sections could be a few pages each, and the results and discussion sections might take up the rest of the paper.

The average length of a research paper varies widely depending on the field, level, and journal specifications. However, most academic papers range from 10-20 pages.

The time it takes to write a research paper can vary significantly. For college students or researchers familiar with the topic and the research process, it may take a few weeks. However, if it is your first time, it might take longer, possibly a few months. This time includes researching, writing the first draft, revising, proofreading, and finalizing the paper.

An effective summary, often in the form of an abstract, should include the research question, methodology, main findings, and conclusions. It must be concise while encapsulating the essential aspects of the paper.

The word count for a research paper depends on several factors, such as academic level, field of study, and specific guidelines. However, research papers commonly range from 2,500 to 10,000 words.

Top 9 Tools Needed to Write Long Research Papers

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Grammarly is a crucial tool for academic writing, helping with everything from grammar errors to plagiarism. Its real-time feedback can make the difference between a rough first draft and a polished piece of original research. Grammarly is particularly helpful for students whose first language is not English.

Grammarly also offers a word count feature that can help you gauge how long your research paper is turning out. This can be particularly useful if you're writing a term paper with a strict word limit. It supports different citation styles like APA, MLA, and Chicago, which are critical for formatting in-text citations and references section correctly.

Top 5 Features

• Grammar and spelling check
• Plagiarism detection
• Tone and style analysis
• Word count tracker
• Sentence structure analysis

Cost : Free with optional paid storage.

Zotero stands as one of the best tools for managing references for your research paper. Forget the hassle of manually writing down your citations; Zotero automates this process. The tool helps you organize your research material and is excellent for keeping track of your literature review articles and journal citations.

Zotero is not just a one-stop-shop for citation needs. It also offers collaborative features, making it suitable for team research projects. Its cross-platform support ensures you can switch between devices without losing your saved citations. The tool is a must-have for both high school and college students undertaking research papers.

• Citation and bibliography creation
• Research organization
• Cross-platform support
• Browser extension for easy source capture
• Collaboration features

Cost : Part of Microsoft Office Suite, pricing starts at $69.99/year.

Microsoft Word is perhaps the most traditional yet indispensable tool for academic writing. Most people are familiar with its basic functionalities, but Word also offers advanced features that can aid in the writing process of your research paper. From setting up your title page to managing page numbers and appendices, the software has it all.

The tool also helps in inserting in-text citations, endnotes, and footnotes. One of the underutilized features is the "Review" tab, which helps in tracking changes, something essential for revising and re-writing. Word is an all-rounder and has stood the test of time when it comes to academic writing, from your first time doing a paper to your last.

• Robust text editor
• In-built templates
• Spelling and grammar check
• Wide range of formatting options including APA, MLA, and Chicago

Cost : One-time payment of $49 for macOS and Windows, $19.99 for iOS.

Scrivener is a powerful tool that excels in helping you organize complex projects. While Microsoft Word is sufficient for shorter papers, Scrivener shines when you're working on a longer research paper or thesis. Its corkboard view allows you to see the structure of your entire paper, from the intro to the results and discussion sections.

The software offers templates designed for academic papers, making it easier to start your project without worrying about formatting. It has a split-screen feature, allowing you to refer to your research or another section of your paper while writing. The tool’s writing statistics can help you track your progress and set goals, helping you spend less time worrying about how long your research paper should be.

• Draft and manuscript organization
• Research storage
• Templates for academic papers
• Split-screen feature
• Writing statistics and goals

Cost : Typically purchased by educational institutions; individual pricing not publicly listed.

Turnitin is often the go-to tool for educational institutions when it comes to checking the originality of academic papers. It is not just a plagiarism checker; it's a comprehensive solution for academic integrity. Turnitin provides an originality report that can be invaluable for both students and educators in identifying unintended plagiarism.

The tool also includes a Feedback Studio feature, where professors can leave comments or grade the paper. This is particularly useful for improving your writing in real-time. Moreover, Turnitin’s peer review capabilities are great for collaborative projects and can be beneficial in graduate-level research where multiple stakeholders are involved.

• Feedback studio for grading and comments
• Peer review capabilities
• Originality reports
• Grammar and spell check

Cost : Free.

Google Scholar serves as an excellent tool for conducting the literature review part of your research paper. Unlike standard search engines, Google Scholar focuses solely on academic publications, including articles, theses, and conference papers. It's a free resource, making it accessible for students at all levels, from high school to postgraduate.

One standout feature of Google Scholar is its “Cited by” function, which allows you to see how many times a particular paper has been cited. This can provide a good idea of the paper's relevance and impact in the academic community. The service also allows you to export citations in various styles such as MLA, APA, and Chicago, simplifying the often complex task of creating a references section.

• Comprehensive academic search engine
• Cited by feature
• Related articles feature
• Citation export
• Legal case and patent search

Cost : Free with optional paid plans starting at $7.99/month.

Evernote is a note-taking app that can be particularly useful when you're in the research phase of your paper. The tool's web clipper extension allows you to save articles, PDFs, or even just parts of web pages, turning your Evernote into a digital research library. It’s excellent for gathering material for your literature review, methodology, or any other section of your paper.

Evernote isn't just for research; it's also an effective organizational tool. You can create separate notebooks for different research papers or subjects, tag your notes for easy searching, and even share them with classmates or co-authors. The cross-platform syncing means your notes follow you, whether you're at the library, at home, or on the go.

• Note-taking and organization
• Web clipper for research
• Cross-platform syncing
• Searchable handwritten notes

Cost : Free with optional paid plans for more storage.

Mendeley is a reference management tool that also functions as a social network for researchers. The software can store your research papers and other documents, keeping them accessible and organized. For any academic paper, especially those requiring extensive literature review, this feature is invaluable.

Mendeley offers a Word plugin that helps you insert citations and generate bibliographies in real-time as you write your research paper. The collaboration feature enables you to connect with other researchers, an excellent way to share resources, or get feedback on your research paper. Given its extensive features, Mendeley is not just a tool but an academic community that can guide you through your academic writing process.

• Reference management
• PDF annotator
• Collaboration and networking with researchers
• Citation plug-in for Word
• Researcher profiles

The time required to write a research paper depends on several factors, including your familiarity with the topic, research requirements, and writing skills. It could range from a few weeks to several months.

While it's technically possible to write a research paper in one day, the quality will likely suffer, risking plagiarism and inadequate research.

A 20-page research paper could take several weeks to a couple of months to write, depending on the level of depth and research required.

Writing a research paper for college typically takes a few weeks to a couple of months, depending on the complexity and research requirements.

By understanding the different factors that contribute to the length and time required for a research paper, you'll be better equipped to produce high-quality academic writing. Keep this guide handy to navigate through your research paper journey effectively.

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May 6th, 2015

How long does a scientific paper need to be length limits can have a detrimental effect on scientific reporting..

7 comments | 1 shares

Estimated reading time: 5 minutes

There was an interesting  exchange a few weeks ago on PubMedCommons  between Maurice Smith, senior author of a paper on motor learning, and Bjorn Brembs, a neurobiologist at the University of Regensburg. The main thrust of Brembs’ critique was that the paper, which was presented as surprising, novel and original, failed adequately to cite the prior literature. I was impressed that Smith engaged seriously with the criticism, writing a reasoned defence of the choice of material in the literature review, and noting that claims of over-hyped statements were based on selective citation. What really caught my attention was the following statement in his rebuttal:

We can reassure the reader that it was very painful to cut down the discussion, introduction, and citations to conform to Nature Neuroscience’s strict and rather arbitrary limits. We would personally be in favor of expanding these limits, or doing away with them entirely, but this is not our choice to make.

As it happens, this comment really struck home with me, as I had been internally grumbling about this very issue after a weekend of serious reading of background papers for a grant proposal I am preparing. I repeatedly found evidence that length limits were having a detrimental effect on scientific reporting. I think there are three problems here.

Image credit:   Idea Bulb by Ramunas Geciauskas , Flickr CC BY

1. The first is exemplified by the debate around the motor learning paper. I don’t know this area well enough to evaluate whether omissions in the literature review were serious, but I am all too familiar with papers in my own area where a brief introduction skates over the surface of past work. One feels that length limits play a big part in this but there is also another dimension: To some editors and reviewers, a paper that starts documenting how the research builds on prior work is at risk of being seen as merely ‘incremental’, rather than ‘groundbreaking’. I was once explicitly told by an editor that too high a proportion of my references were more than five years old. This obsession with novelty is in danger of encouraging scientists to devalue serious scholarship as they zoom off to find the latest hot topic.

2. In many journals, key details of methods are relegated to a supplement, or worse still, omitted altogether. I know that many people rejoiced when  the Journal of Neuroscience declared it would no longer publish supplementary material : I thought it was a terrible decision. In most of the papers I read, the methodological detail is key to evaluating the science, and if we only get the cover story of the research, we can be seriously misled. Yes, it can be tedious to wade through supplementary material, but if it is not available, how do we know the work is sound?

3. The final issue concerns readability. One justification for strict length limits is that it is supposed to benefit readers if the authors write succinctly, without rambling on for pages and pages. And we know that the longer the paper, the fewer people will even begin to read it, let alone get to the end. So, in principle, length limits should help. But in practice they often achieve the opposite effect, especially if we have papers reporting several experiments and using complex methods. For instance, I recently read a paper that reported, all within the space of a single Results section about 2000 words long, (a) a genetic association analysis; (b) replications of the association analysis on five independent samples (c) a study of methylation patterns; (d) a gene expression study in mice; and (e) a gene expression study in human brains. The authors had done their best to squeeze in all essential detail, though some was relegated to supplemental material, but the net result was that I came away feeling as if I had been hit around the head by a baseball bat. My sense was that the appropriate format for reporting such a study would have been a monograph, where each component of the study could be given a chapter, but of course, that would not have the kudos of a publication in a high impact journal, and arguably fewer people would read it.

Now that journals are becoming online-only, a major reason for imposing length limits – cost of physical production and distribution of a paper journal – is far less relevant. Yes, we should encourage authors to be succinct, but not so succinct that scientific communication is compromised.

This post originally appeared on the author’s personal blog and is reposted with permission.

Note: This article gives the views of the author, and not the position of the Impact of Social Science blog, nor of the London School of Economics. Please review our  Comments Policy  if you have any concerns on posting a comment below.

About the Author

Dorothy Bishop   is Professor of Developmental Neuropsychology and a Wellcome Principal Research Fellow at the Department of Experimental Psychology in Oxford and Adjunct Professor at The University of Western Australia, Perth. The primary aim of her research is to increase understanding of why some children have specific language impairment (SLI). Dorothy blogs at  BishopBlog  and is on Twitter @deevybee.

About the author

“Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica”, “Relativity: The Special and General Theory” to name few were published for the Field of Knowledge. The Editors and Publishers were existing at that moment too. Now, Editors and Publishers are doing their job not for all Fields of Knowledge but for counting alone: Counting Words, Counting Sentences, Counting Paragraphs, Counting Pages, Counting Articles, Counting Books, Counting References, Counting Citations, Counting Authors, Counting Fame, Counting Editors, Counting Publishers, Counting Institutes, Counting Funding Agencies, Counting Governments, Counting Countries, Counting Money. Counting is Counting, Field of Knowledge is not always about counting. Counting can provide guarantee for counting. Field of Knowledge provides Field of Knowledge.

How about writing two versions? A short one for the journal with a link to a longer fuller version for interested readers?

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Every time I submit an article for publication the editor replies ‘Please send the whole article’ to avoid saying ‘It’s damn short!’ So I am sending only ‘statements’ for publication.

Boghos L. Artinian MD

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How Long Does Research Take?

How long the research process takes varies by:

• the nature of the assignment,  how well the topic is covered in 'the literature'* (i.e., books, journals and other sources), 
• what materials are available in our library or online, 
• the length of time allotted for the assignment and
• the expertise of the researcher (i.e., what you know about the topic).

Things to keep in mind:

Start early so that you can revise your strategy or your paper if necessary. Some topics will have a huge amount of material available, while some will have little.  If you need background material, subject encyclopedias may give more specific detail. Conducting research normally takes longer than you expect.

Frustration and backtracking are a normal part of the process. However, reference librarians can show you strategies that can save you time and can help you do your research more effectively.

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How Long is an Essay? Guidelines for Different Types of Essay

Published on January 28, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The length of an academic essay varies depending on your level and subject of study, departmental guidelines, and specific course requirements. In general, an essay is a shorter piece of writing than a research paper  or thesis .

In most cases, your assignment will include clear guidelines on the number of words or pages you are expected to write. Often this will be a range rather than an exact number (for example, 2500–3000 words, or 10–12 pages). If you’re not sure, always check with your instructor.

In this article you’ll find some general guidelines for the length of different types of essay. But keep in mind that quality is more important than quantity – focus on making a strong argument or analysis, not on hitting a specific word count.

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Essay length guidelines, how long is each part of an essay, using length as a guide to topic and complexity, can i go under the suggested length, can i go over the suggested length, other interesting articles.

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In an academic essay, the main body should always take up the most space. This is where you make your arguments, give your evidence, and develop your ideas.

The introduction should be proportional to the essay’s length. In an essay under 3000 words, the introduction is usually just one paragraph. In longer and more complex essays, you might need to lay out the background and introduce your argument over two or three paragraphs.

The conclusion of an essay is often a single paragraph, even in longer essays. It doesn’t have to summarize every step of your essay, but should tie together your main points in a concise, convincing way.

The suggested word count doesn’t only tell you how long your essay should be – it also helps you work out how much information and complexity you can fit into the given space. This should guide the development of your thesis statement , which identifies the main topic of your essay and sets the boundaries of your overall argument.

A short essay will need a focused, specific topic and a clear, straightforward line of argument. A longer essay should still be focused, but it might call for a broader approach to the topic or a more complex, ambitious argument.

As you make an outline of your essay , make sure you have a clear idea of how much evidence, detail and argumentation will be needed to support your thesis. If you find that you don’t have enough ideas to fill out the word count, or that you need more space to make a convincing case, then consider revising your thesis to be more general or more specific.

The length of the essay also influences how much time you will need to spend on editing and proofreading .

You should always aim to meet the minimum length given in your assignment. If you are struggling to reach the word count:

• Add more evidence and examples to each paragraph to clarify or strengthen your points.
• Make sure you have fully explained or analyzed each example, and try to develop your points in more detail.
• Address a different aspect of your topic in a new paragraph. This might involve revising your thesis statement to make a more ambitious argument.
• Don’t use filler. Adding unnecessary words or complicated sentences will make your essay weaker and your argument less clear.
• Don’t fixate on an exact number. Your marker probably won’t care about 50 or 100 words – it’s more important that your argument is convincing and adequately developed for an essay of the suggested length.

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In some cases, you are allowed to exceed the upper word limit by 10% – so for an assignment of 2500–3000 words, you could write an absolute maximum of 3300 words. However, the rules depend on your course and institution, so always check with your instructor if you’re unsure.

Only exceed the word count if it’s really necessary to complete your argument. Longer essays take longer to grade, so avoid annoying your marker with extra work! If you are struggling to edit down:

• Check that every paragraph is relevant to your argument, and cut out irrelevant or out-of-place information.
• Make sure each paragraph focuses on one point and doesn’t meander.
• Cut out filler words and make sure each sentence is clear, concise, and related to the paragraph’s point.
• Don’t cut anything that is necessary to the logic of your argument. If you remove a paragraph, make sure to revise your transitions and fit all your points together.
• Don’t sacrifice the introduction or conclusion . These paragraphs are crucial to an effective essay –make sure you leave enough space to thoroughly introduce your topic and decisively wrap up your argument.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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How Long Should a Research Paper be: From Intro to conclusion

research paper length

You may be wondering how long your research paper should be? Well, you are not alone. Many students are always asking about the optimal term paper length. This challenge can be further heightened when your instructor has not provided you with the page limit or word count.

Research papers are quite complex because they are academic writings based on your original research on a specific topic. This is why getting our paper writing help can be useful to get that A.

No matter the method you choose, your paper should contain your analysis and interpretation of the findings to be complete.

When considering all those factors, students often wonder how long their research papers should be. Let’s explore this in detail.

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How Long Should each part of a Research Paper be

Ideally, the most optimal length of a research paper is around 5 pages for short papers and 10 pages for long ones. However, the exact length of your term paper is best determined by your instructor and his instructions.

The same is determined by a number of factors, including the extent and depth of your subject.

Factors Determining the Length of a Paper

The question of how long a research paper should be can be difficult to respond to because it depends on several factors. The most important factors that determine the length of your term paper include;

• The subject of your research
• The number of topics emerging from the subject,
• Number and complexity of the subtopics,
• The magnitude of your findings
• The extent of your discussions and conclusions.

All those factors held constant; it is possible to estimate the length of a less complex research paper if it is demarcated into sections that include the outline, introduction, individual paragraphs, conclusion, and reference page.

Those are the basic components of a typical research paper . Let’s have a look at how long each section should be.

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How a Term Paper Outline Should be

An outline is an important part of your research paper. It provides the structure of your paper. It organizes the contents of your term paper into sections.

However, the outline does not contain details about your paper. It only highlights the topics to be covered and the issues to be tackled within those topics.

A format of an outline should include the following;

• An Introduction
• The issue that is being tackled
• A literature review
• Methodology
• Results and discussion
• Conclusion and recommendation

There are brief full-sentence descriptions under the five sections that act as guidelines for your research paper. Therefore, the outline should not exceed 2 pages for short research papers and between 4 to 5 pages for longer papers with 15 to 20 pages.

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Optimal Length of a Research Paper Introduction

As we have noted, the length of your term paper depends on the topic and its contents. This applies to the introduction. For a typical 5-page research paper, your introduction should not exceed half a page.

However, if you are writing a long essay of 15 pages or more, the introduction may span to a page or several paragraphs. Since most of the research papers given to undergraduate college students are not lengthy, the introduction should not exceed a page.

Recommended length of Individual paragraphs in research paper

Even though no definitive rules determine the length of individual paragraphs in a paper, the most recommended length is between 90 words and 130 words. Any paragraph below 90 words is deemed too short to sustain an argument, while one with over 130 words is deemed over-argued.

At the same, it is important to note that the length of the paper determines its length. When the paper is short, then the paragraphs should be short.

If the research paper is long, then the paragraphs should be longer. However, a paragraph should contain more than four sentences. For some topics like childhood obesity , the paragraphs may take longer to incorporate data and statistics in your paper.

Since individual paragraphs should focus on one idea, the length of the paragraph should be determined by the supporting text.

If your idea requires a lot of support in the form of illustrations, examples, statistics, paraphrases, quotes, definitions, causes, and effects, then the paragraph will be longer.

In case the idea presented by the individual paragraph is straightforward and does not require a lot of supporting evidence, then it will be shorter.

The paragraphs add content to the outline. The outline provides topics, subtopics, and guidelines, while the paragraphs add content and further explanations.

How Long Should a Conclusion be

A conclusion is a very important part of your research paper. This is because you, as the author of your paper, are wrapping up everything you have discussed in your paper.

Basically, the length of the conclusion is determined by your paper’s length.

The longer the paper, the longer the conclusion, and the shorter it is, the shorter the conclusion. A conclusion should not be below 3 sentences. It will take a few hours to write all these components of your paper.

Even though this is the case, an effective conclusion should have the following characteristics.

Characteristics of a Good Term Paper Conclusion

• Restatement of the topic of your research
• Restatement of your thesis. This statement should not be identical to what you wrote in the introduction.
• Provide a summary of your main points. Do not provide any new information.
• You can also add up the points to further explain the significance of your points.
• Make a call to action if it is appropriate or significant to your paper.
• Respond to the “so what” question. This requires you to explain the context of your paper and why it matters to the readers.

From this, it is evident that the conclusion is very important in your research paper. You may not include all of the above, but it is important to restate your paper’s topic, thesis, and main points. Check our research paper writing guide to learn more about how to write these parts.

How Long should the Reference Page be?

The reference page length completely depends on the number of sources you have used in your paper. Your paper may be lengthy with few sources, while others can be shorter with more.

A good term paper should have a reference page listing all your information sources. Provided that you list the sources in the right referencing format, like APA and MLA , the length of the reference page is not definitive.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How long should a term paper be for high school.

Most teachers in high schools require their students to submit 3 to 5-page research papers. Those are the normal research papers assigned within the semester. However, final research papers like the English 102 papers are between 5 and 7 pages.

What is the optimal graduate paper length?

Even though the topic of the graduate paper determines its length, such papers are considerably longer. This is because they tackle complex topics requiring in-depth explanations, citations, examples, etc. They can be between 7 and 15 pages. They can also exceed the count.

How long should a term paper be for middle school?

The research papers written by students in middle school are considerably shorter than those given to college or graduate school students. The normal papers written within the semester are between 1 and 2 pages, while the final papers are between 2 and 4.

How long should a literature review be for a research paper?

The length of a literature review depends on the purpose and the audience of the term paper. In most of the research papers in college, the literature review should not exceed two pages. For longer papers of more than 10 pages, it can be between 2 and 3 pages.

How to write a term paper fast

To write a research paper fast, begin by selecting a topic. This is followed by researching the topic and working on a thesis. Write the structure of your paper by creating an outline.

Follow the outline and write the paper by beginning with an introduction and ending with a conclusion. Finally, proofread your paper to correct errors. Read our checklist on how to revise your paper to a final copy.

What are the most common types of research paper formats

You must select a specific style when formatting a research or term paper. The most common formats for research papers are MLA, APA, Chicago, and Harvard.

Each format dictates the style of the paper, the spacing, the in-text citation style, and the reference page style. You can get all these done if you get someone to write your homework at a very reasonable cost.

What is the average length of an academic journal article

Most academic journal articles span 20 to 25 pages when they have a one-and-half line spacing. If the academic journals are double-spaced, they can be between 25 and 30 pages. The journal’s word count ranges from 4000 to 7000 words.

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How Long Should the Introduction of a Research Paper Be? Data from 61,518 Examples

I analyzed a random sample of 61,518 full-text research papers, uploaded to PubMed Central between the years 2016 and 2021, in order to answer the questions:

What is the typical length of an introduction section? and which factors influence it?

I used the BioC API to download the data (see the References section below).

Here’s a summary of the key findings

1. The median introduction was 553 words long (equivalent to 21 sentences, or 4 paragraphs), and 90% of the introductions were between 245 and 1,245 words.

2. The introduction is the shortest section of the research paper (14.6% of the total word count), approximately half the length of other sections (Methods, Results, and Discussion).

3. The length of the introduction does not differ between review articles and original research articles .

4. The quality of the journal does not influence the length of the introduction section .

Overall length of the introduction section

Here’s a table that describes the length of an introduction in terms of words, sentences, and paragraphs:

From these data, we can conclude that most research papers have a 3 to 5 paragraph introductions (consisting of 15 to 28 sentences).

If you are interested, here’s the link to the PubMed article that had the longest introduction of 9,776 words, 426 sentences, and 196 paragraphs!

The introduction constitutes 14.6% of the total word count of a research paper, nearly half the length of other sections (Methods, Results, and Discussion) [source: How Long Should a Research Paper Be? ].

Length of the introduction for different article types

The following table shows the median word count of the introduction section for different study designs:

The data show no clear pattern since the introductions of review articles and original research articles have almost similar word counts. So we can conclude that there is no particular article type that requires a longer introduction section.

Length of the introduction in different journals

In order to study the influence of the journal quality on the length of the introduction, I ran a Poisson regression that models the introduction word count given the journal impact factor. Here’s the model output:

The model shows that a higher journal impact factor is associated with a longer introduction. Although statistically significant, this result is practically negligible since an increase of 1 unit in the journal impact factor is associated with an increase of only 0.8% in the introduction word count.

• Comeau DC, Wei CH, Islamaj Doğan R, and Lu Z. PMC text mining subset in BioC: about 3 million full text articles and growing,  Bioinformatics , btz070, 2019.

Further reading

• How Long Should the Methods Section Be? Data from 61,514 Examples
• How Many References to Cite? Based on 96,685 Research Papers
• How Old Should References Be? Based on 3,823,919 Examples
• Length of a Conclusion Section: Analysis of 47,810 Examples
• Statistical Software Popularity in 40,582 Research Papers
• Programming Languages Popularity in 12,086 Research Papers

researchersnetwork.org

PRACTICAL GUIDES TO RESEARCH WRITING

How Long Is a Research Paper? Let’s Find Out

The length of your paper ranks high among various factors to consider in academic writing. It is thus common for students to get confused when they are presented with a research paper that does not prescribe a word limit.

How long is a research paper? This article will analyse various factors you should consider to determine the length of your paper. 

How long should a research paper be?

The average length of a paper ranges between 4000 to 6000 words. However, research papers may carry up to ten thousand words depending on their complexity. A complex research topic brings about multiple issues to be studied and longer arguments in a bid to acknowledge existing work in your field.

As such, your research paper length is also affected by the availability of resources. A wider number of counterarguments presents more arguments for your paper, resulting in a longer document. The documents may also add to your literature review chapter, further lengthening your paper. 

How many pages is a research paper

On average, a research paper ranges between 15 to 50 pages. As indicated earlier, the length of your paper is affected by the complexity of your topic. As such, some disciplines may require a longer document while shorter papers suffice in other disciplines. 

When going about your research paper, we recommend that you start off with research and then you develop an outline. Afterward, share the outline with your committee for input on areas you may address further and the arguments to omit.

This will help you gauge the length of your paper, without stuffing your research paper with filler words. Also, check previous tasks in your faculty to determine the word count range of previous papers within your field. 

Why are research papers so long?

The research paper length ranks on the higher end of the spectrum for academic papers. This is because your research paper comprises multiple chapters that require evidence-backed arguments.

The literature review, for instance, puts into consideration various publications relating to your topic. This allows you to highlight a research gap and argue the necessity of researching the identified gap.

This is followed by an introduction where you highlight the background study of your topic and your thesis. Your methodology further analyses more resources in a bid to legitimize your research and enable the replicability of your research.

Afterward, your paper presents your results and supplements other studies to design your arguments. This tedious approach to argument brings about copious amounts of words, thus making a research paper longer than typical essays. 

Average research paper length: how long should each chapter be? 

The length of your dissertation chapters varies depending on your total word count. A longer paper may have more words in each chapter compared to shorter research papers. A great way to divide the word count among various chapters in your paper is to follow the percentages approach.

The abstract of your paper should range between 300-500 words. As such, use precise sentences to capture all essential bits of information needed for a quality abstract. The other portions of your paper should contribute to the total wordcount as follows:

• Literature review – 25% to 30%
• Introduction – 15%-20%
• Methodology – 10%-25%
• Results – 10%-15%
• Discussion – 25%-30%
• Conclusion – 10%-15%

You can use the outline to approximate the length of your paper and thus determine how long various chapters should be. We however recommend that you focus on the quality and completeness of arguments in your paper as opposed to chasing a word limit.

What contributes to the final word count of a paper?

After establishing the answer to the question: how long should a thesis be? Most students usually work to include every word from the title page to the appendix in this word count.

If a word limit has been provided by your tutor, it covers all sections of the paper except the title page, references, and appendices. As such, your word count is estimated by the number of words in various chapters that are formative to your research. 

We hope that this guide has cleared any issues you were facing regarding your research paper length. Feel free to engage our experts for assistance in editing your paper to ensure success in your academic journey. The experienced writers ensure that your paper captures the imagination of the reader. If you’re also seeking assistance with other assignments, you can rely on them to deliver exceptional results. If you are wondering “Can they do my python homework ?” we assure you, “Yes, they can.”

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How long should an essay or research paper be?

These tips on how long an essay, research paper or writing assignment will help you make good grades and take your papers and essays from just ok to an A+ paper. Keep reading to finds some tips on essay writing such as how long an essay should be and how to make your essay longer or how make a research paper shorter.

How do you know how long an essay should be?

Many times an instructor will tell you how long an essay or a research paper should be or give you a page number range, such as saying the paper should be between 5-7 pages. If you don't have a page range, the length of your essay can depend on a lot of things. When in doubt, ask for guidance. If you can't get help, you'll have to guess.

During an essay test, usually one or two paragraphs will answer short essay questions.

For big essay tests, where there is only 1 question for a whole hour-long test, you will be expected to compose an entire essay. In that case, write 5 paragraphs including all the parts of a composition of between 1-2 written pages.

For high school papers , usually teachers want normal essays or research papers to be between 3-5 pages, and they expect more like 5-7 pages for final papers. In middle school or junior high school , normal papers will probably be 1-2 pages in length and final paper 2-4. Naturally, you should go by what your teacher tells you and only use this as a guide if you don't have more information.

In college , it depends on what level the class is and the level of importance of an assignment. Early in the semester or to review reading assignments, you will only have to write maybe 1-3 pages, or 5-7 for more important tasks.

For an final paper in an intro or 100-level college class, professors don't usually ask for more than 10-12 pages. For a final research paper at a 300-400 level or upper level course, you can be expected to produce papers of 15-20 pages. Naturally, this depends on the university you're attending, the professors' preferences and your field of study. Math majors will not have to write long papers. History majors will write lots of lengthy papers.

How long is each part of an essay?

If you are wondering how long each part of an essay (the introduction, the body and the conclusion) should be, here are some ideas of how to balance the length. The overall length of an essay will often depends on how big the topic is.

The list below will give you a rough idea, but the main point is that each part should be in proportion to the other parts. As an essay gets longer, the body should become longer than the corresponding introduction. The below outlines can give you a rough idea. Most teachers will not fault you for going too long, but they will dock your grade for writing too short of an essay, so err on the side of too long if you have to go one way.

How long should each section of a paper be?

For a 1 page essay or to write an answer to a long essay test , make each section one paragraph. 1. Introduction with thesis statement, 1 paragraph 2. Body point A, 1 paragraph 3. Body point B, 1 paragraph 4. Body point C, 1 paragraph 5. Conclusion, 1 paragraph For a 5 page essay: 1. Introduction, about 3/4 to 1 page 2. Body point A, about 1 page 3. Body point B, about 1 page 4. Body point C, about 1 page 5. Conclusion, about 3/4 to 1 page For a 10 page paper: 1. Introduction, about 1 page or 1 and a 1/2 pages 2. Body point A, about 2 and a 1/2 pages 3. Body point B, about 2 and a 1/2 pages 4. Body point C, about 2 and a 1/2 pages 5. Conclusion, 1 page or 1 and a 1/2 pages For a 15 page paper: 1. Introduction, about 1 and a 1/2 or 2 pages 2. Body point A, about 4 pages 3. Body point B, about 4 pages 4. Body point C, about 4 pages 5. Conclusion, about 1 and a 1/2 or 2 pages

More information : We hope this page was helpful and provided you with some information about how long an essay or research paper should be . Check out our main page for more articles here Can U Write .

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[D] How long does it take to publish a research paper? How long is the the time from the moment you think of an idea, to the moment you submit the research paper to a journal (not including the time it takes for the journal to approve your paper)?

As the question states above, for those of you who know more about research, how long does it take to publish a paper? What is a normal amount of time to be able to conduct the research and then fully finish writing the paper and submit it?

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How short or long should be a questionnaire for any research? Researchers dilemma in deciding the appropriate questionnaire length

Hunny sharma.

Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India

A questionnaire plays a pivotal role in various surveys. Within the realm of biomedical research, questionnaires serve a role in epidemiological surveys and mental health surveys and to obtain information about knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) on various topics of interest. Questionnaire in border perspective can be of different types like self-administered or professionally administered and according to the mode of delivery paper-based or electronic media–based. Various studies have been conducted to assess the appropriateness of a questionnaire in a particular field and methods to translate and validate them. But very little is known regarding the appropriate length and number of questions in a questionnaire and what role it has in data quality, reliability, and response rates. Hence, this narrative review is to explore the critical issue of appropriate length and number of questions in a questionnaire while questionnaire designing.

Introduction

A questionnaire is an essential tool in epidemiological surveys and mental health surveys and to assess knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) on a particular topic of interest. In general, it is a set of predefined questions based on the aim of the research.[ 1 ]

Designing a questionnaire is an art which unfortunately is neglected by most researchers.[ 2 ] A well-designed questionnaire not only saves time for a researcher but helps to obtain relevant information most efficiently, but designing such a questionnaire is complex and time-consuming.[ 3 , 4 ]

The quality of the data obtained by a specific questionnaire depends on the length and number of questions in the questionnaire, the language, and the ease of comprehension of the questions, relevance of the population to which it is administered, and the mode of administration, i.e., the self-administered or paper method or the electronic method [ Figure 1 ].[ 5 , 6 ]

Qualities of a well-designed questionnaire

Response rate is defined as the number of people who responded to a question asked divided by the number of total potential respondents. Response rate which is a crucial factor in determining the quality and generalizability of the outcome of the survey depends indirectly on the length and number of questions in a questionnaire.[ 7 , 8 ]

Several studies have been conducted to assess the appropriateness of the questionnaire in a particular field and methods to translate and validate them. But very little is known regarding the appropriate length and number of questions in a questionnaire and what role it has in data quality and reliability. Hence, this narrative review is to explore the critical issue of appropriate length and number of questions in a questionnaire while questionnaire designing.

What is a questionnaire

Merriam Webster defines the questionnaire as “a set of questions for obtaining statistically useful or personal information from individuals,” whereas Collins defines a questionnaire as “a questionnaire is a written list of questions which are answered by a lot of people to provide information for a report or a survey.” The oxford learners’ dictionaries also give a somewhat similar definition which states that a questionnaire is “a written list of questions that are answered by several people so that information can be collected from the answers.”[ 9 , 10 , 11 ]

Thus, this provides a simpler meaning that a questionnaire in simpler terms is a collection of questions that can be used to collect information from various individuals relevant to the research aims.

Where are questionnaires generally applied?

A questionnaire, in general, can be applied to a wide variety of research which can either be quantitative or qualitative research which completely depends on how and in which a number of open-ended questions are asked.[ 12 ]

Questionnaires are generally applied when a large population has to be assessed or surveyed with relative ease where they play a crucial role in gathering information on the perspectives of individuals in the population.

There is a variety of applications of questionnaire in opinion polls, marketing surveys, and in politics, wherein the context of biomedical research questionnaires are generally used in epidemiological surveys, mental health surveys, surveys on attitudes to a health service or health service utilization, to conduction knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) studies on a particular issue or topic of interest.[ 13 , 14 ]

What are the types of questionnaire?

Questionnaires in general are of two types those which are in paper format and those which are in electronic format. The questionnaire can further be of two types i.e., self-administered or professionally administered via interview. The paper format can be administered easily both in self-administered mode or professional administered mode via direct administration when the population is relatively small as it is cumbersome to manage and store the physical questionnaire, paper format can also be administered to a larger population via postal surveys. Electronic questionnaires can be easily administered to a larger population in self-administered mode via Internet-based services like google forms, e-mails, SurveyMonkey, or Survey Junkie, etc. When administering professional-administered questionnaires professional telephonic services must be utilized to interview a larger population in a shorter duration of time.[ 15 , 16 , 17 ]

What it is required to answer individual questions in the questionnaire or the burden imparted on respondents

As mentioned by Bowling, in general, there are at least four intricated steps required in answering a particular question in a questionnaire, these steps are comprehension, recall of information asked by the question from the memory, judgment on the link between the asked question and the recall of information, and at last communication of the information to the questionnaire or evaluator [ Figure 2 ].[ 18 ]

Steps involved for answering a particular question in the questionnaire

In the case of a self-administered questionnaire, there is also a need for critical reading skills which is not required in one-to-one or face-to-face interview which only requires listening and verbal skills to respond to questions in the same language in which they are being asked or interviewed.[ 18 ]

There are many other crucial factors which play an important role in deciding the utility of questionnaire in various research, one such factor is the literacy of the participants which is a major limiting factor in self-administered questionnaires. Whereas, the other factors include the respondent's age, maturity, and level of understanding and cognition, which are some of the other ways related to the comprehension of the questions.[ 19 ]

Do the length of the questionnaire matters?

Length and number of items in the questionnaire play a crucial role in questionnaire-based studies or surveys, it has a direct effect on the time taken by the respondent to complete the questionnaire, cost of the survey or study, response rate, and quality of data obtained.[ 20 ]

As evident from the study conducted by Iglesias and Torgerson in 2000, on the response rate of a mailed questionnaire, an increase in the length of the questionnaire from five pages to seven pages reduces the response rate from women aged 70 years and over but on contrary does not seems to affect the quality of response to questions.[ 21 ]

Another study conducted by Similar Koitsalu et al .[ 22 ] in 2018 reported that they were able to increase overall participation and information gathered through a long questionnaire with the help of prenotification and the use of a reminder without risking a lower response rate.

Whereas Sahlqvist, et al .[ 23 ] in 2011 reported that participants were more likely to respond to the short version of the questionnaire as compared to a long questionnaire.

Testing of ultrashort, short, and long surveys of 13, 25, and 75 questions, respectively by Kost et al .[ 24 ] in 2018, revealed that a shorter survey utilizing a short questionnaire was reliable and produce high response and completion rates than a long survey.

Bolt, on the other hand, in 2014, found a surprising find that reducing the length of a long questionnaire in a physician survey does not mean that it will necessarily improve response rate hence to improve the response rate in nonresponders’ researchers may think to utilize a drastically shortened version of the questionnaire to obtain some relevant information rather than no information.[ 25 ]

But the most interesting find comes from the web-based survey giant “Survey Monkey,” which states that there is a nonlinear relationship between the number of questions in a survey and the time spent answering each question. Which in other words can be explained as more there are questions in a survey lesser time respondent spend answering each question which is known as “speeding up” or “satisficing” through the questions. It is also observed that as the length of and the number of questions asked increased there is an increase in a nonresponse rate. This in term affects the quantity and reliability of the data gathered.[ 26 ]

What happens when respondents lose interest?

When there is a loss of interest, in the case of a long length questionnaire or extensive interviews, the bored respondents provide unconsidered and unreliable answers, or in other scenarios, it may lead to high nonresponse to questions. Where on one side a high nonresponse rate may lead to difficulty in data analysis or an unacceptable reduction in sample size, whereas on the other side, unconsidered or unreliable answers may defeat the whole purpose of the research [ Figure 3 ].[ 19 ]

Consequences of Loss of interest in research participant

Considerations while using a long questionnaire

While using a long questionnaire, a high nonresponse rate should always be expected hence appropriate measures to address the missing data should be considered such as data trimming or data imputation depending on the amount of data missing.[ 27 , 28 ]

While the loss of interest can be administering counteracted by dividing the questionnaire into sections and administering each section separating to avoid respondents’ fatigue or boredom.[ 19 ]

It is always advised that the administration of telephonic interview–based questionnaire should be kept short in general about 30 min to prevent fatigue or inattention which may adversely affect the quality of data. In the case of a very long telephonic interview, questions can be divided into sections, and each section can be administered on separate days or shifts lasting 30 min each. A long questionnaire should preferably be administered through face-to-face interviews.

Designing a questionnaire is an art and requires time and dedication, which in turn leads to the easiest way to measure the relevant information on a desired topic of interest. But many a times, this crucial step in biomedical research is ignored by researchers. With this narrative review, we were able to provide a glimpse of the importance of a good questionnaire. A good questionnaire can be of 25 to 30 questions and should be able to be administered within 30 min to keep the interest and attention of the participants intact. It is observed that as the number of questions increases there is a tendency of the participants speeding up or satisficing through the questions, which severely affect the quality, reliability, and response rates. In case a long questionnaire is essential, it should be divided into sections of 25 to 30 questions each to be delivered at a different time or day. In the case of a long questionnaire i.e., more than 30 questions, a larger amount of missing data or nonresponse rates must be anticipated and provisions should be made to address them. At last, it is always advised that shortening a relatively lengthy questionnaire significantly increases the response.

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How many words is a typical scientific publication (particularly in biology)? [closed]

I've heard anywhere from 2,000 - 10,000 words is typical for a publication in an average journal. What's your experience?

• publications

• 7 Welcome to Academia SE. Can you elaborate why you want to know this? I have the feeling that you have an underlying question the answer to which might be more useful to you (the XY problem ). –  Wrzlprmft ♦ Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 1:06
• This depends on many factors. I suspect papers in biology tend to be shorter, on average, than in most other disciplines (with the possible exception of CS), because more of their journals have length restrictions. –  aeismail Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 1:36
• This not only depends on the Journal, but also the section of the journal (Nature Letters vs. Articles). "Typically", research articles are 4-8 dense pages of content and figures. Reviews are more. –  Superbest Commented Jan 4, 2015 at 1:10
• 1 This question is evidently (3k views) interesting to many, and has received three answers. Could it be made a community wiki? Or perhaps the question could be rephrased as "When is a research paper too long or short?", which would be answerable based on some general guidelines regarding the structure of scientific papers. –  mmh Commented Jan 3, 2016 at 17:52

3 Answers 3

This source mentions that they're "typically 3,000 to 10,000 words in length". This page may give you some tips on the length of specific parts of the paper, as well.

BTW, I think the length of the publication can also be dependent on where you are submitting it. Also, you can check yourself creatively by going to sites like http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/ , and copy+paste the text into a word counter . ;-)

My experiences with "average" journals (by which I mean that they aren't extremely high-end like Nature or Science) is that typically a publication is around 4,500-7,500 words.

My old adviser used to say that if his manuscript reached 30-40 pages (typewritten, Times New Roman, size 12, double-spaced), he would split it into two publications instead. I wouldn't suggest this method because it's a lot of work to write one manuscript, and this way you would have to go through many more drafting stages to get two manuscripts that were thorough, told the complete story, and yet did not overlap.

• 2 Splitting large manuscripts also only works if the material naturally splits. Sometimes it's the right thing to do, other times it would be salami slicing . –  jakebeal Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 20:03

A typical publication in the areas of biology that I work in, is like an iceberg. The "paper" per se is likely to be only a couple thousand words (for example Nature articles are only 3000 words long, and a number of other high profile publications also have tight limits). That small portion sticking above the surface is typically backed by anywhere from 10 to 50 pages of supplementary material, which contains the bulk of the paper.

• 3 I strongly disagree. In sub-sections of biology, there is not a lot, or even none, supplementary material –  Emilie Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 2:34
• @Emilie I have no doubt that other areas may be different: please note that I qualified my answer accordingly. My experience is primarily with synthetic biology and related study of cell regulation and interaction processes. I would recommend that if you have a different experience in other areas of biology that you post your own answer as well---I, at least, would be interested in learning about the differences. –  jakebeal Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 4:03
• I would like very much to post my own answer, but biology is so wide. I think the question has to be more elaborate and give us precise field. A paper in ecology is more around 5000 words, even 7000. But even ecology is large and I can be wrong ! –  Emilie Commented Jan 3, 2015 at 15:43

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The Ocean and Climate Change

Our ocean is changing. With 70 percent of the planet covered in water, the seas are important drivers of the global climate. Yet increasing greenhouse gases from human activities are altering the ocean before our eyes. NASA and its partners are on a mission to find out more.

The ocean is warming

Rising greenhouse gas concentrations not only warm the air, but the ocean, too. Research shows that around 90 percent of the excess heat from global warming is being absorbed by the ocean. Ocean heat has steadily risen since measurements began in 1955, breaking records in 2023 . All this added heat has led to more frequent and intense marine heat waves. The image visualizes sea surface temperature anomalies in August 2023. Warm colors (red, orange) show where the ocean was warmer than normal. Cool colors (blues) show where temperatures were cooler. The red swath in the Eastern Pacific was due to an El Niño event. El Niño is a climate phenomenon in the tropical Pacific that results in warmer than normal sea surface temperatures leading to weather impacts across the planet. Credit: NASA

Sea levels are rising

Global sea levels have risen more than 4 inches (101 millimeters) since measurements began in 1992, increasing coastal flooding in some places. As ocean water warms, it expands and takes up more space. The added heat in the air and ocean is also melting ice sheets and glaciers, which adds freshwater to the ocean and further raises sea levels. The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission , launched in 2022, and Sentinel 6 Michael Freilich , launched in 2020, are providing unparalleled views of sea level rise on top of decades of data from other missions. The video shows a 21-day average of sea surface height anomalies highlighting ocean eddies and currents as imaged by the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite. The red and orange colors indicate where the sea surface was higher than normal and the blues are where it was lower than normal. Credit: NAS

Explore Earth's Vital Signs

The ocean is getting a little greener

Recent research found that over the past 20 years, the tropical ocean turned greener. Ocean color reflects the life that is found in it. Green colors often correspond to phytoplankton, microscopic plant-like organisms that form the center of the ocean's food web. Observations of changes in phytoplankton populations due to climate change are a key part of the Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, and ocean Ecosystem (PACE) mission , which launched in 2024.

Ocean warming is altering hurricanes

Hurricanes need warm water to form and strengthen. Recent research points to warmer ocean temperatures as a key factor causing more storms to rapidly intensify. One way to detect rapid intensification before it happens may be through a change in lightning around the eye of the storm. Plus, higher sea levels worsen storm surge flooding when a storm travels over a coastline. NOAA’s GOES-East satellite captures the rapid intensification of Hurricane Lee on Sept. 7, 2023.  Credit: NASA/NOAA

Ocean acidification and heating are altering marine ecosystems

Carbon dioxide and heat are both absorbed by the ocean as greenhouse gas levels increase. When carbon dioxide is dissolved in the ocean, the water becomes more acidic. This makes it harder for corals and some other marine life to grow shells and protect themselves. Marine heat waves are complicating the matter by making it too warm for many corals to survive. Satellites are providing important data to scientists measuring such changes in ocean environments. When corals are stressed from changes in their environment, they turn white, or "bleach." Sometimes the coral is able to recover, but other times the bleaching event leads to its death. This image shows the decay of a healthy coral reef to a reef between 2014 and 2015 in the National Marine Sanctuary of American Samoa. Credit: NOAA/ XL Catlin Seaview Survey

Sea ice is thinning and shrinking

Melting sea ice does not affect sea levels, but it does impact global temperatures. Sea ice is light-colored and reflects sunlight back into space; open water is darker and absorbs more sunlight. Warming ocean waters melt sea ice from below, and warmer air helps melt it from above. As ice cover thins and shrinks, more ocean is exposed and less sunlight is reflected, further warming the water and air. Satellites help monitor changes in sea ice which is an area of research for upcoming missions in the Earth Systems Observatory . A photograph of Arctic sea ice breaking up as seen during an overhead flight during NASA’s Operation IceBridge in March 2011. Credit: NASA

Explore the Earth Systems Observatory

El Niño can add to the heat

El Niño occurs when the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become warmer than normal. This periodic ocean warming can add to the long-term global warming that has already accumulated, making a hot year even hotter. That’s because ocean temperatures are major drivers of global temperatures, as seen in 2023 . A visualization showing sea surface height anomalies in the Pacific Ocean in June 2023 based on satellite data. The red and orange colors show a higher-than-normal sea surface height. The blue areas were lower than normal. Credit: NASA

Read More About 2023's Record Heat

Ocean circulation may be changing

Ocean currents are vital transporters of heat around the planet. As the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets melt, the excess fresh water running into the ocean could disrupt the balance of temperature and salinity that drive deep ocean currents. NASA satellite mission s are monitoring the ocean for changes in heat transport as glaciers continue to melt and the ocean warms. Clouds trace out islands in the Caribbean Sea in this photo taken by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station.  Credit: NASA

Read More About Ocean Circulation

Key Satellites and Missions

Aqua is collecting data about Earth's water cycle.

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO)

GRACE-FO is tracking Earth’s water movement across the planet.

Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich

Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich is measuring the height of the ocean.

Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT)

SWOT is providing the first global survey of Earth’s surface water and measuring how it is changing over time.

Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, and ocean Ecosystem (PACE)

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The ocean covers about 70% of Earth’s surface. So, it’s not surprising that it plays a large part in Earth’s environment. As Earth warms, water in the ocean soaks up energy (heat) and distributes it more evenly across the planet. The ocean also absorbs carbon dioxide from Earth’s atmosphere. The additional heat and carbon dioxide in the ocean can change the environment for the many plants and animals that live there.

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Why Are Companies That Lose Money Still So Successful?

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New research on how to identify investments that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits.

In a well-functioning capital market, profits should be the sole criterion for firm survival; that is, firms reporting losses should disappear. Of late, however, loss-making firms are highly sought after by investors — often more than some profitable firms. Unicorns, or startups with valuations exceeding a billion dollars, are examples of such loss-making firms. What has changed over time? When and why did losses lose their meaning? The authors’ series of new research papers provide some answers, guiding managers to make the right investments: those that produce delayed but real profits — not just those that produce short-term accounting profits but decimate shareholder wealth in long run.

In 1979, psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky famously posited that losses loom larger than gains in human decision-making. For example, a dollar of loss affects our behavior more than a dollar of profits . Likewise, when a firm announces losses, its stock price declines more dramatically than it increases for the same dollar amount of profits. Investors abandon and lenders tend to stop financing loss-making firms , which then start restructuring their business lines and laying off employees. Some firms go even further, conducting M&A transactions without substance and “managing earnings” to report profits instead of a loss.

• Vijay Govindarajan is the Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College’s Tuck School of Business, an executive fellow at Harvard Business School, and faculty partner at the Silicon Valley incubator Mach 49. He is a New York Times and Wall Street Journal bestselling author. His latest book is Fusion Strategy: How Real-Time Data and AI Will Power the Industrial Future . His Harvard Business Review articles “ Engineering Reverse Innovations ” and “ Stop the Innovation Wars ” won McKinsey Awards for best article published in HBR. His HBR articles “ How GE Is Disrupting Itself ” and “ The CEO’s Role in Business Model Reinvention ” are HBR all-time top-50 bestsellers. Follow him on LinkedIn . vgovindarajan
• Shivaram Rajgopal is the Roy Bernard Kester and T.W. Byrnes Professor of Accounting and Auditing and Vice Dean of Research at Columbia Business School. His research examines financial reporting and executive compensation issues and he is widely published in both accounting and finance.
• Anup Srivastava holds Canada Research Chair in Accounting, Decision Making, and Capital Markets and is a full professor at Haskayne School of Business, University of Calgary. In a series of HBR articles, he examines the management implications of digital disruption. He specializes in the valuation and financial reporting challenges of digital companies. Follow Anup on  LinkedIn .
• Aneel Iqbal is an assistant professor at Thunderbird School of Global Management, Arizona State University. He examines the accounting measurement and financial disclosures for new-economy firms and incorporates his wide-ranging industry experience into his research and teaching. He is a seasoned accounting and finance professional with diverse experience in auditing, financial analysis, business advisory, performance management, and executive training. Follow Aneel on LinkedIn .
• Elnaz Basirian is a PhD student at the Haskayne School of Business. She examines the influence and role of intangibles in accounting and finance, aimed at improving valuation and market efficiency. She brings a decade of work experience in international financial markets. Follow Elnaz on LinkedIn .

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A 2022 Supreme Court opinion.

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The Gun Lobby’s Hidden Hand in the 2nd Amendment Battle

In the battle to dismantle gun restrictions, raging in America’s courts even as mass shootings become commonplace, one name keeps turning up in the legal briefs and judges’ rulings: William English, Ph.D.

A little-known political economist at Georgetown University, Dr. English conducted a largest-of-its-kind national survey that found gun owners frequently used their weapons for self-defense. That finding has been deployed by gun rights activists to notch legal victories with far-reaching consequences.

He has been cited in a landmark Supreme Court case that invalidated many restrictions on guns, and in scores of lawsuits around the country to overturn limits on assault weapons, high-capacity magazines and the carrying of firearms. His findings were also offered in another Supreme Court case this term, with a decision expected this month.

Dr. English seems at first glance to be an impartial researcher interested in data-driven insights. He has said his “scholarly arc” focuses on good public policy, and his lack of apparent ties to the gun lobby has lent credibility to his work.

But Dr. English’s interest in firearms is more than academic: He has received tens of thousands of dollars as a paid expert for gun rights advocates, and his survey work, which he says was part of a book project, originated as research for a National Rifle Association-backed lawsuit, The New York Times has found.

He has also increasingly drawn scrutiny in some courts over the reliability and integrity of his unpublished survey, which is the core of his research, and his refusal to disclose who paid for it. Other researchers say that the wording of some questions could elicit answers overstating defensive gun use, and that he cherry-picked pro-gun responses.

The Bruen decision in 2022 upended Second Amendment law by sweeping away any modern-day gun restrictions that could not be tied to a historical antecedent. The ruling led to a surge in firearms cases — to an annual average of 680 today compared with 122 in the decade before. Pro-gun rulings have also risen: The 74 issued last year make up a quarter of all such rulings since 2000, according to researchers at the University of Southern California. Courts have struck down restrictions on high-capacity magazines in Oregon, handgun purchases in Maryland and assault weapons in California.

Dr. English’s brief in the Bruen case.

Here’s an example of that missing context.

The paper quotes a survey question, omitting the setup to it, which is highlighted below in blue.

Many policymakers recognize that a large number of people participate in shooting sports but question how often guns are used for self-defense. Have you ever defended yourself or your property with a firearm, even if it was not fired or displayed? Please do not include military service, police work, or work as a security guard.

Other questions followed the same pattern of omission. This one, about AR-15-style rifles, included text before and after the question in the version respondents saw, but not in the paper.

Some have argued that few gun owners actually want or use guns that are commonly classified as ‘assault weapons.’ Have you ever owned an AR-15 or similarly styled rifle? You can include any rifles of this style that have been modified or moved to be compliant with local law. Answering this will help us establish how popular these types of firearms are.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 27.6.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

A Nordic Perspective on Patient Online Record Access and the European Health Data Space

Authors of this article:

Maria Hägglund   1, 2 , PhD ;   Anna Kharko   1, 3 , PhD ;   Annika Bärkås   1 , PhD ;   Charlotte Blease   1, 4 , PhD ;   Åsa Cajander   5 , PhD ;   Catherine DesRoches   4 , DrPH ;   Asbjørn Johansen Fagerlund   6 , PhD ;   Josefin Hagström   1 , MSc ;   Isto Huvila   7 , PhD ;   Iiris Hörhammer   8 , DSC ;   Bridget Kane   1, 9 , PhD ;   Gunnar O Klein   10 , MD, PhD ;   Eli Kristiansen   6 , MEc ;   Jonas Moll   10 , PhD ;   Irene Muli   1 , MSc ;   Hanife Rexhepi   11 , PhD ;   Sara Riggare   1 , PhD ;   Peeter Ross   12, 13 , PhD, MD ;   Isabella Scandurra   10 , PhD ;   Saija Simola   8 , MSc ;   Hedvig Soone   12 , MSc ;   Bo Wang   6 , BMed, MPH ;   Maedeh Ghorbanian Zolbin   8 , MBA ;   Rose-Mharie Åhlfeldt   11 , PhD ;   Sari Kujala   8 * , PhD ;   Monika Alise Johansen   6 * , PhD

1 Participatory eHealth and Health Data Research Group, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

2 Medtech Science & Innovation Centre, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden

3 School of Psychology, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, United Kingdom

4 Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States

5 Department of Information Technology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

6 Norwegian Centre for E-Health Research, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway

7 Department of ALM, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

8 Department of Computer Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland

9 Business School, Karlstad University, Karlstad, Sweden

10 Centre for Empirical Research on Information Systems, School of Business, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden

11 School of Informatics, University of Skövde, Skövde, Sweden

12 E-Medicine Centre, Department of Health Technologies, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia

13 Research Department, East Tallinn Central Hospital, Tallinn, Estonia

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

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• Participatory eHealth and Health Data Research Group
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Protecting health and care workers’ mental health and well-being: Technical Consultation Meeting

High levels of stress, burnout, absence from work and strikes affecting the health and care workforce are a symptom of the current state of health systems. These are normal reactions in the face of staff shortages, low pay, inadequate and unsafe working conditions, extraordinarily stressful environments and a lack of needed workplace safeguards [KC1]  . At least a quarter of health and care workers reported anxiety, depression and burnout symptoms between January 2020 and April 2022. No significant reductions have been observed since 2022.

Expanding upon knowledge to address this threat to health systems, the WHO Health Workforce department organized a 26 April technical consultation on Protecting health and care workers’ mental health and well-being  in Leuven, Belgium. Health workers affected by burnout testified to their personal experiences, and experts exchanged evidence-based tools, research, guidelines, good practices and opportunities for alignment across existing national, regional and global initiatives.

Globally, health and care workers are raising their voices on how workplace demands and resource gaps are impacting their mental health and well-being. During the technical consultation, Corey Feist, Chief Executive Officer of the Dr Lorna Breen Heroes Foundation, called to mind his sister-in-law Dr Lorna Breen, a New York City emergency room physician who died by suicide exactly at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. The landmark 2022 Dr Lorna Breen Health Care Provider Protection Act in the United States  supporting health workers’ mental health and well-being has funded $103 million across 44 organizations to implement evidence-informed strategies that reduce and prevent suicide, burnout, mental health conditions, and substance use disorders.

“ Particularly following the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a moral obligation to address the long-standing crisis of burnout, exhaustion, and moral injury across the health sector by protecting decent work, improving the practice environment and tackling the root causes of mental health problems in our workforce, ” stated Jim Campbell, WHO Health Workforce Director. Experts contributing to the consultation agreed that urgent collective action to address health system factors that lead to stress and burnout in the workforce is essential.

The technical consultation builds upon national policy actions like the Dr Lorna Breen Act, regional initiatives, cross-border studies that document evidence on the impact of organizational level change; and the Global health and care worker compact requested and approved by countries through the World Health Assembly. Application of these recommendations within health systems and with appropriate policy action remains a challenge in most countries

The expert consultation is part of a strategic partnership with the World Innovation Summit for Health (WISH) that focuses on operationalizing the recommendations of Our duty of care: a global call to action to protect the mental health of health and care workers . Demonstration sites have been launched at the health facility level in Spain and Qatar to apply evidence-based interventions and address organizational level changes to better protect and support health and care workers.

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Journal retracts study tied to Micronoma’s effort to create cancer blood test

By Angus Chen June 26, 2024

N ature retracted a high-profile paper that served as part of the scientific groundwork for Micronoma, a San Diego-based startup, on Wednesday.

“Some of the findings of the article are affected and the corresponding conclusions are no longer supported,” Nature said in the retraction.

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The retraction comes after a team of researchers published work on the preprint site bioRxiv critiquing the Nature paper last August, describing what they called “fatal errors” in the paper’s analyses. STAT covered the criticism shortly after the team’s manuscript went live on bioRxiv. This same work was later published in the peer-reviewed journal mBio .

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