how many sentences per paragraph in an essay

What this handout is about

This handout will help you understand how paragraphs are formed, how to develop stronger paragraphs, and how to completely and clearly express your ideas.

What is a paragraph?

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a page long, etc. In reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences that support one main idea. In this handout, we will refer to this as the “controlling idea,” because it controls what happens in the rest of the paragraph.

How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?

Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular paragraph will be, you must first decide on an argument and a working thesis statement for your paper. What is the most important idea that you are trying to convey to your reader? The information in each paragraph must be related to that idea. In other words, your paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship between your thesis and the information in each paragraph. A working thesis functions like a seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic one—a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper where there are direct, familial relationships between all of the ideas in the paper.

The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a seed of ideas; this “germination process” is better known as brainstorming . There are many techniques for brainstorming; whichever one you choose, this stage of paragraph development cannot be skipped. Building paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a well-planned foundation that supports what you are building. Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the foundation can cause your whole paper to crumble.

So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to develop your thesis. What else should you keep in mind as you begin to create paragraphs? Every paragraph in a paper should be :

• Unified : All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single controlling idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
• Clearly related to the thesis : The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).
• Coherent : The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should follow a definite plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).
• Well-developed : Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

How do I organize a paragraph?

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you choose will depend on the controlling idea of the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization, with links to brief examples:

• Narration : Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish. ( See an example. )
• Description : Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic. ( See an example. )
• Process : Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence—first, second, third. ( See an example. )
• Classification : Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic. ( See an example. )
• Illustration : Give examples and explain how those examples support your point. (See an example in the 5-step process below.)

Illustration paragraph: a 5-step example

From the list above, let’s choose “illustration” as our rhetorical purpose. We’ll walk through a 5-step process for building a paragraph that illustrates a point in an argument. For each step there is an explanation and example. Our example paragraph will be about human misconceptions of piranhas.

Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence

Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea.

Controlling idea and topic sentence — Despite the fact that piranhas are relatively harmless, many people continue to believe the pervasive myth that piranhas are dangerous to humans.

Step 2. Elaborate on the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an elaboration on the controlling idea, perhaps with an explanation, implication, or statement about significance. Our example offers a possible explanation for the pervasiveness of the myth.

Elaboration — This impression of piranhas is exacerbated by their mischaracterization in popular media.

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with an example (or more) that illustrates the claims made in the previous sentences.

Example — For example, the promotional poster for the 1978 horror film Piranha features an oversized piranha poised to bite the leg of an unsuspecting woman.

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic sentence. The explanation should demonstrate the value of the example as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.

Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a separate sentence.

Explanation for example — Such a terrifying representation easily captures the imagination and promotes unnecessary fear.

Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.

Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph

The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the paragraph. At this point, you can remind your reader about the relevance of the information to the larger paper, or you can make a concluding point for this example. You might, however, simply transition to the next paragraph.

Sentences for completing a paragraph — While the trope of the man-eating piranhas lends excitement to the adventure stories, it bears little resemblance to the real-life piranha. By paying more attention to fact than fiction, humans may finally be able to let go of this inaccurate belief.

Finished paragraph

Despite the fact that piranhas are relatively harmless, many people continue to believe the pervasive myth that piranhas are dangerous to humans. This impression of piranhas is exacerbated by their mischaracterization in popular media. For example, the promotional poster for the 1978 horror film Piranha features an oversized piranha poised to bite the leg of an unsuspecting woman. Such a terrifying representation easily captures the imagination and promotes unnecessary fear. While the trope of the man-eating piranhas lends excitement to the adventure stories, it bears little resemblance to the real-life piranha. By paying more attention to fact than fiction, humans may finally be able to let go of this inaccurate belief.

Troubleshooting paragraphs

Problem: the paragraph has no topic sentence.

Imagine each paragraph as a sandwich. The real content of the sandwich—the meat or other filling—is in the middle. It includes all the evidence you need to make the point. But it gets kind of messy to eat a sandwich without any bread. Your readers don’t know what to do with all the evidence you’ve given them. So, the top slice of bread (the first sentence of the paragraph) explains the topic (or controlling idea) of the paragraph. And, the bottom slice (the last sentence of the paragraph) tells the reader how the paragraph relates to the broader argument. In the original and revised paragraphs below, notice how a topic sentence expressing the controlling idea tells the reader the point of all the evidence.

Original paragraph

Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite humans.

Revised paragraph

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite humans.

Once you have mastered the use of topic sentences, you may decide that the topic sentence for a particular paragraph really shouldn’t be the first sentence of the paragraph. This is fine—the topic sentence can actually go at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph; what’s important is that it is in there somewhere so that readers know what the main idea of the paragraph is and how it relates back to the thesis of your paper. Suppose that we wanted to start the piranha paragraph with a transition sentence—something that reminds the reader of what happened in the previous paragraph—rather than with the topic sentence. Let’s suppose that the previous paragraph was about all kinds of animals that people are afraid of, like sharks, snakes, and spiders. Our paragraph might look like this (the topic sentence is bold):

Like sharks, snakes, and spiders, piranhas are widely feared. Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless . Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. If the fish are well-fed, they won’t bite humans.

Problem: the paragraph has more than one controlling idea

If a paragraph has more than one main idea, consider eliminating sentences that relate to the second idea, or split the paragraph into two or more paragraphs, each with only one main idea. Watch our short video on reverse outlining to learn a quick way to test whether your paragraphs are unified. In the following paragraph, the final two sentences branch off into a different topic; so, the revised paragraph eliminates them and concludes with a sentence that reminds the reader of the paragraph’s main idea.

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, for the most part, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ first instinct is to flee, not attack. Their fear of humans makes sense. Far more piranhas are eaten by people than people are eaten by piranhas. A number of South American groups eat piranhas. They fry or grill the fish and then serve them with coconut milk or tucupi, a sauce made from fermented manioc juices.

Problem: transitions are needed within the paragraph

You are probably familiar with the idea that transitions may be needed between paragraphs or sections in a paper (see our handout on transitions ). Sometimes they are also helpful within the body of a single paragraph. Within a paragraph, transitions are often single words or short phrases that help to establish relationships between ideas and to create a logical progression of those ideas in a paragraph. This is especially likely to be true within paragraphs that discuss multiple examples. Let’s take a look at a version of our piranha paragraph that uses transitions to orient the reader:

Although most people consider piranhas to be quite dangerous, they are, except in two main situations, entirely harmless. Piranhas rarely feed on large animals; they eat smaller fish and aquatic plants. When confronted with humans, piranhas’ instinct is to flee, not attack. But there are two situations in which a piranha bite is likely. The first is when a frightened piranha is lifted out of the water—for example, if it has been caught in a fishing net. The second is when the water level in pools where piranhas are living falls too low. A large number of fish may be trapped in a single pool, and if they are hungry, they may attack anything that enters the water.

In this example, you can see how the phrases “the first” and “the second” help the reader follow the organization of the ideas in the paragraph.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lunsford, Andrea. 2008. The St. Martin’s Handbook: Annotated Instructor’s Edition , 6th ed. New York: St. Martin’s.

Rosen, Leonard J., and Laurence Behrens. 2003. The Allyn & Bacon Handbook , 5th ed. New York: Longman.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

How do you structure a paragraph in an essay?

If you’re like the majority of my students, you might be getting your basic essay paragraph structure wrong and getting lower grades than you could!

In this article, I outline the 11 key steps to writing a perfect paragraph. But, this isn’t your normal ‘how to write an essay’ article. Rather, I’ll try to give you some insight into exactly what teachers look out for when they’re grading essays and figuring out what grade to give them.

You can navigate each issue below, or scroll down to read them all:

1. Paragraphs must be at least four sentences long 2. But, at most seven sentences long 3. Your paragraph must be Left-Aligned 4. You need a topic sentence 5 . Next, you need an explanation sentence 6. You need to include an example 7. You need to include citations 8. All paragraphs need to be relevant to the marking criteria 9. Only include one key idea per paragraph 10. Keep sentences short 11. Keep quotes short

Paragraph structure is one of the most important elements of getting essay writing right .

As I cover in my Ultimate Guide to Writing an Essay Plan , paragraphs are the heart and soul of your essay.

However, I find most of my students have either:

• forgotten how to write paragraphs properly,
• gotten lazy, or
• never learned it in the first place!

Paragraphs in essay writing are different from paragraphs in other written genres .

In fact, the paragraphs that you are reading now would not help your grades in an essay.

That’s because I’m writing in journalistic style, where paragraph conventions are vastly different.

For those of you coming from journalism or creative writing, you might find you need to re-learn paragraph writing if you want to write well-structured essay paragraphs to get top grades.

Below are eleven reasons your paragraphs are losing marks, and what to do about it!

Essay Paragraph Structure Rules

1. your paragraphs must be at least 4 sentences long.

In journalism and blog writing, a one-sentence paragraph is great. It’s short, to-the-point, and helps guide your reader. For essay paragraph structure, one-sentence paragraphs suck.

A one-sentence essay paragraph sends an instant signal to your teacher that you don’t have much to say on an issue.

A short paragraph signifies that you know something – but not much about it. A one-sentence paragraph lacks detail, depth and insight.

Many students come to me and ask, “what does ‘add depth’ mean?” It’s one of the most common pieces of feedback you’ll see written on the margins of your essay.

Personally, I think ‘add depth’ is bad feedback because it’s a short and vague comment. But, here’s what it means: You’ve not explained your point enough!

If you’re writing one-, two- or three-sentence essay paragraphs, you’re costing yourself marks.

Always aim for at least four sentences per paragraph in your essays.

This doesn’t mean that you should add ‘fluff’ or ‘padding’ sentences.

Make sure you don’t:

a) repeat what you said in different words, or b) write something just because you need another sentence in there.

But, you need to do some research and find something insightful to add to that two-sentence paragraph if you want to ace your essay.

Check out Points 5 and 6 for some advice on what to add to that short paragraph to add ‘depth’ to your paragraph and start moving to the top of the class.

• How to Make an Essay Longer
• How to Make an Essay Shorter

2. Your Paragraphs must not be more than 7 Sentences Long

Okay, so I just told you to aim for at least four sentences per paragraph. So, what’s the longest your paragraph should be?

Seven sentences. That’s a maximum.

So, here’s the rule:

Between four and seven sentences is the sweet spot that you need to aim for in every single paragraph.

Here’s why your paragraphs shouldn’t be longer than seven sentences:

1. It shows you can organize your thoughts. You need to show your teacher that you’ve broken up your key ideas into manageable segments of text (see point 10)

2. It makes your work easier to read.   You need your writing to be easily readable to make it easy for your teacher to give you good grades. Make your essay easy to read and you’ll get higher marks every time.

One of the most important ways you can make your work easier to read is by writing paragraphs that are less than six sentences long.

3. It prevents teacher frustration. Teachers are just like you. When they see a big block of text their eyes glaze over. They get frustrated, lost, their mind wanders … and you lose marks.

To prevent teacher frustration, you need to ensure there’s plenty of white space in your essay. It’s about showing them that the piece is clearly structured into one key idea per ‘chunk’ of text.

Often, you might find that your writing contains tautologies and other turns of phrase that can be shortened for clarity.

3. Your Paragraph must be Left-Aligned

Turn off ‘Justified’ text and: Never. Turn. It. On. Again.

Justified text is where the words are stretched out to make the paragraph look like a square. It turns the writing into a block. Don’t do it. You will lose marks, I promise you! Win the psychological game with your teacher: left-align your text.

A good essay paragraph is never ‘justified’.

I’m going to repeat this, because it’s important: to prevent your essay from looking like a big block of muddy, hard-to-read text align your text to the left margin only.

You want white space on your page – and lots of it. White space helps your reader scan through your work. It also prevents it from looking like big blocks of text.

You want your reader reading vertically as much as possible: scanning, browsing, and quickly looking through for evidence you’ve engaged with the big ideas.

The justified text doesn’t help you do that. Justified text makes your writing look like a big, lumpy block of text that your reader doesn’t want to read.

What’s wrong with Center-Aligned Text?

While I’m at it, never, ever, center-align your text either. Center-aligned text is impossible to skim-read. Your teacher wants to be able to quickly scan down the left margin to get the headline information in your paragraph.

Not many people center-align text, but it’s worth repeating: never, ever center-align your essays.

Don’t annoy your reader. Left align your text.

4. Your paragraphs must have a Topic Sentence

The first sentence of an essay paragraph is called the topic sentence. This is one of the most important sentences in the correct essay paragraph structure style.

The topic sentence should convey exactly what key idea you’re going to cover in your paragraph.

Too often, students don’t let their reader know what the key idea of the paragraph is until several sentences in.

You must show what the paragraph is about in the first sentence.

You never, ever want to keep your reader in suspense. Essays are not like creative writing. Tell them straight away what the paragraph is about. In fact, if you can, do it in the first half of the first sentence .

I’ll remind you again: make it easy to grade your work. Your teacher is reading through your work trying to determine what grade to give you. They’re probably going to mark 20 assignments in one sitting. They have no interest in storytelling or creativity. They just want to know how much you know! State what the paragraph is about immediately and move on.

Suggested: Best Words to Start a Paragraph

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing a Topic Sentence If your paragraph is about how climate change is endangering polar bears, say it immediately : “Climate change is endangering polar bears.” should be your first sentence in your paragraph. Take a look at first sentence of each of the four paragraphs above this one. You can see from the first sentence of each paragraph that the paragraphs discuss:

When editing your work, read each paragraph and try to distil what the one key idea is in your paragraph. Ensure that this key idea is mentioned in the first sentence .

(Note: if there’s more than one key idea in the paragraph, you may have a problem. See Point 9 below .)

The topic sentence is the most important sentence for getting your essay paragraph structure right. So, get your topic sentences right and you’re on the right track to a good essay paragraph.

5. You need an Explanation Sentence

All topic sentences need a follow-up explanation. The very first point on this page was that too often students write paragraphs that are too short. To add what is called ‘depth’ to a paragraph, you can come up with two types of follow-up sentences: explanations and examples.

Let’s take explanation sentences first.

Explanation sentences give additional detail. They often provide one of the following services:

Let’s go back to our example of a paragraph on Climate change endangering polar bears. If your topic sentence is “Climate change is endangering polar bears.”, then your follow-up explanation sentence is likely to explain how, why, where, or when. You could say:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing Explanation Sentences 1. How: “The warming atmosphere is melting the polar ice caps.” 2. Why: “The polar bears’ habitats are shrinking every single year.” 3. Where: “This is happening in the Antarctic ice caps near Greenland.” 4. When: “Scientists first noticed the ice caps were shrinking in 1978.”

You don’t have to provide all four of these options each time.

But, if you’re struggling to think of what to add to your paragraph to add depth, consider one of these four options for a good quality explanation sentence.

>>>RELATED ARTICLE: SHOULD YOU USE RHETORICAL QUESTIONS IN ESSAYS ?

6. Your need to Include an Example

Examples matter! They add detail. They also help to show that you genuinely understand the issue. They show that you don’t just understand a concept in the abstract; you also understand how things work in real life.

Example sentences have the added benefit of personalising an issue. For example, after saying “Polar bears’ habitats are shrinking”, you could note specific habitats, facts and figures, or even a specific story about a bear who was impacted.

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing an ‘Example’ Sentence “For example, 770,000 square miles of Arctic Sea Ice has melted in the past four decades, leading Polar Bear populations to dwindle ( National Geographic, 2018 )

In fact, one of the most effective politicians of our times – Barrack Obama – was an expert at this technique. He would often provide examples of people who got sick because they didn’t have healthcare to sell Obamacare.

What effect did this have? It showed the real-world impact of his ideas. It humanised him, and got him elected president – twice!

Be like Obama. Provide examples. Often.

7. All Paragraphs need Citations

Provide a reference to an academic source in every single body paragraph in the essay. The only two paragraphs where you don’t need a reference is the introduction and conclusion .

Let me repeat: Paragraphs need at least one reference to a quality scholarly source .

Let me go even further:

Students who get the best marks provide two references to two different academic sources in every paragraph.

Two references in a paragraph show you’ve read widely, cross-checked your sources, and given the paragraph real thought.

It’s really important that these references link to academic sources, not random websites, blogs or YouTube videos. Check out our Seven Best types of Sources to Cite in Essays post to get advice on what sources to cite. Number 6 w ill surprise you!

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: In-Text Referencing in Paragraphs Usually, in-text referencing takes the format: (Author, YEAR), but check your school’s referencing formatting requirements carefully. The ‘Author’ section is the author’s last name only. Not their initials. Not their first name. Just their last name . My name is Chris Drew. First name Chris, last name Drew. If you were going to reference an academic article I wrote in 2019, you would reference it like this: (Drew, 2019).

Where do you place those two references?

Place the first reference at the end of the first half of the paragraph. Place the second reference at the end of the second half of the paragraph.

This spreads the references out and makes it look like all the points throughout the paragraph are backed up by your sources. The goal is to make it look like you’ve reference regularly when your teacher scans through your work.

Remember, teachers can look out for signposts that indicate you’ve followed academic conventions and mentioned the right key ideas.

Spreading your referencing through the paragraph helps to make it look like you’ve followed the academic convention of referencing sources regularly.

Here are some examples of how to reference twice in a paragraph:

• If your paragraph was six sentences long, you would place your first reference at the end of the third sentence and your second reference at the end of the sixth sentence.
• If your paragraph was five sentences long, I would recommend placing one at the end of the second sentence and one at the end of the fifth sentence.

You’ve just read one of the key secrets to winning top marks.

8. Every Paragraph must be relevant to the Marking Criteria

Every paragraph must win you marks. When you’re editing your work, check through the piece to see if every paragraph is relevant to the marking criteria.

For the British: In the British university system (I’m including Australia and New Zealand here – I’ve taught at universities in all three countries), you’ll usually have a ‘marking criteria’. It’s usually a list of between two and six key learning outcomes your teacher needs to use to come up with your score. Sometimes it’s called a:

• Marking criteria
• Marking rubric
• (Key) learning outcome
• Indicative content

Check your assignment guidance to see if this is present. If so, use this list of learning outcomes to guide what you write. If your paragraphs are irrelevant to these key points, delete the paragraph .

Paragraphs that don’t link to the marking criteria are pointless. They won’t win you marks.

For the Americans: If you don’t have a marking criteria / rubric / outcomes list, you’ll need to stick closely to the essay question or topic. This goes out to those of you in the North American system. North America (including USA and Canada here) is often less structured and the professor might just give you a topic to base your essay on.

If all you’ve got is the essay question / topic, go through each paragraph and make sure each paragraph is relevant to the topic.

For example, if your essay question / topic is on “The Effects of Climate Change on Polar Bears”,

• Don’t talk about anything that doesn’t have some connection to climate change and polar bears;
• Don’t talk about the environmental impact of oil spills in the Gulf of Carpentaria;
• Don’t talk about black bear habitats in British Columbia.
• Do talk about the effects of climate change on polar bears (and relevant related topics) in every single paragraph .

You may think ‘stay relevant’ is obvious advice, but at least 20% of all essays I mark go off on tangents and waste words.

Stay on topic in Every. Single. Paragraph. If you want to learn more about how to stay on topic, check out our essay planning guide .

9. Only have one Key Idea per Paragraph

One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph.

Don’t forget!

Too often, a student starts a paragraph talking about one thing and ends it talking about something totally different. Don’t be that student.

To ensure you’re focussing on one key idea in your paragraph, make sure you know what that key idea is. It should be mentioned in your topic sentence (see Point 3 ). Every other sentence in the paragraph adds depth to that one key idea.

If you’ve got sentences in your paragraph that are not relevant to the key idea in the paragraph, they don’t fit. They belong in another paragraph.

Go through all your paragraphs when editing your work and check to see if you’ve veered away from your paragraph’s key idea. If so, you might have two or even three key ideas in the one paragraph.

You’re going to have to get those additional key ideas, rip them out, and give them paragraphs of their own.

If you have more than one key idea in a paragraph you will lose marks. I promise you that.

The paragraphs will be too hard to read, your reader will get bogged down reading rather than scanning, and you’ll have lost grades.

10. Keep Sentences Short

If a sentence is too long it gets confusing. When the sentence is confusing, your reader will stop reading your work. They will stop reading the paragraph and move to the next one. They’ll have given up on your paragraph.

Short, snappy sentences are best.

Shorter sentences are easier to read and they make more sense. Too often, students think they have to use big, long, academic words to get the best marks. Wrong. Aim for clarity in every sentence in the paragraph. Your teacher will thank you for it.

The students who get the best marks write clear, short sentences.

When editing your draft, go through your essay and see if you can shorten your longest five sentences.

(To learn more about how to write the best quality sentences, see our page on Seven ways to Write Amazing Sentences .)

11. Keep Quotes Short

Eighty percent of university teachers hate quotes. That’s not an official figure. It’s my guestimate based on my many interactions in faculty lounges. Twenty percent don’t mind them, but chances are your teacher is one of the eight out of ten who hate quotes.

Teachers tend to be turned off by quotes because it makes it look like you don’t know how to say something on your own words.

Now that I’ve warned you, here’s how to use quotes properly:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: How To Use Quotes in University-Level Essay Paragraphs 1. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 2. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 3. You should never start a sentence with a quote. 4. You should never end a paragraph with a quote. 5 . You should never use more than five quotes per essay. 6. Your quote should never be longer than one line in a paragraph.

The minute your teacher sees that your quote takes up a large chunk of your paragraph, you’ll have lost marks.

Your teacher will circle the quote, write a snarky comment in the margin, and not even bother to give you points for the key idea in the paragraph.

Avoid quotes, but if you really want to use them, follow those five rules above.

I’ve also provided additional pages outlining Seven tips on how to use Quotes if you want to delve deeper into how, when and where to use quotes in essays. Be warned: quoting in essays is harder than you thought.

Follow the advice above and you’ll be well on your way to getting top marks at university.

Writing essay paragraphs that are well structured takes time and practice. Don’t be too hard on yourself and keep on trying!

Below is a summary of our 11 key mistakes for structuring essay paragraphs and tips on how to avoid them.

I’ve also provided an easy-to-share infographic below that you can share on your favorite social networking site. Please share it if this article has helped you out!

11 Biggest Essay Paragraph Structure Mistakes you’re probably Making

1.  Your paragraphs are too short 2.  Your paragraphs are too long 3.  Your paragraph alignment is ‘Justified’ 4.  Your paragraphs are missing a topic sentence 5 .  Your paragraphs are missing an explanation sentence 6.  Your paragraphs are missing an example 7.  Your paragraphs are missing references 8.  Your paragraphs are not relevant to the marking criteria 9.  You’re trying to fit too many ideas into the one paragraph 10.  Your sentences are too long 11.  Your quotes are too long

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4 thoughts on “11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)”

Hello there. I noticed that throughout this article on Essay Writing, you keep on saying that the teacher won’t have time to go through the entire essay. Don’t you think this is a bit discouraging that with all the hard work and time put into your writing, to know that the teacher will not read through the entire paper?

Hi Clarence,

Thanks so much for your comment! I love to hear from readers on their thoughts.

Yes, I agree that it’s incredibly disheartening.

But, I also think students would appreciate hearing the truth.

Behind closed doors many / most university teachers are very open about the fact they ‘only have time to skim-read papers’. They regularly bring this up during heated faculty meetings about contract negotiations! I.e. in one university I worked at, we were allocated 45 minutes per 10,000 words – that’s just over 4 minutes per 1,000 word essay, and that’d include writing the feedback, too!

If students know the truth, they can better write their essays in a way that will get across the key points even from a ‘skim-read’.

I hope to write candidly on this website – i.e. some of this info will never be written on university blogs because universities want to hide these unfortunate truths from students.

Thanks so much for stopping by!

Regards, Chris

This is wonderful and helpful, all I say is thank you very much. Because I learned a lot from this site, own by chris thank you Sir.

Thank you. This helped a lot.

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Blog • Perfecting your Craft

Posted on Mar 13, 2024

How Many Sentences Are in a Paragraph?

In most forms of writing, paragraphs tend to be around four to eight sentences long . This general range will vary depending on the type of writing in question and the effect the writer is aiming to achieve.

In this guide, we’ll look at the length of paragraphs in various types of writing and see what determines whether they should be 20 sentences long, or stand alone as single sentences.

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A paragraph should be as long as it needs to be

Reedsy editor Rebecca Heyman says a paragraph generally begins when a new idea is introduced. “A single sentence can stand on its own as a paragraph if its treatment of a specific theme or motif is complete. Conversely, denser, more complex topics may require a substantial number of sentences to adequately unpack meaning.” For example, in this very paragraph that you’re reading right now, we’re dealing with a fairly abstract concept which requires multiple sentences for clarification. In other words, a paragraph should be as long as it needs to be in order to convey its point. 

Let’s now examine this idea from different perspectives, and look at how writers use paragraph breaks for different purposes.

In nonfiction, paragraphs tend to be longer

In nonfiction writing , where the purpose is often to explain new concepts and ideas, paragraphs tend to be a bit on the longer side. They will often introduce an idea, explore it, and then draw conclusions based on that exploration.

In this paragraph from Stefano Mancuso’s The Revolutionary Genius of Plants , he introduces, explores, and concludes upon the intelligence of plants:

Even though they have nothing akin to a central brain, plants exhibit unmistakable attributes of intelligence. They are able to perceive their surroundings with a greater sensitivity than animals do. They actively compete for the limited resources in the soil and atmosphere; they evaluate their circumstances with precision; they perform sophisticated cost-benefit analyses; and, finally, they define and then take appropriate adaptive actions in response to environmental stimuli. Plants embody a model that is much more durable and innovative than that of animals; they are the living representation of how stability and flexibility can be combined. Their modular, diffused construction is the epitome of modernity: a cooperative, shared structure without any command centers, able to flawlessly resist repeated catastrophic events without losing functionality and adapt very quickly to huge environmental changes.

The idea is established simply in the first sentence: “plants exhibit unmistakable attributes of intelligence”. Mancuso then elaborates on this idea by discussing their perceptual and analytical properties, before concluding that plants' intelligence is an example of innovative and durable adaptability to the environment.

You’ll see a similar pattern across nonfiction and other types of expository writing, whether you’re reading books on military history, self-help guides , or gardening manuals. Where the intention of the work is to inform or educate the reader, this tried-and-true way of structuring paragraphs allows information to be passed on in manageable chunks.

However, when you’re writing with the intention of telling a story in an enjoyable fashion, paragraph breaks tend to happen more often, and for different reasons.

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In fiction, they can be as short as a sentence

With artistic works of writing, where the focus is on storytelling providing the reader with a satisfying narrative experience , you will often see the greatest range of paragraph length within a single work. A novelist might have three pages of unbroken narrative, punctuated by a one-word paragraph. 

In general, fiction writers will start a new paragraph whenever something new happens. For example:

Whenever dialogue or action switches between characters

In this extract from Gillian Flynn’s Gone Girl , the narrator, Nick, is being spoken to by his sister.

‘We were lost in the rain,’ she said in a voice that was pleading on the way to peeved. I finished the shrug. McMann’s, Nick. Remember, when we got lost in the rain in Chinatown[...]’

The first paragraph is a quick line of dialogue with a tag that indicates who is speaking. Nick then reacts with an action beat (his shrug) — which is in its own paragraph. Then there is another paragraph break to indicate that the next line is spoken once again by his sister.

In this context, paragraph breaks show the reader that we’re switching characters, allowing an author to avoid having to start every other sentence with “Margo said” or “I said”. 

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When the narration changes between action and reflection

In a narrative, paragraph transitions can also be a way to indicate that the narrator is changing their perspective — often from describing the action of a scene, to remarking on a character’s thoughts or inner reactions.

In this passage from All Quiet on the Western Front , Erich Maria Remarque uses short paragraphs — sometimes single sentences — to paint an impressionistic vignette of a man’s death in the trenches.

But every gasp strips my heart bare. The dying man is the master of these hours, he has an invisible dagger to stab me with: the dagger of time and my own thoughts.  I would give a lot for him to live. It is hard to lie here and have to watch and listen to him. By three in the afternoon he is dead.  I breathe again. But only for a short time. Soon the silence seems harder for me to bear than the groans. I would even like to hear the gurgling again; in fits and starts, hoarse, sometimes a soft whistling noise and then hoarse and loud again.

Remarque utilizes paragraph transitions to depict the shift in Paul’s ( the main character ) focus, moving from the immediate sensory details of the scene to his internal reflections and emotional turmoil. Paul’s desire for the dying man to live, juxtaposed with the harsh reality of death in wartime, highlights the juxtaposition between his internal empathy and the tragic experience of war.

Whenever there’s a time jump

Time jumps are often a good place to start a new paragraph to make it visually clear that some amount of time has passed. In this passage from Oliver Twist, Dickens starts a new paragraph to indicate time jumps.

They were sad rags, to tell the truth; and Oliver had never had a new suit before.      One evening, about a week after the affair of the picture, as he was sitting talking to Mrs. Bedwin, there came a message down from Mr. Brownlow, that if Oliver Twist felt pretty well, he should like to see him in his study, and talk to him a little while.

Without a paragraph change, it would feel odd that the narrator is suddenly taking us forward by a week right in the middle of telling us about Oliver’s clothes. Instead, the paragraph break indicates that one part of the story is over and that the next part is about to begin.

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Paragraphs' length affects the pace of the writing

Paragraph length (along with sentence length) has a profound effect on the pace of one’s writing . A page or two of block paragraphs will take readers far longer to get through than several shorter paragraphs and often reflects whether something is occurring quickly or slowly within the narrative.

For example, in The Great Gatsby , Fitzgerald takes his time to describe a road that will play a significant role in the story.

‘About half way between West Egg and New York the motor-road hastily joins the railroad and runs beside it for a quarter of a mile, so as to shrink away from a certain desolate area of land. This is a valley of ashes—a fantastic farm where ashes grow like wheat into ridges and hills and grotesque gardens where ashes take the forms of houses and chimneys and rising smoke and finally, with a transcendent effort, of men who move dimly and already crumbling through the powdery air. Occasionally a line of gray cars crawls along an invisible track, gives out a ghastly creak and comes to rest, and immediately the ash-gray men swarm up with leaden spades and stir up an impenetrable cloud which screens their obscure operations from your sight.’

This longer style paragraph is used to great effect in representing this pastoral stretch of land between the party hubs of West Egg and New York City. Think of this long paragraph as the wide establishing shot in a movie, everything looks a bit slower from that perspective!

Equally, when Fitzgerald wants to pick up the pace, he uses shorter paragraphs, as seen in the following example:

‘What do you want money for, all of a sudden?’ ‘I’ve been here too long. I want to get away. My wife and I want to go west.’ ‘Your wife does!’ exclaimed Tom, startled. ‘She’s been talking about it for ten years.’ He rested for a moment against the pump, shading his eyes. ‘And now she’s going whether she wants to or not. I’m going to get her away.’  The coupé flashed by us with a flurry of dust and the flash of a waving hand.  ‘What do I owe you?’ demanded Tom harshly.  ‘I just got wised up to something funny the last two days,’ remarked Wilson. ‘That’s why I want to get away. That’s why I been bothering you about the car.’ ‘What do I owe you?’ ‘Dollar twenty.’

Tom realizes both his mistress and wife are slipping from his grasp (image: Warner Bros)

During this part of the novel, Tom Buchanan (the antagonist ) is feeling cornered as both his wife and mistress are slipping away from him. The short paragraphs in quick succession show his irritability, giving readers an insight into how unsettled he is. Even the coupé driven by Gatsby flashes by him, the speed of which is also heightened by use of short paragraphs.

Shorter paragraphs introduce more white space on the page, which accelerates the pace of reading. This can be used powerfully, as in the examples above, to match the narrative when fast, uncontrollable, or sudden events happen or to give readers a wide, slow, or sluggish feeling.

Many paragraphs later, we hope you found this helpful. If you’ve struggled with how to determine your paragraph lengths, know that it’s something that many writers find challenging! By roughly following the advice in this post you’ll be able to powerfully use varying paragraph lengths to hook readers throughout your work.

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How Many Sentences Should There Be in a Paragraph?

Ashley Shaw

There are a lot of writing rules out there, and they can be restricting, especially when they start to feel a little formulaic. If you’ve ever been told that a paragraph should always be at least three sentences long, but ideally five to seven, then you know what I mean.

Why does it have to be so specific?

The truth is that these rules are meant to be guidelines to make writing easier for you. If they start to do the opposite, though, they defeat the purpose.

How Long Should a Paragraph Be?

What do teachers want to see in a paragraph, how do i structure a paragraph, how long should an introduction paragraph be, what do you include in a conclusion paragraph, can a paragraph be one sentence.

So here is what you really need to know: There is no general rule for how long your paragraphs should be. In fact, you probably want to vary your lengths in order to make your writing feel less like a robot wrote it and more human-friendly. A good paragraph isn’t one that has a set amount of sentences. It’s one that has a good, focused idea.

So, in this post, I’m going to talk about what makes a good paragraph, regardless of length. However, despite what I just said, sometimes you just have to follow the formula, so I’ll also point out some best practices on paragraph length. While I am going to focus on academic papers, I’ll also talk about good paragraphs in web writing, professional writing, and fiction.

Before you start thinking about length, you should first start thinking about what makes a good paragraph . Throughout this section, I’ll be using a lot of food analogies, so you should probably grab a snack whilst you read.

A good paragraph is like a bite of a sandwich. If you bite off too much, then you might choke. However, if you just take a tiny little nibble, you will barely taste it at all. In the same way, if your paragraph has too much information in it, then it is just going to be confusing and hard to swallow (get it?). However, if there is only one sentence, then there won’t be enough meat to let your reader know what your point is. So, you have to find the balance between those two things.

There are many acronyms that help determine paragraph structure. In school, you might have learned something like ICE for body paragraphs, which stands for introduce, cite, and explain evidence. However, to fit my sandwich theme, I use MEAL or MEAT.

A good body paragraph in an academic paper should do one of these:

MEAL : Main Point , Evidence , Analysis , Link to Thesis

MEAT : Main Point , Evidence , Analysis , Transition Sentence

Only the last letters of these are different, so let’s talk a bit about what each acronym means.

A good paragraph should have a main point or topic sentence. This is kind of like a mini-thesis statement for your paragraph or the paragraph’s controlling idea. You should have a single controlling idea in your paragraph.

A good way to test this is to do what is called a reverse outline: Summarize each of your paragraphs into one simple topic sentence. (Don’t combine two sentences with a conjunction . That’s cheating!)

If you cannot get a complete sentence to sum up your paragraph, then it is too short. If you can’t fit the point into one sentence, then you likely have two main ideas, which should be broken into multiple paragraphs.

After you get the topic sentence of the paragraph, you need some supporting sentences to help you prove your claim. This is where your outside sources come into the picture. You can put in a sentence or two explaining how you know your main sentence is true.

Don’t just put evidence up without explaining how it proves your point. Somebody might read the same quote, data, or theory as you and come to a completely different conclusion about what it means. So once you add in some evidence, take another two or three sentences and explain how that evidence proves your point.

Link to Thesis/Transition Sentence

Once you’ve finished the information in your paragraph, you can’t just move on. You need a good ending to your paragraph. This is where you have a few options. In your concluding sentence, you might want to show how the main point you are making in that section of the paper helps prove your thesis statement. This fits your paragraph into the premise of your writing.

Alternatively, you might want to focus on getting into your next main point. You can do this by creating a transition sentence that will bridge the gap between the previous paragraph and the one that follows it, creating a logical progression.

A Special Note on Introduction/Conclusion Paragraphs

Think of an academic paper as a funnel. When you first start writing, your audience has no idea what you are discussing, so they need you to draw them in first. Then, once you get into the body, you should be narrow and focused on your topic. Finally, at the end, you should send your reader back out to the rest of the world with a better understanding of your topic and what they should do about it.

Because the body paragraphs are narrower, the MEAL/MEAT plan works best for these. However, introductions and conclusions are a little different. Let’s discuss.

Again, there's no right or wrong answer here. It's all about the content.

Just like body paragraphs, there is a good acronym to help you remember what goes into an introduction paragraph, though this one isn’t food-centric: ABC.

A: Attention grabber , also known as a hook. You want to get your readers interested in your topic and let them know why they want to keep reading.

B: Background information . This is where you will give the reader enough information to catch them up on the topic. Let them know what they need to know to understand and follow your paper.

C: Claim, or the thesis statement . What is the main argument your paper will be making? What are you trying to prove or say? This should be really clear and straightforward.

If you start with ABC, then it makes sense that you should end with XYZ. Notice that these are different letters. You don’t want to just repeat the introduction.

X: Explain what they should do with all of this information once they are done. This is sometimes called a "Call to Action". Likely, you want them to go away from academic writing being convinced about your thesis statement.

Y: Let them know why (y) they should care about all the information they just read.

Z: Zap them with a final hook in the concluding sentence so they don’t forget what you just taught them.

OK. But Really, How Many Sentences Should an Academic Paragraph Have?

I know I just spent a lot of time telling you that the content matters more than the amount of sentences in a paragraph, and I stand by that. However, I also acknowledge that there are best practices when it comes to paragraph length, and it helps to know them.

So, on average, there will be about 3 to 7 sentences in a paragraph . This is how many it takes to convey all of the necessary information I mentioned above into a paragraph without putting in too much.

You could also think of it as about half a page long, though that depends on how many words are in your sentences. More than that, and it will be harder to follow. Shorter than that, and it won’t feel like it has enough depth (and if you have a page-length requirement, it’ll be harder to hit it).

TIP: When I am teaching, I find that people who tend to turn in papers that are too short also have really short paragraphs. It’s usually because they don’t have enough sentences in their analysis section. So if you have this problem, then you might want to make sure you have enough of your own explanations about why the evidence you use supports your claims.

That depends on where you’re writing.

I spent a lot of time talking about a good paragraph in academic writing because that tends to be more formulaic than other types of writing. However, the answer to what makes a good paragraph (and how many sentences that paragraph should have) really depends on the type of writing you are doing. So here is where I will talk more about some other common types of writing that you may do.

How Long Are Paragraphs in Web/News Articles?

In web articles and news stories, can a good paragraph ever be a single sentence long?

One-sentence paragraphs are great for web writing. When people are online, they skim more. Thus, it is always smart to break up paragraphs more than you would in a paper.

On the web, short paragraphs are good. However, each paragraph still needs to have good information in it. If your readers can skim your writing and still get the important information you want to relay to them, then you are doing a good job.

This is also true in journalism. You likely want to keep your paragraphs tight and to the point. You don’t need a lot of sentences to give readers the facts.

Should I Use Short Paragraphs in Emails?

The answer to how long a good paragraph in a professional writing task should be is going to vary widely based on the task and industry. Your best bet is to find some good samples that will help you see what is expected of you.

However, let’s talk a little bit about a professional writing task almost everyone will have at some point: the email .

A good email paragraph in a professional context is one that gives the reader enough information to understand the problem and to figure out the question being asked. That question should be directly stated so that it is more likely to get answered.

In other words, it should be exactly how long it needs to be and no longer. People are busy, they don’t have time for a five-page email!

Here are the basic components of most business emails:

• An explanation of who you are.
• An explanation of the problem or reason for writing.
• The reason you think they can help.
• A thank you for their time.

This is really all that is needed in the paragraph(s) of an email.

How Long Should a Fiction Paragraph Be?

To be honest with you, this is going to be the hardest part of this whole post to write. The reason for this is because creative writing is like the Wild West: There are no rules, and you might get into a showdown if you try to suggest any.

Seriously, creative writing is just that, creative. Well-known books have paragraphs as short as one word and as long as the entire novel! A big part of what makes a good paragraph in creative writing is personal style. In other words, BE YOU.

Still, though, if you want to get published and develop an audience, you might have to stick to some best practices sometimes. Try starting a new paragraph if you do any of the following:

Create any type of change

Introduce a new character or place

Add dialogue

While that isn’t a complete list, it is a good starting point.

Of course, if you are still worried about the length of your paragraphs, you can always let ProWritingAid help. For example, check out the Readability Report , which will help you figure out which paragraphs are hard to read.

If it’s very difficult, it might mean there is too much information in there. Try breaking it down and running the report again to see if it improves your score.

Test your writing’s readability now with a free ProWritingAid account.

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This guide breaks down the three essential steps you must take if you think copywriting is the career for you.

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Check every email, essay, or story for grammar mistakes. Fix them before you press send.

Ashley Shaw is a former editor and marketer/current PhD student and teacher. When she isn't studying con artists for her dissertation, she's thinking of new ways to help college students better understand and love the writing process. You can follow her on Twitter, or, if you prefer animal accounts, follow her rabbits, Audrey Hopbun and Fredra StaHare, on Instagram.

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• Writing Tips

How Many Paragraphs Should an Essay Have?

• 6-minute read
• 19th May 2023

You have an essay to write. You’ve researched the topic and crafted a strong thesis statement . Now it’s time to open the laptop and start tapping away on the keyboard. You know the required word count, but you’re unsure of one thing: How many paragraphs should you have in the essay? Gee, it would’ve been nice if your professor had specified that, huh?

No worries, friend, because in this post, we’ll provide a guide to how many paragraphs an essay should have . Generally, the number of paragraphs will depend on how many words and how many supporting details you need (more on that later). We’ll also explore the concept of paragraphs if you’re wondering what they’re all about. And remember, paragraphs serve a purpose. You can’t submit an essay without using them!

What Is a Paragraph?

You likely know what a paragraph is, but can you define it properly in plain English? Don’t feel bad if that question made you shake your head. Off the top of our heads, many of us can’t explain what a paragraph is .

A paragraph comprises at least five sentences about a particular topic. A paragraph must begin with a well-crafted topic sentence , which is then followed by ideas that support that sentence. To move the essay forward, the paragraph should flow well, and the sentences should be relevant.

Why Are Paragraphs Important?

Paragraphs expand on points you make about a topic, painting a vivid picture for the reader. Paragraphs break down information into chunks, which are easier to read than one giant, uninterrupted body of text. If your essay doesn’t use paragraphs, it likely won’t earn a good grade!

 How Many Paragraphs Are in an Essay?

As mentioned, the number of paragraphs will depend on the word count and the quantity of supporting ideas required. However, if you have to write at least 1,000 words, you should aim for at least five paragraphs. Every essay should have an introduction and a conclusion. The reader needs to get a basic introduction to the topic and understand your thesis statement. They must also see key takeaway points at the end of the essay.

As a rule, a five-paragraph essay would look like this:

• Introduction (with thesis statement)
• Main idea 1 (with supporting details)
• Main idea 2 (with supporting details)
• Main idea 3 (with supporting details)

Your supporting details should include material (such as quotations or facts) from credible sources when writing the main idea paragraphs.

If you think your essay could benefit from having more than five paragraphs, add them! Just make sure they’re relevant to the topic.

Professors don’t care so much about the number of paragraphs; they want you to satisfy the minimum word requirement. Assignment rubrics rarely state the number of required paragraphs. It will be up to you to decide how many to write, and we urge you to research the assigned topic before writing the essay. Your main ideas from the research will generate most of the paragraphs.

When Should I Start a New Paragraph?

Surprisingly, some students aren’t aware that they should break up some of the paragraphs in their essays . You need to start new paragraphs to keep your reader engaged.

As well as starting a new paragraph after the introduction and another for the conclusion, you should do so when you’re introducing a new idea or presenting contrasting information.

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Starting a paragraph often involves using transitional words or phrases to signal to the reader that you’re presenting a new idea. Failing to use these cues may cause confusion for the reader and undermine your essay’s coherence.

Let’s consider examples of transitional words and phrases in action in a conclusion. Note that the essay is about too much mobile device screen time and that transitional words and phrases can occur later in a paragraph too:

Thanks to “In conclusion” and “Additionally,” the reader clearly knows that they are now in the conclusion stage. They can also follow the logic and development of the essay more easily.

How Do I Know Whether I Have Enough Paragraphs?

While no magic number exists for how many paragraphs you need, you should know when you have enough to satisfy the requirements of the assignment. It helps if you can answer yes to the following questions:

• Does my essay have both an introduction and a conclusion?
• Have I provided enough main ideas with supporting details, including quotes and cited information?
• Does my essay develop the thesis statement?
• Does my essay adequately inform the reader about the topic?
• Have I provided at least one takeaway for the reader?

 Conclusion

Professors aren’t necessarily looking for a specific number of paragraphs in an essay; it’s the word count that matters. You should see the word count as a guide for a suitable number of paragraphs. As a rule, five paragraphs should suffice for a 1,000-word essay. As long as you have an introduction and a conclusion and provide enough supporting details for the main ideas in your body paragraphs, you should be good to go.

Remember to start a new paragraph when introducing new ideas or presenting contrasting information. Your reader needs to be able to follow the essay throughout, and a single, unbroken block of text would be difficult to read. Transitional words and phrases help start new paragraphs, so don’t forget to use them!

As with any writing, we always recommend proofreading your essay after you’ve finished it. This step will help to detect typos, extra spacing, and grammatical errors. A second pair of eyes is always useful, so we recommend asking our proofreading experts to review your essay . They’ll correct your grammar, ensure perfect spelling, and offer suggestions to improve your essay. You can even submit a 500-word document for free!

1. What is a paragraph and what is its purpose?

A paragraph is a group of sentences that expand on a single idea. The purpose of a paragraph is to introduce an idea and then develop it with supporting details.

2. What are the benefits of paragraphs?

Paragraphs make your essay easy to read by providing structure and flow. They let you transition from one idea to another. New paragraphs allow you to tell your reader that you’ve covered one point and are moving on to the next.

3. How many paragraphs does a typical essay have?

An essay of at least 1,000 words usually has five paragraphs. It’s best to use the required word count as a guide to the number of paragraphs you’ll need.

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Daily Writing Tips

How many sentences in a paragraph.

A DWT reader, exasperated by an online newspaper article formatted as eleven one-sentence “paragraphs,” asks for a definition of “paragraph” and wants to know how long a paragraph should be.

A paragraph is a unit of thought that develops an idea. A traditional paragraph contains a topic sentence that states the idea to be developed, plus additional sentences that develop the idea stated by the topic sentence.

A newspaper lead (or lede if you prefer) can do its job in one sentence, but with few exceptions, a paragraph will contain more than one sentence. The OWL site, aimed at college students, suggests a length of from three to five or more sentences.

We all know that online writing calls for techniques different from those of the print media. Web readers do not tolerate long expanses of text. They expect short paragraphs, subheads, and bulleted lists. Nevertheless, they require the organization and coherence that paragraphs provide.

The article that prompted this post is an instructive example of a badly-organized piece which would have benefited from placing related ideas in paragraphs. Take a look and see what you think.

Eleven-sentence/paragraph story OWL on paragraphs

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30 thoughts on “How Many Sentences in a Paragraph?”

I’ve always felt that a paragraph should be at least three sentences: one subject sentence plus two or three sentences that expand on the subject’s thought.

“A subject sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph. It provides the main idea behind the paragraph. There is no hard and fast rule for the order in which it will appear amongst the other sentences. Sometimes it can be the last sentence in the paragraph, used to drive the idea home conclusively.”

Thank you, Maeve.

Yes it’s a terribly written piece. But that’s not to say single sentence paragraphs don’t have their place. They’re just another tool in the writer’s arsenal. Perhaps their application is what requires the discussion.

Great site.

Was going to comment, but I felt so strongly about this issue I was inspired to respond on my own blog.

I took several years of journalism classes in college and they actually teach you NOT to write big paragraphs. To journalism teachers a one sentence paragraph is perfectly acceptable.

That article you mention though is awful. You need to balance those one sentence paragraphs with a 2-3 sentence ones if you want it to be an article and not a list.

Clare, Thanks for the link. I read your post (which has planted seeds of future posts of my own). I agree with your itemized list of outdated rules such as not ending a sentence with a preposition or never splitting an infinitive. I don’t agree that paragraphing belongs in that category.

We’ll have to agree to disagree on the paragraph question, but I’m glad my post has inspired ideas for future posts. I look forward to reading them – and commenting on them, of course!

Newspaper “English” has nothing to do with fine writing techniques and style.

Newspaper “English” seeks to pack the most information into the least amount of space, which means eliminating as many uppercase letters as possible, cutting out commas and periods, and placing modifiers before the nouns and verbs, which also saves commas and spaces.

The width of the newspaper column is equally as important, which might be only two inches wide, and rarely wider than three inches. Adding spaces means knocking text onto the next line, and that’s a waste of space and money.

An example newspaper sentence: Beloved long-time Frederick HS football coach John Jones died today in a fiery car wreck along US Hwy 37 around 9 pm in a collision with a stalled cattle truck whose trailer extended into the inside traffic lane.

But when a newspaper story goes on-line, there are other considerations, which is usually too much space to fill. That’s why every sentence is treated like a whole paragraph.

I’m sorry—I wasn’t finished.

In an “on-line” story, the goal is to have the reader scroll down down down until all the advertising banners have been made visible, so the text is extended by making every sentence stand alone.

Advertising, in print or on-line, pays for the medium. And it’s a tough market these days for the advertisers, because their success depends on the contents of the medium. Lose 30-40% of your readers (due to content) and advertisers will fall off accordingly.

Cassie, I stand corrected. “Badly written” it is.

We’ll throw in our two cents (don’t we always?).

How many sentences does a paragraph need? At least one.

Here are 2 bits quoted from our training manual, with some additional commentary:

a. One paragraph = one central idea. Has someone ever said to you, “Hey, you’ve got a good point there”? Well, that’s what your paragraph does. It makes a point, one point, which is the central idea of the paragraph. You might think of it as the purpose for the paragraph. That one point of a paragraph may be supported by several other ideas, and the paragraph, itself, may be written to support a broader idea, but its purpose remains the same. It stands alone as the vehicle to express one complete idea to the reader.

What is the idea expressed by the paragraph? The length of your paragraph depends on the complexity of that idea and its scope. When you have completed discussing that idea, stop. If you haven’t completed the discussion, keep going.

b. Perhaps you had an English teacher tell you that a paragraph must have a thesis statement at the beginning. This is partially true. It must have a thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the point you are trying to communicate, but you have a couple of choices about its placement: beginning and end. You can start with the central idea and then build the internal and external supports, or you can provide the supports and lead up to your point.

Long paragraphs become manageable to the reader and to the writer when the supporting ideas are relevant to the main idea and are paced appropriately with context sentences, discussion, and an impact statement (but that’s a different article, I believe).

FYI: Henry David Thoreau used long paragraphs very effectively. See . As an exercise, identify the single main idea of each paragraph. Then find the supporting ideas by their context sentences, discussion, and impact statements. Have fun!

I used to proofread for a court reporting service (that produced, e.g., deposition transcripts).

The hard-and-fast rule there was to create a new paragraph once the testimony, as transcribed, ran over 5-7 lines. It was more about readability than expressing ideas in a paragraph block. Actually, I kind of enjoyed the challenge of interpreting testimony and defining paragraphs on my own.

And, there’s something to be said for readability — similar to the type of Web writing that Maeve pointed out.

(Oh, and I do believe it’s “a badly written piece,” without the hyphen. Yes? :-))

A paragraph should more precisely contain a central thought correlated to the preceeding paragraph (title if it is the first para).

If you wish to change the direction of your thought, or bring in a new dimension to your writing; you ought to know how to play with a paragraphs.

A very long paragraph is bad and so is a very small one., but nothing is rigid when it comes to writing.

So, experiment more and create newer styles.

As a journalism student I would argue that there are instances where the one par sentence is required. In news articles this is the standard form. Furthermore pars should not be arranged by topic in this structure, but by the most important information down to the least important.

Having said that, the telegraph article is indeed not the highest standard of writing – and as a part time Sub Editor I am left wondering who checks their page titles: “Coman jailed for murdering author.”

hi please write me a parapraph in this topic “What make success,luck or struggle?” hurry please

As long as necessary but not a word longer!

another one-sentence-a-paragarph article

how many??????????

Merriam-Webster defines a paragraph as: 1 a : a subdivision of a written composition that consists of one or more sentences, deals with one point or gives the words of one speaker, and begins on a new usually indented line b : a short composition or note that is complete in one paragraph 2 : a character (as ¶) used to indicate the beginning of a paragraph and as a reference mark

Most college professors prefer paragraphs that contain three or more sentences, but a one sentence paragraph is correct, and acceptable. I have not read the newspaper article that this post is about. But I can’t imagine a piece being comprised of eleven paragraphs, made up of one sentence each, holding any integrity.

I teach college freshman English, and a main body paragraph ranges from 7-10 sentences. A paragraph should never go over one page double-spaced typed. One of the problems students have is not developing paragraphs adequately. A good thesuarus helps students write better paragraphs.

I am freelance writer and a subscriber of DWT. In one of my assignments, the editor asked me to write environmentally friendly instead of environment friendly. Can any one please clarify what’s the difference and what is the correct usage. Thanks in advance.

I don`t understand how to write paragraph about Algonquin.

I think a paragraph should at least be 4-5 sentences long. If any shorter than you can’t really discuss what is in each paragraph.

A paragraph is 5 sentences

Thanks for all the comments- they help a lot. Most people were saying that you have to have at least eight sentences to make a paragraph!!! So this was a relief to find.

I find it funny how many of you advocating multiple-sentence paragraphs wrote paragraphs of one sentence. You can’t just make up rules, folks. Well, I guess you can, but no one is obligated to follow them. I don’t care if you “think” a paragraph should be so many sentences, and I struggle with a teacher of college English who states with authority that “a main body paragraph ranges from 7-10 sentences.” It DOES? Says you. In my experience teaching writing, paragraphs in formal essays are usually better if they have at least three sentences. But it depends on a number of factors. In fiction, paragraphs are commonly a single sentence. Flip open any novel and I bet you find a single-sentence paragraph somewhere on the page. Check the dialogue.

We can talk about what makes a good, thorough paragraph, but why must we resort to simplistic rules? It’s not helpful.

A typical paragraph should have which of these (a) At least five paragraphs (b)At least two simple sentences (c)At most four complex sentences and(d) At least one topic sentences

Brian W, I was just thinking exactly that! I especially like Austin Chadd’s 2-sentence paragraph, telling us that every paragraph should be at least 4-5 sentences long. And TFP’s, right at the top, that uses a 1-sentence paragraph to propose that every paragraph needs 2-3 sentences.

A paragraph should have as many words and sentences as it takes to express its concept or idea. No more, no less.

One of my writing mentors suggested between eight to ten sentences to a paragraph. While I have tried my best to follow this, I notice that in business writing it is not always the case. On-line searches I did a few minutes ago had one person saying that a paragraph should have at least three sentences.

I personally prefer paragraphs of 5 sentences or more in research papers and professional writing. I picked this guidance up from a middle or high school teacher, and it stuck. For me, this guidance means that I am fully thinking through and developing my concepts. Further, I like for the density of my paragraphs to appear consistent.

However, I think that 3 -5 sentences may work better for the digital medium, where the organisation of content should favour improved “readability” for less-formal audiences… and for folks reading on mobile devices.

I have noticed that my writing style changes depending on the device in hand. For instance, if I am typing an e-mail to a colleague on my computer, I tend towards a more formal style. If I am typing on my mobile, I tend towards a more informal (text-message) style.

Looking through the commends above, we all seem to be organising more for “readability”.

The rules are contextual.

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• How long is an essay? Guidelines for different types of essay

How Long is an Essay? Guidelines for Different Types of Essay

Published on January 28, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The length of an academic essay varies depending on your level and subject of study, departmental guidelines, and specific course requirements. In general, an essay is a shorter piece of writing than a research paper  or thesis .

In most cases, your assignment will include clear guidelines on the number of words or pages you are expected to write. Often this will be a range rather than an exact number (for example, 2500–3000 words, or 10–12 pages). If you’re not sure, always check with your instructor.

In this article you’ll find some general guidelines for the length of different types of essay. But keep in mind that quality is more important than quantity – focus on making a strong argument or analysis, not on hitting a specific word count.

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Table of contents

Essay length guidelines, how long is each part of an essay, using length as a guide to topic and complexity, can i go under the suggested length, can i go over the suggested length, other interesting articles.

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In an academic essay, the main body should always take up the most space. This is where you make your arguments, give your evidence, and develop your ideas.

The introduction should be proportional to the essay’s length. In an essay under 3000 words, the introduction is usually just one paragraph. In longer and more complex essays, you might need to lay out the background and introduce your argument over two or three paragraphs.

The conclusion of an essay is often a single paragraph, even in longer essays. It doesn’t have to summarize every step of your essay, but should tie together your main points in a concise, convincing way.

The suggested word count doesn’t only tell you how long your essay should be – it also helps you work out how much information and complexity you can fit into the given space. This should guide the development of your thesis statement , which identifies the main topic of your essay and sets the boundaries of your overall argument.

A short essay will need a focused, specific topic and a clear, straightforward line of argument. A longer essay should still be focused, but it might call for a broader approach to the topic or a more complex, ambitious argument.

As you make an outline of your essay , make sure you have a clear idea of how much evidence, detail and argumentation will be needed to support your thesis. If you find that you don’t have enough ideas to fill out the word count, or that you need more space to make a convincing case, then consider revising your thesis to be more general or more specific.

The length of the essay also influences how much time you will need to spend on editing and proofreading .

You should always aim to meet the minimum length given in your assignment. If you are struggling to reach the word count:

• Add more evidence and examples to each paragraph to clarify or strengthen your points.
• Make sure you have fully explained or analyzed each example, and try to develop your points in more detail.
• Address a different aspect of your topic in a new paragraph. This might involve revising your thesis statement to make a more ambitious argument.
• Don’t use filler. Adding unnecessary words or complicated sentences will make your essay weaker and your argument less clear.
• Don’t fixate on an exact number. Your marker probably won’t care about 50 or 100 words – it’s more important that your argument is convincing and adequately developed for an essay of the suggested length.

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In some cases, you are allowed to exceed the upper word limit by 10% – so for an assignment of 2500–3000 words, you could write an absolute maximum of 3300 words. However, the rules depend on your course and institution, so always check with your instructor if you’re unsure.

Only exceed the word count if it’s really necessary to complete your argument. Longer essays take longer to grade, so avoid annoying your marker with extra work! If you are struggling to edit down:

• Check that every paragraph is relevant to your argument, and cut out irrelevant or out-of-place information.
• Make sure each paragraph focuses on one point and doesn’t meander.
• Cut out filler words and make sure each sentence is clear, concise, and related to the paragraph’s point.
• Don’t cut anything that is necessary to the logic of your argument. If you remove a paragraph, make sure to revise your transitions and fit all your points together.
• Don’t sacrifice the introduction or conclusion . These paragraphs are crucial to an effective essay –make sure you leave enough space to thoroughly introduce your topic and decisively wrap up your argument.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
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On Paragraphs

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What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges

• The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
• Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

• Key words can be repeated in several sentences
• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
• To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
• When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
• When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.

How Many Sentences are in a Paragraph?

The answer to this question depends on the type of writing you do. Are you planning to write an academic paper, a novel, a blog post, or something else entirely? Each format comes with its own set of standards. So, to cut to the chase, here’s how Merriam-Webster defines a paragraph : 

“A subdivision of a written composition that consists of one or more sentences, deals with one point or gives the words of one speaker, and begins on a new usually indented line.”

So, by this definition, the length of a paragraph could be one sentence. Alternatively, you could compose a paragraph of infinite length as long as you cover only one point within it. Some authors have taken this idea to an absurd extreme, creating whole novels out of a single paragraph. For example, David Albahari’s novel Leeches consists of one long paragraph—proving that one paragraph can be as long as 300 pages. Based on the Merriam Webster definition, there’s no limit to the number of sentences in a paragraph.

Of course, by including logical paragraph breaks, you help the reader understand your arguments more clearly. Whether you’re writing short paragraphs or long ones, be sure to separate your central ideas from one another. As a general rule, essays should have an introduction paragraph and a conclusion. Within an essay, you might include any number of body paragraphs that cover different topics.

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Standard Essay Structure

For high school papers, many teachers expect to see an essay structure that follows a particular formula. The standard essay structure consists of at least five paragraphs—an introduction, a conclusion, and three supporting paragraphs.

In order to show that you’ve mastered the standard essay structure, you should include 3-5 sentences in each paragraph. Begin most of your paragraphs with a transitional idea that connects the new paragraph to the one that came before. This sentence also introduces the main idea of the paragraph. Next, include 1-3 supporting sentences that build on your idea. Lastly, write a concluding sentence to drive your idea home. The final sentence in the paragraph may also prepare the reader for a clever transition at the beginning of your next paragraph. 

For the introductory paragraph of an essay, the rules are a bit different. Since you don’t need to transition from a previous idea, you can grab the reader’s attention with the first sentence or two. By the last sentence, you should conclude your introductory paragraph with the thesis statement of your essay. The thesis serves as a topic sentence, giving your reader a roadmap for what you hope to prove over the course of your essay. Not only does this sentence introduce your main points, it also provides a preview of what you’ll be saying in the conclusion of your essay. 

Research Papers

What makes a professional research paper different from high school paper? For one thing, academic papers often include longer paragraphs, jam-packed with information. Writers must form coherent paragraphs, giving papers introductions, conclusions, and supporting arguments, all while maintaining a formal writing style and including dense technical information. You probably won’t see conversational language or silly attention-grabbers in an academic text. Instead, you’re likely to find lengthy paragraphs and more of them. 

Blog Posts and Online Articles

The typical paragraph length has been growing shorter in recent years, thanks to the ubiquity of mobile browsing. Since so many people consume content on mobile devices nowadays, authors must be conscious of how their writing will look on a small screen. For this reason, even respected news publications have shifted to a shorter paragraph structure. 

Many news articles and blog posts now include a large number of one-sentence paragraphs, even though such writing would have been considered too abrupt in the past. These ultra-short paragraphs allow for more white space and prove easier-to-read on mobile devices. When you’re writing for an online publication, keep your paragraphs short and direct. 

Creative Writing

Referring back to the definition at the top of this post, you’ll notice that a paragraph, “…gives the words of one speaker.” If you’re writing a novel or short story, this rule can be particularly helpful. With any piece of writing that contains a large amount of dialogue, you’ll be breaking for new paragraphs frequently. Even if a character only says a single word, you need to introduce a new paragraph before the next character’s line of dialogue. As you can imagine, a scene where two characters argue back and forth would require a large number of very short (sometimes even one-word) paragraphs. 

Tips to Remember

As a good rule of thumb, try experimenting with different paragraph lengths. First, master the standard paragraph format, which consists of 3-5 sentences with a clear beginning, middle, and end. Once you’ve succeeded and you feel confident writing paragraphs that transition smoothly, try writing some dialogue. See what it feels like to introduce a number of short paragraphs. Lastly, when you feel ready to mix things up, give long paragraphs some love. See how many words you can write before a new topic introduces itself. After some practice, you’ll feel comfortable writing paragraphs of differing lengths.

Pay attention to the paragraphs you read over the next few days! Notice how many sentences the writer includes in his or her paragraphs. You’ll probably see a large variance. A textbook might have ten-sentence paragraphs, whereas a news website might have one-sentence paragraphs. Ask yourself, “Which kinds of paragraphs do I most enjoy reading?” Then, try writing in that style. 

Who knows? Maybe you’ll find that you love writing 300-page paragraphs, like the author David Albahari. Just don’t be surprised if the person reading (or grading) your work doesn’t share that preference. 

Sources: 

• https://www.dailywritingtips.com/how-many-sentences-in-a-paragraph/
• https://justpublishingadvice.com/how-many-sentences-in-a-paragraph-not-very-many-today
• https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/paragraph
• https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/paragraph
• https://www.npr.org/2011/07/14/135770061/leeches-a-tale-of-the-balkans-breathlessly-told
• https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/paragraphs_and_paragraphing/paragraphing.html

The Word Counter  is a dynamic online tool used for counting words, characters, sentences, paragraphs, and pages in real time, along with spelling and grammar checking.

Kari Lisa Johnson

I’m an award-winning playwright with a penchant for wordplay. After earning a perfect score on the Writing SAT, I worked my way through Brown University by moonlighting as a Kaplan Test Prep tutor. I received a BA with honors in Literary Arts (Playwriting)—which gave me the opportunity to study under Pulitzer Prize-winner Paula Vogel. In my previous roles as new media producer with Rosetta Stone, director of marketing for global ventures with The Juilliard School, and vice president of digital strategy with Up & Coming Media, I helped develop the voice for international brands. From my home office in Maui, Hawaii, I currently work on freelance and ghostwriting projects.

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How many sentences are in a paragraph?

Published March 26, 2021. Updated June 7, 2022.

Paragraph Definition:

A paragraph is a section of writing in a longer body of work. It explains a particular topic or subject.

Overview of How Many Sentences Are in a Paragraph:

There are no hard and fast rules for the length of a paragraph. Paragraphs in an essay tend to have about three to eight sentences or 100 to 200 words. Your paragraph should open with a clear topic sentence that presents the theme or argument of that paragraph. Most academic writings have paragraphs that are about three-quarters of a page long. While writing dialogue, you need to begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes. Journalism and commercial writing often call for short paragraphs that are easy to scan.

Worried about your writing? Submit your paper for a Chegg Writing essay check , or for an Expert Check proofreading . Both can help you find and fix potential writing issues.

One Paragraph, One Idea

You generally want to focus on one idea per paragraph. The paragraph needs as many sentences as it takes to develop and support that idea.

Your paragraph should open with a clear topic sentence that presents the theme or argument of that paragraph. In persuasive writing, you can think of this topic sentence as a subclaim: a mini-argument that combines with your other mini-arguments to prove your point.

For example, an essay on why your school should adopt an official school uniform might include a paragraph that begins as follows:

School uniforms foster a sense of equality within student bodies.

The paragraph would then support this idea with several sentences that justify and develop this claim. You could bring up the socioeconomic diversity of the student population and the way that free dress visually reinforces class divisions, giving examples of the problem.

Academic Writing

At times, your teachers may provide specific instructions for an assignment. If they do, that’s great! Follow them. However, as you advance in your academic career, you will find a greater degree of flexibility in assigned work. If you’re nervous about this, don’t be afraid to ask your teachers if they have any rules or pointers on paragraph length.

Upper-level high-school and college essays tend to demand longer paragraphs. As topics increase in complexity, they require more evidence and explanation. They are often about three-quarters of a page long, which is another rough guideline you can follow. (It still isn’t a set rule.)

As you’re writing one paragraph, you have to decide when to finish it up and start a new one. Often, the answer is as simple as starting a new paragraph when you’re ready to move on to the next topic. If your paragraph is growing too long, find a natural break

You can also fix paragraphs that are significantly longer or shorter than the other ones in the paper during the revision process. You can flesh out short paragraphs or crop long ones. You may also discover two small paragraphs that you can combine into one or realize that you can move around some of your material.

Narrative Writing

If you open any novel, you’ll find that one page looks very different from the next. Paragraph size can vary dramatically in narrative writing.

When you tell a story, you should follow different conventions than you do when making an argument. For one thing, when writing dialogue, you need to start a new paragraph with each speaker.

Five minutes ago, Cindy had stopped listening to Dan and started daydreaming about dragons, unicorns, and all sorts of fantastic creatures. She wondered what kind of political structure a unicorn society would have and how she could become its prime minister.

She startled. “What?”

“I asked if you wanted any more ice cream,” Dan repeated, scowling at her.

Authors will also vary paragraph length for stylistic purposes. You may want to accelerate the tempo of an exciting scene with short paragraphs or use long ones to linger over a certain description.

Journalism and Commercial Writing

News reporters often use short, to-the-point paragraphs. They want to establish and underline important facts at the beginning of the piece. As the article goes on, they may shift into slightly longer, more expansive writing.

Online and commercial content also tends toward short paragraphs. (Just look at the way this handout is written.) This content is designed to be scanned quickly for important takeaways. Writers also rely on frequent headers and lists to make their writing easy to digest.

Before you turn in that paper, don’t forget to cite your sources in APA format , MLA format , or a style of your choice.

Key takeaways

• There is no golden rule for how many sentences a paragraph should have.
• Most essay paragraphs have three to eight sentences or 100–200 words.
• Academic writing tends to have paragraphs that are about three-quarters of a page long.
• In writing dialogue, you need to begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes.
• Journalism and commercial writing often call for short paragraphs that are easy to scan.

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How Many Paragraphs Are There In An Essay?

• How Many Paragraphs?
• Five-Paragraph Essay
• Types Of Five-Paragraph Essays
• Best Practices For Five-Paragraph Essays
• Three-Paragraph Essay
• Types Of Three-Paragraph Essays
• Best Practices For Three-Paragraph Essays

So you need to write an essay. You’ve picked out your topic, determined your thesis, and now you’re ready to put pen to paper (or fingertips to keyboard) to start writing your epic piece. Before you get rolling, there’s only one thing left to decide: how many paragraphs does this essay actually need?

Unless you’re working under a strict assignment, essays can come in all shapes and sizes. Choosing the right format can help you present your ideas in the clearest way possible and make your writing process even easier. Here are the most common formats to consider and what to know before you decide which one to choose.

How many paragraphs are in an essay?

There’s no hard and fast rule for deciding how many paragraphs an essay should have, but it’s important to know that a single paragraph is generally not considered an essay. Standard essays have a designated introduction and conclusion, along with supporting details. This means that even a short essay will still have about three paragraphs, and many have more.

Things to consider before you write an essay

Before you can decide how to divide the information, you need to consider a few things:

• What type of essay are you writing?
• How many supporting details do you need to share?
• Do you have enough information to write a three- to five-sentence paragraph for each supporting detail?
• Do you have a required word count?
• What will be the clearest format for the reader?

There are a lot of different kinds of essays you might be assigned. Generally, multi-paragraph essays are used to compare and contrast things, in persuasive writing, as a form of narrative writing, and for informative or researched essays. Most of these essays end up fitting nicely into one of two main categories:

The five-paragraph essay

Arguably the most common essay format is the standard five-paragraph essay. This essay devotes a paragraph each to the introduction, conclusion, and three different supporting details. Let’s break down what each of those sections includes.

Parts of a standard five-paragraph essay

1. Introduction

This part of the essay includes your thesis statement , introduces your reader to your topic or point of view, and lays out the main ideas of your following three body paragraphs. Generally, this paragraph is brief and intended to grab your reader’s attention.

2. Body paragraphs

A five-paragraph essay includes three body paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs should focus on one supporting detail that aligns with your thesis. They will begin with a topic sentence and share the relevant research, quotes, and anecdotes you’ve gathered.

3. Conclusion

The conclusion to a five-paragraph essay will restate your thesis, sum up your supporting details, and present the reader with one final takeaway from reading your piece.

Wondering what goes into nailing each of these categories? Here’s a sample five-paragraph essay outline and some examples to help you get started.

Which kinds of essays work best with five paragraphs?

Five-paragraph essays are best used to convey complex and detailed topics that require extra information, like:

Comparison essays

A five-paragraph essay allows you to devote one paragraph to each item you’re comparing, as well as include one paragraph on the similarities between the two things.

Argumentative essays

In the five-paragraph format, there is ample space to explore multiple sides of an argument and include plenty of supporting facts and research.

Informative essays

Complex topics are broken down in simple and intuitive ways when the information is spread across multiple paragraphs.

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Best practices for writing a five-paragraph essay

If you’re considering a five-paragraph format for your essay, remember:

• These essays must have a clear thesis and conclusion.
• Each body paragraph should contain a strong and complete supporting detail.
• Transition words are necessary to help the flow of the essay.
• These essays usually involve research.
• This is among the most organized ways to present complex topics.

The three-paragraph essay

Three-paragraph essays are shorter and more simplified than the standard five-paragraph essay. Typically, these essays include a conclusion, introduction, and only one body paragraph. This single body paragraph might focus on one supporting detail or it may include a comprehensive summary of a lot of supporting information.

Parts of a standard three-paragraph essay

The introduction to a three-paragraph essay typically includes a hook or attention-grabbing first sentence , followed by a summary of your supporting details and then your thesis. The thesis statement helps lead into the rest of your essay.

Refresh your memory on the different types of thesis statements to get your essay started!

2. Body paragraph

This is the one and only body paragraph in a three-paragraph essay, so it needs to be clear, concise, and as detailed as possible within the space constraints. The body paragraph should include a topic sentence, as well as any details or facts that underscore your thesis. It may focus on one element of your supporting argument or sum up several in brief, clear sentences that relate to the topic sentence.

3. Conclusion 

Much like in a five-paragraph essay, your conclusion is the place to restate your thesis, summarize the points you made in the body paragraph, and leave your reader with a final takeaway or call to action.

Which kinds of essays work best with three paragraphs?

For less complex topics, the three-paragraph essay provides enough space to thoughtfully explain a topic and provide additional information.

Narrative essays

Personal essays that don’t necessarily need multiple paragraphs of supporting information work well in this format.

For emerging writers, one body paragraph provides ample space to compare and contrast two items or ideas. Single sentences can be devoted to each comparison or similarity.

Best practices for writing a three-paragraph essay

If you’re considering a three-paragraph format for your essay, remember:

• Even short essays still need a clear thesis.
• Organize your body paragraph so your ideas are presented clearly.
• The introduction and conclusion should each be a separate paragraph.
• This format provides excellent practice for new writers.
• One body paragraph still leaves room for strong supporting information.

Avoid confusing sentences and write with clarity with these tips.

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, how many paragraphs should a college essay be.

I'm working on my college essay and I'm not sure how long it should be. Is there an ideal number of paragraphs for a college essay, or does it just depend on the content and flow of the essay? Any guidance would be much appreciated!

Hey there! It's great that you're working on your college essay. The ideal length for a college essay will depend on the specific essay prompt and the word limit given by the colleges you're applying to. Generally, most college essays fall in the range of 250-650 words.

As for the number of paragraphs, it's more about effectively organizing your thoughts and ideas rather than sticking to a specific number. For instance, you might have a compelling 5-paragraph essay or an engaging 8-paragraph essay. The key is to maintain a strong narrative and flow throughout the essay.

My child faced a similar dilemma when they were applying, and what worked for them was to focus on the content, storytelling, and coherence of the essay rather than the specific number of paragraphs. Remember, it's your unique story and how you present it that matters most. Good luck!

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College Essays

Figuring out your college essay can be one of the most difficult parts of applying to college. Even once you've read the prompt and picked a topic, you might wonder: if you write too much or too little, will you blow your chance of admission? How long should a college essay be?

Whether you're a terse writer or a loquacious one, we can advise you on college essay length. In this guide, we'll cover what the standard college essay length is, how much word limits matter, and what to do if you aren't sure how long a specific essay should be.

How Long Is a College Essay? First, Check the Word Limit

You might be used to turning in your writing assignments on a page-limit basis (for example, a 10-page paper). While some colleges provide page limits for their college essays, most use a word limit instead. This makes sure there's a standard length for all the essays that a college receives, regardless of formatting or font.

In the simplest terms, your college essay should be pretty close to, but not exceeding, the word limit in length. Think within 50 words as the lower bound, with the word limit as the upper bound. So for a 500-word limit essay, try to get somewhere between 450-500 words. If they give you a range, stay within that range.

College essay prompts usually provide the word limit right in the prompt or in the instructions.

For example, the University of Illinois says :

"You'll answer two to three prompts as part of your application. The questions you'll answer will depend on whether you're applying to a major or to our undeclared program , and if you've selected a second choice . Each response should be approximately 150 words."

As exemplified by the University of Illinois, the shortest word limits for college essays are usually around 150 words (less than half a single-spaced page). Rarely will you see a word limit higher than around 650 words (over one single-spaced page). College essays are usually pretty short: between 150 and 650 words. Admissions officers have to read a lot of them, after all!

Weigh your words carefully, because they are limited!

How Flexible Is the Word Limit?

But how flexible is the word limit? What if your poignant anecdote is just 10 words too long—or 100 too short?

Can I Go Over the Word Limit?

If you are attaching a document and you need one or two extra words, you can probably get away with exceeding the word limit by such a small amount. Some colleges will actually tell you that exceeding the word limit by 1-2 words is fine. However, I advise against exceeding the word limit unless it's explicitly allowed for a few reasons:

First, you might not be able to. If you have to copy-paste it into a text box, your essay might get cut off and you'll have to trim it down anyway.

If you exceed the word limit in a noticeable way, the admissions counselor may just stop reading your essay past that point. This is not good for you.

Following directions is actually a very important part of the college application process. You need to follow directions to get your letters of recommendation, upload your essays, send supplemental materials, get your test scores sent, and so on and so forth. So it's just a good general rule to follow whatever instructions you've been given by the institution. Better safe than sorry!

Can I Go Under the Word Limit?

If you can truly get your point across well beneath the word limit, it's probably fine. Brevity is not necessarily a bad thing in writing just so long as you are clear, cogent, and communicate what you want to.

However, most college essays have pretty tight word limits anyways. So if you're writing 300 words for an essay with a 500-word limit, ask yourself: is there anything more you could say to elaborate on or support your points? Consult with a parent, friend, or teacher on where you could elaborate with more detail or expand your points.

Also, if the college gives you a word range, you absolutely need to at least hit the bottom end of the range. So if you get a range from the institution, like 400-500 words, you need to write at least 400 words. If you write less, it will come across like you have nothing to say, which is not an impression you want to give.

What If There Is No Word Limit?

Some colleges don't give you a word limit for one or more of your essay prompts. This can be a little stressful, but the prompts generally fall into a few categories:

Writing Sample

Some colleges don't provide a hard-and-fast word limit because they want a writing sample from one of your classes. In this case, a word limit would be very limiting to you in terms of which assignments you could select from.

For an example of this kind of prompt, check out essay Option B at Amherst :

"Submit a graded paper from your junior or senior year that best represents your writing skills and analytical abilities. We are particularly interested in your ability to construct a tightly reasoned, persuasive argument that calls upon literary, sociological or historical evidence. You should NOT submit a laboratory report, journal entry, creative writing sample or in-class essay."

While there is usually no word limit per se, colleges sometimes provide a general page guideline for writing samples. In the FAQ for Option B , Amherst clarifies, "There is no hard-and-fast rule for official page limit. Typically, we anticipate a paper of 4-5 pages will provide adequate length to demonstrate your analytical abilities. Somewhat longer papers can also be submitted, but in most cases should not exceed 8-10 pages."

So even though there's no word limit, they'd like somewhere in the 4-10 pages range. High school students are not usually writing papers that are longer than 10 pages anyways, so that isn't very limiting.

Implicit Length Guideline

Sometimes, while there's no word (or even page) limit, there's still an implicit length guideline. What do I mean by this?

See, for example, this Western Washington University prompt :

“Describe one or more activities you have been involved in that have been particularly meaningful. What does your involvement say about the communities, identities or causes that are important to you?”

While there’s no page or word limit listed here, further down on page the ‘essay tips’ section explains that “ most essay responses are about 500 words, ” though “this is only a recommendation, not a firm limit.” This gives you an idea of what’s reasonable. A little longer or shorter than 500 words would be appropriate here. That’s what I mean by an “implicit” word limit—there is a reasonable length you could go to within the boundaries of the prompt.

But what's the proper coffee-to-paragraph ratio?

Treasure Hunt

There is also the classic "treasure hunt" prompt. No, it's not a prompt about a treasure hunt. It's a prompt where there are no length guidelines given, but if you hunt around on the rest of the website you can find length guidelines.

For example, the University of Chicago provides seven "Extended Essay" prompts . You must write an essay in response to one prompt of your choosing, but nowhere on the page is there any guidance about word count or page limit.

However, many colleges provide additional details about their expectations for application materials, including essays, on FAQ pages, which is true of the University of Chicago. On the school’s admissions Frequently Asked Questions page , they provide the following length guidelines for the supplemental essays: 

“We suggest that you note any word limits for Coalition or Common Application essays; however, there are no strict word limits on the UChicago Supplement essays. For the extended essay (where you choose one of several prompts), we suggest that you aim for around 650 words. While we won't, as a rule, stop reading after 650 words, we're only human and cannot promise that an overly wordy essay will hold our attention indefinitely. For the “Why UChicago?” essay, we suggest about 250-500 words. The ideas in your writing matter more than the exact number of words you use!”

So there you go! You want to be (loosely) in the realm of 650 for the extended essay, and 250-500 words for the “Why UChicago?” essay.

Help! There Really Is No Guidance on Length

If you really can't find any length guidelines anywhere on the admissions website and you're at a loss, I advise calling the admissions office. They may not be able to give you an exact number (in fact, they probably won't), but they will probably at least be able to tell you how long most of the essays they see are. (And keep you from writing a panicked, 20-page dissertation about your relationship with your dog).

In general, 500 words or so is pretty safe for a college essay. It's a fairly standard word limit length, in fact. (And if you're wondering, that's about a page and a half double-spaced.) 500 words is long enough to develop a basic idea while still getting a point across quickly—important when admissions counselors have thousands of essays to read!

"See? It says 500 words right there in tiny font!"

The Final Word: How Long Should a College Essay Be?

The best college essay length is usually pretty straightforward: you want to be right under or at the provided word limit. If you go substantially past the word limit, you risk having your essay cut off by an online application form or having the admissions officer just not finish it. And if you're too far under the word limit, you may not be elaborating enough.

What if there is no word limit? Then how long should a college essay be? In general, around 500 words is a pretty safe approximate word amount for a college essay—it's one of the most common word limits, after all!

Here's guidance for special cases and hunting down word limits:

If it's a writing sample of your graded academic work, the length either doesn't matter or there should be some loose page guidelines.

There also may be implicit length guidelines. For example, if a prompt says to write three paragraphs, you'll know that writing six sentences is definitely too short, and two single-spaced pages is definitely too long.

You might not be able to find length guidelines in the prompt, but you could still hunt them up elsewhere on the website. Try checking FAQs or googling your chosen school name with "admissions essay word limit."

If there really is no word limit, you can call the school to try to get some guidance.

With this advice, you can be sure you've got the right college essay length on lockdown!

Hey, writing about yourself can even be fun!

What's Next?

Need to ask a teacher or friend for help with your essay? See our do's and dont's to getting college essay advice .

If you're lacking in essay inspiration, see our guide to brainstorming college essay ideas . And here's our guide to starting out your essay perfectly!

Looking for college essay examples? See 11 places to find college essay examples and 145 essay examples with analysis !

Ellen has extensive education mentorship experience and is deeply committed to helping students succeed in all areas of life. She received a BA from Harvard in Folklore and Mythology and is currently pursuing graduate studies at Columbia University.

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How Many Paragraphs in an Essay?

As a rule, you’ll write your essay in three main parts. First, you’ll introduce your topic to your reader. Next, you will have body text in which you discuss the topic in more detail, and finally, you’ll have a conclusion that tells your reader what you were able to see after looking into the facts or thinking through the topic.

In its simplest form, an essay can consist of three paragraphs with one paragraph being devoted to each section. Proponents of the five paragraph essay say that the body text should consist of three paragraphs, but in reality, it’s fine to write more or fewer paragraphs in this section.

Guessing How Many Paragraphs Before You Begin

This is a rule of thumb, which means it won’t always work quite that way, but it’s handy all the same. In academic work, your paragraphs are likely to be a bit longer than most of the ones you see in this blog post. On average, there are usually 100 to 200 words in a paragraph . So if you’d like a guesstimate, you can assume that a 1,000-word essay will have between five and ten paragraphs.

What Points Do You Have to Cover?

Another, less limiting and more accurate way to work out how many paragraphs you need to cover your topic is to look at the main points you have to cover in the body text. A paragraph contains all the ideas that support or explain a single concept.

When you are planning your essay, you will think of or research the main elements that are needed in the body text. It would be safe to assume you need at least one paragraph for each of these. Of course, if there is a lot of information to cover in order to explore each area, you may need more.

For example, if you are writing an essay on childhood development and exposure to technology, you will want to look into the physical, psychological and cognitive developmental effects of tech on kids. When you research this topic, you will find that there are contrasting points of view and researchers have identified several physical, developmental, and psychological effects of technology use in children.

Assuming five psychological effects have been identified, you can assume you’ll need to write five paragraphs if you are going to write a relatively in-depth essay. But if both those who say technology is bad for kids and those who say it can be good have done a great deal of work on the sub-topic, you might want to make that ten paragraphs so that you can cover both sides of the argument and look into how earlier authors reached their conclusions.

Of course, if you have been set a relatively short word limit , you may not be able to go in-depth at all, in which case a paragraph for each of the main sub-topics (psychology, physical development, and cognitive development) will likely be adequate.

Essay Content Is More Important Than the Number of Paragraphs

Ultimately, your essay will be evaluated on the information you present, not on the number of paragraphs in the essay. Early in your academic life, teachers and lecturers may give you both a structure for your essay and a guideline on how long each part of the essay should be. I have seen essay instructions say how many marks are allocated for each section, and my trick is to take the total word count and allocate a percentage of words to each section based on the percentage of marks you can get for it. After all, if the teacher is allocating 80 marks for content in total and you can see 50% of the mark relates to a certain part of the essay, then 50% of your essay’s words should be devoted to that section.

Sometimes, you’ll just be given a topic and told to air your opinion. This gives you more freedom, but it’s a tad more difficult. The research will show you how many angles you should look at, and it’ll help you to find information that both supports and contradicts your point of view. To make a strong argument, you need to look at both supporting and contradictory information.

To avoid getting tangled up in one aspect of the discussion, you’ll have to decide how long it should be. If it’s the most important aspect informing your conclusion, you can spend a little more time (and words) on that particular point. It could run into several paragraphs rather than just one or two.

Always Remember the Purpose of Paragraphs

Paragraphs structure information into sub-topics, and they make your work easier to read and understand thanks to the structure they provide. With careful advance planning, you’ll be able to work out more or less how many paragraphs you need to complete your essay.

How many paragraphs is…

For those looking for a general rule-of-thumb, below are some estimates on the number of paragraphs there would be in an essay of different lengths based on an average length of 150 words per paragraph. Of course, the number of paragraphs for your essay will depend on many different factors. You can use the following information for a general reference, but don’t take these numbers as literal. .

Basic Essay Word to Paragraphs Conversions

• A 100 word essay is 3 paragraph. (minimum for an essay)
• A 200 word essay is 3 paragraphs. (minimum for an essay)
• A 250 word essay is 3 paragraphs. (minimum for an essay)
• A 300 word essay is 3 paragraphs. (minimum for an essay)
• A 400 word essay is 3 paragraphs. (minimum for an essay)
• A 500 word essay is 3 to 4 paragraphs.
• A 600 word essay is 4 paragraphs.
• A 700 word essay is 4 to 5 paragraphs.
• A 750 word essay is 5 paragraphs.
• A 800 word essay is 5 to 6 paragraphs.
• A 900 word essay is 6 paragraphs.
• A 1,000 word essay is 6 to 7 paragraphs.
• A 1,250 word essay is 8 to 9 paragraphs.
• A 1,500 word essay is 10 paragraphs.
• A 1,750 word essay is 11 to 12 paragraphs.
• A 2,000 word essay is 13 to 14 paragraphs.
• A 2,500 word essay is 16 to 17 paragraphs.
• A 3,000 word essay is 20 paragraphs.
• A 4,000 word essay is 26 to 27 paragraphs.
• A 5,000 word essay is 33 to 34 paragraphs.
• A 6,000 word essay is 40 paragraphs.
• A 7,000 word essay is 46 to 37 paragraphs.
• A 7,500 word essay is 50 paragraphs.
• A 8,000 word essay is 53 to 54 paragraphs.
• A 9,000 word essay is 60 paragraphs.
• A 10,000 word essay is 66 to 67 paragraphs.

I don’t understand, How can a 100, 200, 300 and 400 word essay all have 3 paragraphs if a paragraph is 100 to 200 words long? A 100 word essay should be 1 paragraph or 1/2 a paragraph, not 3 paragraphs. Can someone explain this too me?

A sentence is an idea. A paragraph is a group of ideas that relate to one another. That’s the most important point. The second most important one is remembering that your text consists of introduction, body, conclusion with at LEAST one paragraph for each. While teachers like 100 to 200 word paragraphs, you can’t always apply that. Call it a guideline rather than a rule!

the general rule is that 3 paragraphs are minimum for an essay. So, no matter how short your essay is, you should still need 3 paragraphs. If you are really for some reason writing a 100 word essay, then you should have one short sentence for both your introduction and conclusion.

I was always taught an essay has five paragraphs by my teachers. Did they lie to me? If an essay only needs three paragraphs, why would my teachers tell me that they should have five?

I think the five paragraphs for an essay is more of a rule-of-thumb number that is easy to teach students when they are first learning to write. Your teacher was just trying to make sure you understood how to write, not give you a rule you had to always obey.

I think five paragraphs is a good number to shoot for when writing, but it isn’t a hard-fast rule you need to hit every time. Each essay is different and require more or less paragraphs depending on the information you need to provide in the writing.

yes and no.. i would say a good on as 4 paragraph. Intro, 2 body P, and a conclusion.

My teachers always taught by eight paragraph essays, but five-paragraph essays normally lie precedent to the more advanced or larger essays.

I was taught essays should be 7 paragraphs long, not 5. My teacher said 3 central paragraphs never gives enough detail to the topic, so we should write 5. It makes sense to me and that is how I’ve always done it.

What you’re taught is often a general rule to shoot for, not a rule set in concrete. That’s the case with this. Your teacher felt that 7 paragraphs was a good number for the essays you wrote for her, but it doesn’t always have to be that way. it’s a general rule, not a concrete one.

How many sentences if we don’t know how many sentences we need to write?

The average paragraph contains 5-6 sentences. If you’re feeling a little extra, paragraphs can be 7-10 sentences.

It also depends on whether or not you are bringing outside information into the paragraph as well. Using quotes makes a paragraph longer than not doing so.

I think the length of a paper depends mainly on the instructions given by the instructor. Secondly, I would decide a paper length on the basis of the grading rubric.

I already knew an essay has three paragraphs

Inilividual project: follow all steps and develop a paragraph of your choice and write all expository essay with not less than 500 words of the povoloped paragraph?

On average for a five-paragraph essay, I write around 1,000-1300 words. For an eight paragraph essay, I write around 2,000-2,600 words on the document. Keep in mind your quotes too, you should have one quote per paragraph (expected) or two (recommended). It really is up to the person though, I have a buddy who writes considerably less than I do, but is able to get his point across. It is really up to the person.

Student A: Sir, do we have to write a long essay?

How will I determine my word count for 1300 to 1500 maximum words in the academic writing?

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How Many Words Should Your Essay Have for Grading High?

How many words are in an essay?

This question bothers all students, whether in middle school or college. Two reasons:

They don’t have word count guidelines to know how long their essay should be to grade high. Or, they struggle with the word limit within a paper and wonder if they can go under the suggested length.

The essay length varies, depending on many factors: subject, purpose, and academic level. Essays are usually shorter than dissertations or research papers. The thesis is the longest one.

In this article, I’ll answer two popular questions: How long is an essay? How many paragraphs are in an essay?

Also, let’s learn how long each essay part is and if it’s okay to go beyond or under the suggested length.

How Long is an Essay, Depending on the Type?

The above rules are average. They may vary at different educational institutions. It stands to reason that elementary-level students write short essays. And their papers get longer in their middle 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th grades, etc.

Often, there’s no exact word number or page count for academic papers. Guidelines usually prescribe a supposed range: 500-850 words, 5-7 pages, and so on. When in doubt, you can ask your instructor.

How Many Paragraphs is an Essay? 6 Main Lengths

You won’t find any rule prescribing a set number of paragraphs for an essay. Five-paragraph essays are a standard, but it doesn’t mean ALL papers should follow it.

Each essay consists of three parts:

• Introduction . Often, it’s one paragraph introducing your topic and thesis to readers. When writing complex papers like dissertations, your intro section can be 2-3 paragraphs.
• Body. It’s a core section discussing the topic in detail. The number of paragraphs here depends on your paper’s type and complexity. This part is 1-4 paragraphs unless you write extended research papers.
• Conclusion. Like intros, this section is often one paragraph summarizing the essay.

Below, I’ll cover the six main lengths to show how to balance a word count in essays.

One-paragraph essays

Three-paragraph papers

Five-paragraph essays

Extended papers

Dissertation

Frequently Asked Questions:

Is essay length important.

Yes, it is. Prescribing a length, instructors understand if you can organize thoughts and arguments. An essay of 1,000 words requires more research and effort than a 350-word paper, agree? The specified length also helps you understand how complex your work should be to grade high. Longer essays teach you to write cohesive texts, choose arguments, and think critically.

Don’t write essays for the sake of count. Quality matters, so please focus on arguments, evidence, and analysis. Avoid placing too many transitions, generic words, and lengthy expressions. Make your every word and sentence count.

How many words are in an essay sample?

350 words at least.

It depends on the essay type you write. Thus, a high school essay sample will be 350 words at least. If you need a college application essay, consider personal papers of 250-650 words. Check essay samples of 800-1,000 words if you need a standard college paper. More complex works like graduate school essays or dissertations will be 3,000+ words.

How long is each part of an essay?

Stick to the 80/20 rule when calculating the length of each essay part. An essay body is the core section of academic papers: Make it 80% of the text. The remaining 20% goes to an introduction and a conclusion.

Say you write a 1,000-word essay. It means you will have 800 words in the body; 100 words go to the introduction and 100 words — for a concluding paragraph. You can go 10% below or above the prescribed limit. (Unless your instructor sets specific limitations.)

How many sentences are in an essay?

21-34 sentences for a standard 5-paragraph essay.

It depends on your essay type and the required word count. I’ll take a standard 5-paragraph college paper as an example:

You have one introductory paragraph, which is 3-5 sentences average. Other 3-5 sentences go to your conclusion. The body consists of three sections, 5-8 sentences each (1). So, here we have it: 21-34 sentences in an essay.

How many words are in an essay introduction?

Take 10-15% of the total length required. Thus, if you need to write a 1,000-word essay, your introduction will be 100-150 words.

For advanced research papers, where intros are longer than one paragraph, stick to 100-150 words per paragraph average. Such texts are usually above 3,000 words, so you’ll follow the 80/20 rule anyway.

Can I go under the suggested length?

It’s not advisable. Please do your best to meet the minimum word count given in the assignment. If the guidelines say “350-600 words,” write at least 350 words in an essay. Sometimes, a 10% deviation is acceptable, but don’t take this rule for granted. Most instructors won’t appreciate your 315-word paper if they ask you to write 350 words at least.

How to make your essay longer?

• Add more examples and evidence to the body paragraphs. 
• Explain and analyze every argument in detail. 
• Mention counterarguments if applicable.

Can I make my essay longer?

Yes, you can exceed the word limit by 10% if allowed by your course instructor. For example, if you get an assignment of 500-700 words, it’s okay to submit a 770-word essay for a review.

Important! Always ask your instructor if the 10% rule is available in their course. And exceed the word count only if you have critical information to add.

Academic writing is all about rules and instructions. Essay length isn’t an exception:

Every college paper has a prescribed, approximate word count to follow. When asking, “How long is an essay?” remember the answer will depend on several factors:

• Academic level. (Middle and high school students write short essays. Undergraduates and graduates craft longer and more complex papers.)
• Type and purpose. (Research-based essays are longer than reflective stories you write for college admission officers.)
• Instructions you get from a teacher. (Check them: The supposed essay length is often there.)

How many words are in an essay? You can answer this question now.

References:

• https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/paragraphs_and_paragraphing/paragraphing.html  
• Essay samples
• Essay writing
• Writing tips

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How to Structure an Essay

Essay writing is a fundamental skill, a basic task, that is expected of those who choose to pursue their undergraduate and master’s degrees. It constitutes a key requirement for students to complete a given course credit. However, many students and early career researchers find themselves struggling with the challenge of organizing their thoughts into a coherent, engaging structure. This article is especially for those who see essay writing as a daunting task and face problems in presenting their work in an impactful way.  

Table of Contents

• Writing an essay: basic elements and some key principles  
• Essay structure template 
• Chronological structure 
• Problem-methods-solutions structure 
• Compare and contrast structures 
• Frequently asked questions on essay structure 

Read on as we delve into the basic elements of essay writing, outline key principles for organizing information, and cover some foundational features of writing essays.  

Writing an essay: basic elements and some key principles

Essays are written in a flowing and continuous pattern but with a structure of its own. An introduction, body and conclusion are integral to it. The key is to balance the amount and kind of information to be presented in each part. Various disciplines may have their own conventions or guidelines on the information to be provided in the introduction.  

A clear articulation of the context and background of the study is important, as is the definition of key terms and an outline of specific models or theories used. Readers also need to know the significance of the study and its implications for further research. Most importantly, the thesis or the main proposition should be clearly presented.  

The body of the essay is therefore organized into paragraphs that hold the main ideas and arguments and is presented and analyzed in a logical manner. Ideally, each paragraph of the body focuses on one main point or a distinct topic and must be supported by evidence and analysis. The concluding paragraph should bring back to the reader the key arguments, its significance and food for thought. It is best not to re-state all the points of the essay or introduce a new concept here. 

In other words, certain general guidelines help structure the information in the essay. The information must flow logically with the context or the background information presented in the introductory part of the essay. The arguments are built organically where each paragraph in the body of the essay deals with a different point, yet closely linked to the para preceding and following it. Importantly, when writing essays, early career researchers must be careful in ensuring that each piece of information relates to the main thesis and is a building block to the arguments. 

Essay structure template

• Introduction 
• Provide the context and share significance of the study 
• Clearly articulate the thesis statement 
• Body  
• Paragraph 1 consisting of the first main point, followed by supporting evidence and an analysis of the findings. Transitional words and phrases can be used to move to the next main point. 
• There can be as many paragraphs with the above-mentioned elements as there are points and arguments to support your thesis. 
• Conclusion  
• Bring in key ideas and discuss their significance and relevance 
• Call for action 
• References 

Essay structures

The structure of an essay can be determined by the kind of essay that is required.  

Chronological structure

Also known as the cause-and-effect approach, this is a straightforward way to structure an essay. In such essays, events are discussed sequentially, as they occurred from the earliest to the latest. A chronological structure is useful for discussing a series of events or processes such as historical analyses or narratives of events. The introduction should have the topic sentence. The body of the essay should follow a chorological progression with each para discussing a major aspect of that event with supporting evidence. It ends with a summarizing of the results of the events.  

Problem-methods-solutions structure

Where the essay focuses on a specific problem, the problem-methods-solutions structure can be used to organize the essay. This structure is ideal for essays that address complex issues. It starts with presenting the problem, the context, and thesis statement as introduction to the essay. The major part of the discussion which forms the body of the essay focuses on stating the problem and its significance, the author’s approach or methods adopted to address the problem along with its relevance, and accordingly proposing solution(s) to the identified problem. The concluding part offers a recap of the research problem, methods, and proposed solutions, emphasizing their significance and potential impact. 

Compare and contrast structures

This structure of essay writing is ideally used when two or more key subjects require a comparison of ideas, theories, or phenomena. The three crucial elements, introduction, body, and conclusion, remain the same. The introduction presents the context and the thesis statement. The body of the essay seeks to focus on and highlight differences between the subjects, supported by evidence and analysis. The conclusion is used to summarize the key points of comparison and contrast, offering insights into the significance of the analysis.  

Depending on how the subjects will be discussed, the body of the essay can be organized according to the block method or the alternating method. In the block method, one para discusses one subject and the next para the other subject. In the alternative method, both subjects are discussed in one para based on a particular topic or issue followed by the next para on another issue and so on.  

Frequently asked questions on essay structure

An essay structure serves as a framework for presenting ideas coherently and logically. It comprises three crucial elements: an introduction that communicates the context, topic, and thesis statement; the body focusing on the main points and arguments supported with appropriate evidence followed by its analysis; and a conclusion that ties together the main points and its importance .  

An essay structure well-defined essay structure enhances clarity, coherence, and readability, and is crucial for organizing ideas and arguments to effectively communicate key aspects of a chosen topic. It allows readers to better understand arguments presented and demonstrates the author’s ability to organize and present information systematically. 

Yes, while expert recommend following an essay structure, early career researchers may choose how best to adapt standard essay structures to communicate and share their research in an impactful and engaging way. However, do keep in mind that deviating too far from established structures can hinder comprehension and weaken the overall effectiveness of the essay,  By understanding the basic elements of essay writing and employing appropriate structures such as chronological, problem-methods-solutions, or compare and contrast, researchers can effectively organize their ideas and communicate their findings with clarity and precision. 

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

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QuillBot AI Review: Everything You Need to Know (2024)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is evolving quickly, and new AI tools and platforms are constantly appearing. In an era where clear, concise writing is highly coveted, AI writing tools are becoming increasingly crucial. One such impressive technology is QuillBot AI . Starting as a simple paraphrasing tool, QuillBot has become a robust AI writing assistant that symbolizes a significant stride in AI content optimization. This review thoroughly explores QuillBot AI, focusing on its key features, pricing structure, and strengths and weaknesses.

• 1 What is QuillBot AI?
• 2 How Quillbot AI Works
• 3.1 1. The Paraphraser
• 3.2 2. The Grammar Checker
• 3.3 3. Summarizer
• 3.4 4. Citation Generator
• 3.5 5. QuillBot Plagiarism Checker
• 3.6 6. The Translator
• 3.7 7. Quillbot Extensions
• 4 QuillBot AI Pricing and Plans Review
• 5.1 Pros of Using QuillBot AI
• 5.2 Cons of Using QuillBot AI
• 6 How QuillBot Compares to Other Similar Tools
• 7 Should You Use QuillBot? (The Verdict)
• 8 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

What is QuillBot AI?

QuillBot AI is a leading AI writing companion and paraphrasing software designed to help anyone elevate the quality of their writing. At its core, it functions as one of the best AI rewriter tools to edit, rephrase, and enhance content like a professional.

It presents various features, including grammar checking, plagiarism detection, and content summarization. As such, QuillBot AI delivers substantial benefits for academics, essayists, and writers. Creating high-quality professional content can be time-consuming, and Quillbot streamlines the process using AI to improve your writing quickly, offering real-time suggestions and one-click solutions. Plus, it is an all-in-one solution that replaces the need to invest in multiple tools, making it cost-effective.

The versatility of the software caters to a diverse audience. While students can utilize its various writing tools, professional writers can efficiently collaborate and summarize lengthy text. If you want to improve your writing process, whether writing an email, an essay, or a long-form blog article, you will find Quillbot AI to be a valuable addition to your writing toolkit. It can revolutionize your writing process to produce surprising results.

How Quillbot AI Works

You can access QuillBot by visiting their online platform on their website . You don’t need to create an account; you can use a free version of QuillBot with limitations. Once you are there, you will see the available tools in the left sidebar. Click any of the tools to launch the user interface for each.

Each tool will have a consistent layout with different features that you can use to start refining your content. For example, when using the Grammar Checker, you can copy and paste your content into the user interface. QuillBot will readily analyze your text, pinpointing broken sentences and grammatical errors you can fix with a single click.

And the other other tools share the same easy-to-use interface and functionality. For instance, the Summarizer makes condensing long-form content or essays easy. Paste your text to generate a summary of key points. Additionally, it features a plagiarism checker, which helps identify and fix plagiarized content to ensure the originality of your content.

QuillBot’s AI functions by learning from datasets. Comprehending grammar, spelling, punctuation, tone, sentence structure, and readability, these datasets serve as knowledge accumulations. So, when users regularly disregard a specific suggestion, the AI adjusts to present more contextually relevant alternatives.

Breaking Down QuillBot AI Features

QuillBot AI offers several features for easy and effective content organization. We’ll delve into these features now.

1. The Paraphraser

QuillBot AI includes a paraphrasing tool. It empowers writers to rephrase text while preserving its central message. It’s an ideal tool for students and aspiring authors, requiring no account signup. Options for ‘Fewer Changes’ or ‘More Changes’ are available, with premium users getting maximum adjustments.

Paraphrase Modes

QuillBot AI assists users in paraphrasing and refining text. It employs seven unique modes, each tailored to specific objectives, to enhance the quality and readability of written content. Whether striving for clarity, professionalism, creativity, or conciseness, QuillBot AI offers a mode to suit your needs.

Here is an example sentence I added to the paraphraser text input area:

“It was a tough match. After three hours of immense struggle, I was able to get the job done.”

1. Standard Mode

Standard Mode serves as the default setting. It balances modifying the text for clarity and fluency while preserving the original meaning. The result is a refined text that maintains its natural flow and readability.

After clicking the Rephrase button, QuillBot swiftly provided a paraphrased output in Standard Mode. It merits noting that the level of paraphrasing hinges on the level of synonyms you set in the Synonyms bar at the right of the Modes bar above the content. The higher the level, the more liberty you give QuillBot to change the words of the original content.

The ensuing result was generated with a low Synonyms bar:

“It was a challenging game. I had to struggle for three hours before I was able to finish the task.”

The following result was generated with a maximum level of Synonyms:

“It was a challenging game. I had to battle for three hours before I was able to finish the task.”

With just one sentence, you can see that only one word changed, but with larger blocks of content, you will see that QuillBot will make more word changes with a higher level of synonyms.

2. Fluency Mode

In Fluency Mode, QuillBot AI ensures that the text is grammatically sound and genuinely readable. It makes minimal changes, primarily correcting grammar and providing the text sounds natural. Synonym substitutions are kept to a minimum, preserving the original meaning.

We paraphrased the same content in Fluency mode . It generated the following output:

“It was a difficult match. I completed the task after three hours of intense effort.”

3. Formal Mode

Formal Mode is the ideal choice for those working in academic or professional contexts. It transforms the text to sound more polished and professional, making it suitable for business reports, academic papers, and formal documents.

We paraphrased the same content in Formal Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a difficult match. After three hours of arduous effort, I was able to complete the task. ”

4. Academic Mode

Then, we paraphrased the same content in Academic Mode . Unlike the other modes, it doesn’t have any Synonyms bar. Instead, it seemed to give the content more details and wording suitable for academia. It generated the following output:

“ The contest was challenging. Following a prolonged period of three hours, characterized by significant exertion and effort, I successfully completed the task at hand. ”

5. Simple Mode

Simple Mode simplifies the text, making it easier to understand and more accessible to a broader audience. It is an excellent choice when clarity and straightforward communication are essential.

We paraphrased the same content in Simple Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a hard game. I was able to finish the job after three hours of hard work. ”

6. Creative Mode

Creative Mode is the way to go if you’re looking to unleash your creativity and generate entirely unique content. This Mode substantially changes the text, potentially altering the original meaning. It’s a valuable tool for content creators seeking a fresh spin on their writing.

We paraphrased the same content in Creative Mode . It generated the following output:

“ That was one intense contest. It took me three hours of relentless effort, but I finally completed the task at hand. ”

7. Expand Mode

Expand Mode is perfect for those aiming to increase the length of their text. It adds words and details while retaining the original meaning, making it valuable for projects requiring a higher word count.

We paraphrased the same content in Expand Mode . It generated the following output:

“ It was a difficult match to watch. I had to put in a lot of effort for three hours before I was finally successful in completing the task. ”

Then, we produced an output with a high level of Synonyms as follows:

“The contest was a challenging one. I was able to finish the work, despite the fact that it took me three hours of intense effort.”

8. Shorten Mode

Shorten Mode comes to the rescue when you need to reduce the overall word count while maintaining the essence of your text. It trims unnecessary words and phrases, delivering a concise version of your content.

Lastly, we paraphrased the same content in Shorten Mode.  It generated the following output:

“ The match was hard. I finished after three hours of intense struggle. ”

Paraphraser Statistics

The ‘Statistics’ feature offers insights into text complexity and readability. It aids writers in adjusting their style to the desired tone and audience. Premium subscribers unlock tonality analysis, which assesses reader perceptions to enhance persuasive writing.

I have used the same content as the previous one in the “Fluency” mode. It has generated the following statistics.

The Statistics of the generated content are based on the following aspects:

• Average words in a sentence
• Average Syllables in a word
• Readability
• Sentence Count
• Character Count
• Percent Change
• Longest Unchanged Words

Paraphraser Settings

The “Settings” feature in the Paraphraser tool provides options to control how you want your content to be paraphrased and how you want the results to be displayed on the interface. In terms of paraphrasing the content, you choose the following:

• Paraphrase quotations
• Use contractions
• Prefer active voice

Under the Interface options, you can select the following:

• Use yellow highlight
• Show tooltips
• Show legend
• Show changed words
• Show structural changes
• Show the longest unchanged words

Overall, these settings do seem to give users more control and help them identify changes to their content much easier.

Paraphraser Compare Modes

Compare Modes is a valuable feature exclusively available to premium users, offering a comprehensive view of how a sentence is transformed across different modes within the platform. This feature enables users to evaluate and choose the most suitable rendition for their content by comparing various paraphrased versions. To access Compare Modes, locate and click on the dedicated icon in the settings bar on the right side of the page.

Once activated, Compare Modes opens a sidebar on the right-hand side of the screen, displaying the original sentence before paraphrasing and the results generated by all available modes simultaneously. The system defaults to the effect produced by the Mode in which the sentence was paraphrased. You can easily click the “Select” button next to the desired text to select your preferred sentence, seamlessly replacing the paraphrased sentence in your results. Additionally, you can further modify individual sentence results by clicking on circular arrow icons or making copies of them with a simple click on the copy icon. This powerful feature empowers users to fine-tune their content according to their specific needs and preferences, streamlining the content creation process.

Paraphraser History

By accessing the history feature, you can go through all the previous content you have modified. In my case, I checked my history, and it showed the last text paraphrased. It also shares the date and time when the content was modified.

The “Tone” feature in QuillBot AI paraphraser allows users to control and tailor the emotional and stylistic tone of their paraphrased content. With this feature, users can choose from various preset tones, such as casual , unfriendly , wordy , complex , and unclear . It ensures that the paraphrased text aligns perfectly with the desired style and intent. Whether you need your content to sound professional and academic or friendly and conversational, the Tone feature empowers you to achieve the right mood for your writing.

Paraphrasing for Different Languages

Quillbot AI supports 23 different languages for paraphrasing purposes. Not only does this make the tool more accessible, but it also comes in handy for making tweaks to the content generator by Quillbot’s translator tool.

2. The Grammar Checker

Quillbot AI offers a user-friendly and free Grammar-checking feature that doesn’t require signing up. When you paste your text into Quillbot’s editor, it identifies and highlights grammatical errors, including punctuation and spelling. With a convenient Fix All Errors option, you can swiftly correct multiple issues simultaneously. This Grammar Checker enhances writing precision and consistency. It quickly pinpoints potential errors in red, simplifying the editing process. This real-time underlining and instant correction feature saves writers time and improves productivity.

For instance, here is an example sentence I added to the grammar checker text input area:

“ Manchester United signed Sofyan Amrabat on a season-long loan move from Fiorentina. The Morocco midfielder has been desperate to join Erik ten Hag’s team since getting linked to the Red Devils in June. However, Manchester United’s plans differed on Deadline Day as they wanted to sign Fulham’s Joao Palhinha instead. ”

After copy-pasting the text into the Grammar Check, it will detect all the potential errors within the content. By putting your cursor on the underlined words, it will show you the errors individually.

Once you remove all the errors, it will provide you with the correct grammatical content. It will generate the following content.

“ Manchester United signed Sofyan Amrabat on a season-long loan deal from Fiorentina. The Morocco midfielder has been desperate to join Erik ten Hag’s team since getting linked to the Red Devils in June. However, Manchester United’s plans were different on Deadline Day, as they wanted to sign Fulham’s Joao Palhinha instead. ”

Furthermore, it seamlessly integrates with Quillbot’s Paraphrase tool, offering a comprehensive writing experience without needing an account. Its grammar-checking feature is valuable for writers seeking error-free, professional content.

3. Summarizer

Quillbot AI provides a Summarizer tool that condenses lengthy texts or articles into concise summaries, making it invaluable for students, researchers, and professionals.

Users can choose between Short and Long summarization options to control the level of detail. The Short summarization offers a brief overview, ideal for quickly grasping the central ideas or skimming through multiple articles. In contrast, the Long outline provides a more comprehensive summary, suitable for in-depth analysis or a deeper understanding of the text.

Quillbot AI’s Summarizer utilizes natural language processing to extract critical information while preserving the original context. It offers two summarization types: Key Sentences and Paragraph modes.

For instance, I added a block of content to the summarizer text input area. Using the Key Sentences feature, the tool has created five articulate points that summarize the content.

Changing the Summary Length can increase or decrease the depth of those points.

Selecting the Paragraph mode will provide a summary of the content in paragraph form.

Like the Key Sentences mode, the length of the summary can be changed by adjusting the Summary Length .

This feature streamlines research, study, and content review processes, enhancing productivity and comprehension for users across various fields.

4. Citation Generator

QuillBot’s Citation Generator is a valuable tool that simplifies the often complex process of citing sources in academic and professional writing. It allows users to choose from various citation styles and formats, ensuring compliance with specific guidelines and educational requirements. This feature dramatically reduces the potential headache associated with accurate source attribution.

It supports common APA, MLA, and Chicago styles, covering reference types like books and websites. With an intuitive interface, it swiftly generates in-text and complete citations, labeled and exportable to Microsoft Word. By automating this process, QuillBot’s Citation Generator saves users time and ensures proper crediting of sources, benefiting those involved in research and academic writing projects.

5. QuillBot Plagiarism Checker

Quillbot AI provides a plagiarism checker, which is a premium feature. It eliminates the need for external tools to verify content originality. Premium users can paste their content into the checker, receiving results within minutes, indicating if the content is unique or plagiarized. Premium members can scan up to 20 pages per month with this tool, making it suitable for various types of content, including research papers.

Its plagiarism checker stands out by accommodating research paper plagiarism checks, scanning up to 20 pages (approximately 5000 words) monthly. Consequently, it proves to be a valuable resource for essayists and academic writers, ensuring the integrity of their work.

Plagiarism detection is based on identical words , minor changes , paraphrased words , and omitted words .

6. The Translator

QuillBot AI provides its users with a Translation feature, allowing them to translate text into over 30 languages, making research and writing accessible across language barriers. It offers ad-free translation of up to 5,000 characters at once, includes integrated writing tools, and provides quick and accurate translations. The best part is that it’s free, enhancing convenience and accessibility for writers and researchers.

As a test, I added a block of content in the German language. The translator automatically detected it as German.

Then all you need to do is select the language you want it translated to on the right and click the Translate button.

7. Quillbot Extensions

The tool offers three convenient extensions and applications to enhance your writing experience across different platforms.

QuillBot Chrome Extension

The QuillBot Google Chrome extension is a valuable tool for online writing. It seamlessly integrates with your web browsing, allowing you to check grammar, paraphrase, and summarize online documents (Google Docs), emails, and social media posts. Moreover, it ensures your writing is polished and error-free across the internet.

QuillBot for Word

If you’re working offline in Microsoft Word, this extension empowers you to access the full capabilities of QuillBot. It assists you in crafting high-quality documents, reports, and essays, ensuring your writing is clear and concise, even when you’re not connected to the internet.

QuillBot for macOS

For Mac users, QuillBot offers a browser-free desktop application. This standalone tool simplifies the writing process, providing a smooth and efficient writing experience on your macOS device. Moreover, it’s perfect for those who prefer a dedicated desktop application for their writing needs.

QuillBot AI Pricing and Plans Review

QuillBot AI provides three different pricing options to suit different needs and budgets.

The Basic (Free) Plan allows you to experiment with the tool before attaining its subscription. With it, you can paraphrase 125 words. It provides Standard and Fluency modes with limited use of the Synonym Slider. Moreover, you can summarize up to 1,200 words through the Summarizer mode.

The premium version of QuillBot AI allows unlimited words for the Parphraser, more writing style modes, and up to 6,000 words in the Summarizer. It also provides access to Plagiarism Checker, Paraphraser History, and Compare Modes.

You have the choice of three different payment plans for premium. The Annual Plan costs $8.33 monthly, with $99.95 billed every 12 months. The Semi-Annual Plan costs $13.33 monthly, with $79.95 billed every six months. The Monthly Plan costs $19.95 per month. By subscribing to either of these premium subscriptions, you can paraphrase unlimited words in Paraphraser. The Summarizer will allow you to summarize up to 6,000 words, and you can fully use the Synonym Slider.

Pros and Cons of QuillBot AI

As we delve deeper into our comprehensive review of QuillBot AI, it becomes imperative to assess the advantages and disadvantages of this sophisticated language processing tool. While this tool boasts various features and capabilities, no technology is without its strengths and weaknesses.

Pros of Using QuillBot AI

• A free plan is available, and there’s no need to sign up.
• There is a refund policy in place.
• Extensions for Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, and macOS are readily available.
• You can access a free Language Translator.
• The option to upgrade makes it very affordable to access additional features.
• An app for content summarization is available for free.
• Additionally, there is a free Grammar Checker app provided.

Cons of Using QuillBot AI

• Only two writing modes are available for free.
• OpenAI GPT AI writing is unavailable.
• There is no AI content detection feature.
• Manual intervention is usually required.
• Both free and paid plans have character limitations in place

How QuillBot Compares to Other Similar Tools

QuillBot AI offers valuable features for text enhancement, including effective paraphrasing and translation. Its free plan is a budget-friendly option, making it accessible to a broad audience. When compared to Grammarly , QuillBot outshines Grammarly’s ability to rephrase content. However, Quillbot’s grammar-checking capabilities fall short of Grammarly’s robust editing features.

Tools like Copy.ai and Rytr AI may offer more comprehensive solutions for advanced AI content generation than QuillBot. These alternatives excel in generating content from scratch, making them suitable for various writing needs.

Regarding accessibility, QuillBot stands out with extensions for Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, and macOS. This enhances its usability and integration into daily writing tasks. It also eliminates the language barrier, whereas Grammarly, Copy.ai, and Rytr AI primarily focus on English.

Ultimately, choosing these tools depends on your specific requirements and budget. QuillBot is a reliable option for text enhancement, while other tools may be better suited for advanced AI content generation and comprehensive grammar checking.

Should You Use QuillBot? (The Verdict)

QuillBot AI offers undeniable value as an AI writing assistant for various teams and individuals. Need an alternative version of your original article? QuillBot can generate a new and improved version swiftly. It is handy for optimizing blog posts and other content, outperforming many free and paid AI rewriter tools . Its ability to paraphrase content significantly reduces plagiarism risks for academic assignments and research papers. Although some detectors, like Originality.ai , may still recognize QuillBot paraphrased content in some cases. No AI content generator is 100% human. That said, thanks to its versatility and proficiency, QuillBot is a worthwhile asset for writers, students, and content creators.

Looking for more? Check out our list of top AI writing tools . And for all aspiring writers, check out these AI story generators . You can also explore more of the best overall AI tools you can use to boost your productivity in various  ways .

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Here are some common questions that may help you decide if QuillBot is right for you.

What is QuillBot?

Can quillbot be detected, how much does quillbot premium cost, how can quillbot be used as a paraphrasing tool, how can quillbot be used as a summarizer.

Get Started With QuillBot AI!

Explore plans, pricing and features. Click here to get started. 👇

Explore plans, pricing and features here. 👇

By fahad hamid.

Fahad enjoys writing about a diverse range of topics, from business and marketing to design. Alongside this, he balances his love for tennis, showing skill both on the page and on the court.

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Where did you get that annual price? I would love to get it. When I visited the site the price was twice as much ($99.95) if I paid the full year in advance.

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Read the Court’s Ruling on Jan. 6 Obstruction

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(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2023 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued. The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337. 1 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Syllabus FISCHER v. UNITED STATES CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT No. 23-5572. Argued April 16, 2024-Decided June 28, 2024 The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liability on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding." 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). Petitioner Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) for his conduct on Jan- uary 6, 2021. On that day, Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered out- side the Capitol, and some eventually forced their way into the build- ing, breaking windows and assaulting police. App. 189. This breach of the Capitol delayed the certification of the vote. The criminal com- plaint alleges that Fischer was among those who invaded the building. Fischer was charged with various crimes for his actions on January 6, including obstructing an official proceeding in violation of §1512(c)(2). He moved to dismiss that charge, arguing that the provision criminal- izes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and remanded for further proceed- ings. Held: To prove a violation of §1512(c)(2), the Government must establish that the defendant impaired the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or other things used in an official proceeding, or attempted to do so. (a) To determine the scope of the residual “otherwise” clause in §1512(c)(2), the Court must decide how it is linked to its “surrounding

21 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus words," Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (plurality opinion), and "give effect, if possible, to every clause and word of [the] statute."" Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539). The Court considers both "the spe- cific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341. (1) Section 1512(c)(1) describes particular types of criminal con- duct in specific terms. The purpose of (c)(2) is, as the parties agree, to cover some set of “matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Re- public of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860. Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in §1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest. But (c)(2) could have a narrower scope if Congress designed it to fill inadvertent gaps in the focused language of (c)(1). One way to discern the reach of an “otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general princi- ples are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294. And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, a general or collective term at the end of a list of specific items is typically controlled and defined by reference to those specific items that precede it. Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458. These approaches to statu- tory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. Under these principles, the "otherwise" provision of §1512(c)(2) is limited by the list of specific criminal violations that precede it in (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers all forms of obstructive con- duct beyond $1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment, Congress would have had little reason to provide any specific examples at all. And the sweep of subsection (c)(2) would swallow (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c) (1) recognizes the dis- tinct purpose of each provision. Subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct-four types of actions that, by their nature, im- pair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or objects for use in an official proceeding. Reading the "otherwise" clause as having been given more precise content by (c)(1), subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence rather than altering incriminating evidence. Subsection

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) Syllabus 3 (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the avail- ability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]" enumerated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. (2) It makes sense to read (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. The Enron accounting scandal exposed a loop- hole in §1512. At that time, the statute imposed liability on anyone who, among other things, corruptly persuaded another person to shred documents. But it curiously failed to impose liability on a person who destroyed records himself. The parties agree that Congress enacted §1512(c) as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act to plug this loop- hole. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress created a catch-all provision that reaches beyond the scenar- ios that prompted the legislation. (b) The broader context of §1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings, much of which would be unnecessary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive conduct. Given the Court's obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, the Court's narrower interpretation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in §1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction with penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. The Govern- ment's reading would lump together under (c)(2) disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate sentences. (c) The Government's theory would also criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyist to decades in prison. Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to "resist reading" particular sub-provisions "to create a coverall statute." Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion). Nothing in the text or statutory his- tory gives the Court a reason to depart from that practice today. And the Government's interpretation would give prosecutors broad discre- tion to seek a 20-year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish with far shorter sentences. By reading (c)(2) in light of (c)(1), the Court affords proper respect to “the prerogatives of Congress” in carrying out the quintessentially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the penalties for them. United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600. 64 F. 4th 329, vacated and remanded.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus ROBERTS, C. J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which THOMAS, ALITO, GORSUCH, KAVANAUGH, and JACKSON, JJ., joined. JACKSON, J., filed a concurring opinion. BARRETT, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which SOTOMAYOR and KAGAN, JJ., joined.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 Opinion of the Court NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. Č. 20543, [email protected], of any typographical or other formal errors. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS delivered the opinion of the Court. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liabil- ity on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). We consider whether this “otherwise” clause should be read in light of the limited reach of the specific provision that precedes it. I This case concerns the prosecution of petitioner Joseph Fischer for his conduct on January 6, 2021. That day, both Houses of Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered outside the Capitol. As set forth in the criminal complaint against Fischer, some of the crowd eventually

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court “forced entry” into the building, “breaking windows," and "assaulting members of the U. S. Capitol Police." App. 189. This breach of the Capitol caused Members of Congress to evacuate the Chambers and delayed the certification pro- cess. The complaint alleges that Fischer was one of those who invaded the building. According to the complaint, about an hour after the Houses recessed, Fischer trespassed into the Capitol and was involved in a physical confrontation with law enforce- ment. Fischer claimed in Facebook posts that he “pushed police back about 25 feet," and that he “was inside the [Cap- itol] talking to police." Id., at 193–194. Body camera foot- age shows Fischer near a scrum between the crowd and po- lice who were trying to eject trespassers from the building. Id., at 195-196. A grand jury returned a seven-count superseding indict- ment against Fischer. Six of those counts allege that Fischer forcibly assaulted a federal officer, entered and re- mained in a restricted building, and engaged in disorderly and disruptive conduct in the Capitol, among other crimes. See id., at 181-185; 18 U.S. C. §§111(a), 231(a)(3), 1752(a)(1), (a)(2); 40 U. S. C. §§5104(e)(2)(D), (G). Those six counts carry maximum penalties ranging from six months' to eight years' imprisonment. In Count Three, the only count now before us, the Gov- ernment charged Fischer with violating 18 U.S. C. §1512(c)(2). Fischer moved to dismiss that count, arguing that the provision criminalizes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. It concluded that the scope of Section 1512(c)(2) is limited by subsection (c)(1) and therefore requires the defendant to "have taken some action with respect to a document, record, or other object.' 2022 WL 782413, *4 (DC, Mar. 15, 2022) (quoting United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022)). 999

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 Opinion of the Court A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and re- manded for further proceedings. Judge Pan, writing for the court, held that the word “otherwise” in Section 1512(c)(2) means that the provision unambiguously covers "all forms of corrupt obstruction of an official proceeding, other than the conduct that is already covered by §1512(c)(1)." 64 F. 4th 329, 336 (2023). Judge Walker concurred in part and concurred in the judgment because he read the mens rea element of the statute—“corruptly”—as requiring a defend- ant to act with “an intent to procure an unlawful benefit." Id., at 361 (internal quotation marks omitted). Judge Katsas dissented. In his view, the language in sub- section (c)(1) narrows the language that comes after the word "otherwise" in subsection (c)(2). He therefore con- strued Section 1512(c)(2) as applying “only to acts that," like the ones specified in (c)(1), “affect the integrity or avail- ability of evidence” at an official proceeding. Id., at 363. We granted certiorari. 601 U. S. _ (2023). II The controversy before us is about the scope of the resid- ual "otherwise" clause in Section 1512(c)(2). On the one hand, Fischer contends that (c)(2) “applies only to acts that affect the integrity or availability of evidence." Brief for Pe- titioner 8. On the other, the Government argues that (c)(2) “capture[s] all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment.” Brief for United States 13. Resolving such a dispute requires us to determine how the residual clause is linked to its “surrounding words." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (2015) (plurality opinion); see, e.g., United States v. Hansen, 599 U. S. 762, 774–775 (2023). In doing so, "we must ‘give effect, if possi- ble, to every clause and word of [the] statute.”” Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (2000) (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539 (1955)). To that end, we

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court consider both "the specific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robin- son v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341 (1997); see, e.g., Pul- sifer v. United States, 601 U. S. 124, 133 (2024) (choosing between “two grammatically permissible ways” to read a sentencing statute “by reviewing text in context"). A 1 Section 1512 provides: "(c) Whoever corruptly— "(1) alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding; or "(2) otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so, "shall be fined ... or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both." Subsection (c)(1) describes particular types of criminal conduct in specific terms. To ensure the statute would not be read as excluding substantially similar activity not men- tioned, (c)(2) says it is also illegal to engage in some broader range of unenumerated conduct. The purpose of the "otherwise” clause is therefore, as the parties agree, to cover some set of "matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009); see Brief for Petitioner 12; Brief for United States 12-13. The problem is defining what exactly Con- gress left for (c)(2). Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in Section 1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest in one go. The point of (c)(1) would then be to illustrate just one type of conduct among many (c)(2) prohibits; it would be subsidiary to the overarching prohibition in (c)(2). But

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 Opinion of the Court (c)(2) could well have a narrower scope if Congress designed it with the focused language of (c)(1) in mind. Subsection (c)(1) would then prohibit particular types of obstructive conduct and (c)(2) would fill any inadvertent gaps that might exist. One way to discern the reach of an "otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general principles are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associ- ated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294 (2008). That “avoid[s] ascribing to one word a meaning so broad that it is inconsistent with” “the company it keeps." Gus- tafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 575 (1995). And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, “a ‘general or collec- tive term' at the end of a list of specific items" is typically "controlled and defined by reference to the specific classes ... that precede it." Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458 (2022) (quoting first Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008); then Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105, 115 (2001)); accord, Bis- sonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC, 601 U. S. 246, 252 (2024). These approaches to statutory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. To see why, consider a straightforward example. A zoo might post a sign that reads, “do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them.” If a vis- itor eats lunch in front of a hungry gorilla, or talks to a friend near its enclosure, has he obeyed the regulation? Surely yes. Although the smell of human food or the sound of voices might well disturb gorillas, the specific examples of impermissible conduct all involve direct interaction with and harassment of the zoo animals. Merely eating or talk- ing is so unlike the examples that the zoo provided that it

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court would be implausible to assume those activities were pro- hibited, even if literally covered by the language. The idea is simply that a general phrase can be given a more focused meaning by the terms linked to it. That prin- ciple ensures- es-regardless of how complicated a sentence might appear—that none of its specific parts are made re- dundant by a clause literally broad enough to include them. See Yates, 574 U. S., at 545–546 (plurality opinion). For instance, a football league might adopt a rule that players must not "grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.” If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind. See 64 F. 4th, at 365-366 (Katsas, J., dissenting). Similarly improbable consequences can result from un- tethering an "otherwise” provision from the rest of a crimi- nal statute. Take Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137 (2008) (abrogated on other grounds by Johnson v. United States, 576 U.S. 591 (2015)). The question there was whether driving under the influence qualified as a "violent felony" under the Armed Career Criminal Act (ACCA). A “violent felony” was defined in relevant part by ACCA as a crime, punishable by more than a year's imprisonment, that "is burglary, arson, or extortion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves conduct that presents a serious poten- tial risk of physical injury to another."" 553 U. S., at 139– 140 (quoting 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii) (2000 ed.)). We recognized that, depending on the context, "the word 'oth- erwise' can"-though not “must”—“refer to a crime that is similar to the listed examples in some respects but different in others." 553 U. S., at 144 (emphasis deleted). And we held that while driving under the influence certainly may

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 Opinion of the Court present a serious risk of physical injury, such an offense was so dissimilar from the previously enumerated exam- ples that it could not be classified as a “violent felony" under the statute. Id., at 142–146. The list of crimes that pre- ceded the residual clause-burglary, arson, extortion, and the use of explosives-focused on "purposeful, violent, and aggressive conduct." Id., at 144–145 (internal quotation marks omitted). And if that focus did not extend to the re- sidual clause, ACCA's 15-year mandatory minimum sen- tence would apply to a host of offenses “not typically com- mitted by those whom one normally labels ‘armed career criminals" and that were "far removed... from the delib- erate kind of behavior associated with violent criminal use of firearms.”¹ Id., at 146–147. The "otherwise" provision of Section 1512(c)(2) is simi- larly limited by the preceding list of criminal violations. The offenses enumerated in subsection (c)(1) cover someone who "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object . . . with the intent to impair the ob- ject's integrity or availability for use in an official proceed- ing." Complex as subsection (c)(1) may look, it simply consists of many specific examples of prohibited actions un- dertaken with the intent to impair an object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding: altering a rec- ord, altering a document, concealing a record, concealing a document, and so on. That list is followed immediately by a residual clause in (c)(2). Guided by the basic logic that Congress would not go to the trouble of spelling out the list in (c)(1) if a neighboring term swallowed it up, the most sen- 1 The dissent explains that we subsequently held the ACCA residual clause void for vagueness. See post, at 8 (opinion of BARRETT, J.) (citing Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015)). That our answer to the narrow question presented in Begay did not resolve a broader consti- tutional defect in the statute says little about whether the reasoning of Begay is relevant here.

00 8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court sible inference is that the scope of (c)(2) is defined by refer- ence to (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers "all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on ev- idence impairment,” Brief for United States 13, there would have been scant reason for Congress to provide any specific examples at all. The sweep of subsection (c)(2) would con- sume (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Indeed, subsection (c) (1) would be an elaborate pumpfake: a list of four types of highly particularized con- duct, performed with respect to a record, document, or ob- ject and “with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding,” followed in the very next subsection-in the same sentence, no less—by a superseding prohibition on all means of obstructing, influ- encing, or impeding any official proceeding. Construing Section 1512 in such a way gets the “familiar” analysis we apply to these types of statutes “exactly backwards,” elimi- nating specific terms because of broad language that follows them, rather than limiting the broad language in light of narrower terms that precede it. Bissonnette, 601 U. S., at 252, 255. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c)(1) recog- nizes the distinct purpose of each provision. See A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law 208 (2012) ("evident purpose" helps define scope of catchall provision). As we have ex- plained, subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct—four types of actions that, by their nature, impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or ob- jects for use in an official proceeding. When the phrase "otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" is read as having been given more precise con- tent by that narrower list of conduct, subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 Opinion of the Court is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence―ra- ther than altering incriminating evidence. See, e.g., United States v. Reich, 479 F. 3d 179, 185–187 (CA2 2007) (So- tomayor, J.) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) for trans- mitting a forged court order). Subsection (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding be- yond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]” enu- merated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. See, e.g., United States v. Mintmire, 507 F. 3d 1273, 1290 (CA11 2007) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) based in part on the defendant's attempt to orches- trate a witness's grand jury testimony). The dissent supposes that because the word "otherwise" in (c)(2) can mean “in a different manner,” “by other means," or "in other respects," (c)(1) and (c) (2) are “distinct and independent prohibitions." Post, at 2, 5 (internal quo- tation marks omitted). But the word "otherwise" is not by itself "sufficient to demonstrate that the examples do not limit the scope of the clause." Begay, 553 U. S., at 144 (em- phasis deleted). “Otherwise” can link a set of examples to a general phrase and give it more definite meaning—even in statutory sentences that rival the complexity of Section 1512(c). See Finnegan v. Leu, 456 U. S. 431, 437–438 (1982); Breininger v. Sheet Metal Workers, 493 U. S. 67, 91– 92 (1989). 2 It makes sense to read subsection (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. Prior to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, Section 1512 imposed criminal liability on anyone who “knowingly uses intimida- tion or physical force, threatens, or corruptly persuades an- other person" to, among other things, shred documents. 18 U. S. C. §1512(b)(2)(B) (2000 ed.). But the Enron account- ing scandal revealed a loophole: Although Enron's "outside

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents," the statute curiously failed to “impos[e] liability on a person who de- stroys records himself." Yates, 574 U. S., at 535-536 (plu- rality opinion). As a result, prosecutors had to prove that higher-ups at Enron and Arthur Andersen persuaded some- one else to shred documents rather than the more obvious theory that someone who shreds documents is liable for do- ing so. See S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 7 (2002). The parties agree that to plug this loophole, Congress en- acted Section 1512(c)—the provision at issue here—as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress actually hid away in the second part of the third subsection of Sec- tion 1512 a catchall provision that reaches far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legislation in the first place. The better conclusion is that subsection (c) (2) was designed by Congress to capture other forms of evidence and other means of impairing its integrity or availability beyond those Congress specified in (c)(1). B 1 The broader context of Section 1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings. See 18 U. S. C. ch. 73. Much of that particularized legislation would be unneces- sary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive con- duct, as the Government contends. Section 1503(a), for ex- ample, makes it a crime to "corruptly, or by threats or force, or by any threatening . . . communication, endeavor[] to in- fluence, intimidate, or impede” any juror or court officer. Section 1504 covers attempting to influence jurors through written communications. Section 1505 covers anyone who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 Opinion of the Court corruptly obstructs congressional inquiries or investiga- tions. Section 1507 covers picketing or parading in certain locations "with the intent of interfering with, obstructing, or impeding the administration of justice.” Section 1509 co- vers the obstruction of the exercise of rights or performance of duties under court orders. Section 1510(a) covers ob- struction of federal criminal investigations through bribery. Section 1511(a) covers certain obstruction of state or local law enforcement with the intent to facilitate illegal gam- bling. And Sections 1516, 1517, and 1518 address obstruc- tive acts in specific contexts, including federal audits, ex- aminations of financial institutions, and inquiries into healthcare-related offenses. If the Government were correct, then the "otherwise ob- structs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" pro- vision—which is buried in subsection (c)(2) of Section 1512 would largely obviate the need for that broad array of other obstruction statutes. In light of our obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, our narrower interpre- tation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. 2 An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in Section 1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction, with varying degrees of culpability and penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. Section 1512(a)(2)(B)(iv), for exam- ple, authorizes up to 30 years' imprisonment for someone who uses or attempts to use physical force against another person with the intent of causing him to be absent from an official proceeding. See §1512(a)(3)(B)(ii) (specifying pun- ishment). Section 1512(d)(1), by contrast, authorizes only

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court three years' imprisonment for someone who harasses an- other person and thereby dissuades him from attending an official proceeding. Reading (c)(2) to cover all forms of obstructive conduct would override Congress's careful delineation of which pen- alties were appropriate for which offenses. Most instances of those prohibited acts would instead fall under subsection (c)(2)'s sweeping reach, which provides a 20-year maximum term of imprisonment. Such a reading of subsection (c)(2) would lump together disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate penalties in (a)(2) and (d)(1).2 3 The Government's responses to this surplusage problem are not convincing. It first argues that because other provisions in Section 1512 would allow conviction in some circumstances on a "lesser mens rea than ‘corruptly,"" they have “a broader compass" than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34. For in- stance, the Government contends that subsection (b) can be violated by "knowing use of intimidation or threats, or mis- leading conduct." Id., at 35. But the Government concedes that "Congress did not define corruptly' for purposes of Sec- tion 1512." Id., at 44. And while the Government suggests that “corruptly” is “normally associated with wrongful, im- moral, depraved, or evil' conduct,” ibid. (quoting Arthur An- dersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 705 (2005)), it 292 2 The dissent maintains we have "glosse[d] over the absence of any prescribed minimum.' Post, at 14 (quoting Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting)). Congress might have thought (c)(2) prohibited conduct of varying severity. But it does not follow that it designed (c)(2) to reach forms of conduct already covered in Chapter 73 with far lower maximum sentences. It would be improper to substitute for those fine- grained statutory distinctions the charging discretion of prosecutors and the sentencing discretion of district courts.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 Opinion of the Court never persuasively explains how “knowingly us[ing] intim- idation" or "threat[s]” against someone is not "wrongful." §1512(b). The same is true for most other subparts of Sec- tion 1512 that the Government identifies as having a lesser mens rea than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34; see, e.g., §1512(a)(1)(A) (criminalizing anyone who “kills or attempts to kill another person, with intent to" prevent attendance in an official proceeding); §1512(a)(2)(B)(iv) (criminalizing anyone who "uses physical force . . . against any person" in- tending to cause them to be absent from an official proceed- ing). None of those other provisions has a mens rea the Gov- ernment may more readily establish than the "corruptly" mens rea of subsection (c)(2). The Government also contends that its interpretation creates no surplusage because Section 1512's other “provi- sions sweep more broadly than an official proceeding.” Tr. of Oral Arg. 64; Brief for United States 34. To be sure, sub- sections (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2) criminalize various means of preventing someone from giving a judge or law enforcement officer information relating to the commission or possible commission of a federal offense or a violation of conditions of supervised release. And subsections (d)(3) and (4) make it a crime to harass someone and thereby dissuade them from arresting or prosecuting a person alleged to have committed a federal offense. None of these crimes requires an “official proceeding.” But not much if any conduct cov- ered by those provisions would escape the Government's ex- pansive interpretation of subsection (c)(2). For a person to have violated (c)(2), “an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted.” §1512(f)(1). And be- cause interference with an arrest or with communications to authorities about federal offenses could very well ob- struct the initiation of future official proceedings, the Gov- ernment's reading of (c)(2) would still often consume viola- tions of (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2), (3), and (4).

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court The dissent tries to solve this surplusage problem by ar- guing that conduct only violates (c)(2) if it has a “relation- ship in time, causation, or logic”” with an official proceed- ing. Post, at 11 (quoting United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 599 (1995)). Assuming there is such a requirement, it would simply mean that the defendant's actions “must have the natural and probable effect” of interfering with the pro- ceeding. Id., at 599 (internal quotation marks omitted). Such a bar on prosecutions based on “speculative” theories of obstruction, id., at 601, would hardly cabin the reach of (c)(2). The dissent points out that our reading creates some sur- plusage, too. See post, at 12–13. In a wide-ranging scheme like Chapter 73, it is true that some provisions will inevita- bly cover some of the same conduct. But “surplusage is nonetheless disfavored,” and our “construction that creates substantially less of it is better than a construction that cre- ates substantially more.” 64 F. 4th, at 374 (Katsas, J., dis- senting). III On the Government's theory, Section 1512(c) consists of a granular subsection (c)(1) focused on obstructive acts that impair evidence and an overarching subsection (c)(2) that reaches all other obstruction. Even setting surplusage aside, that novel interpretation would criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyists alike to decades in prison. As the Solicitor General acknowledged at oral argument, under the Government's interpretation, a peaceful protester could conceivably be charged under §1512(c)(2) and face a 20-year sentence. Tr. of Oral Arg. 51-52. And the Government would likewise have no apparent obstacle to prosecuting under (c)(2) any lobbying activity that “influences” an official proceeding and is undertaken “corruptly." Those peculiar results “un-

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 Opinion of the Court derscore[] the implausibility of the Government's interpre- tation." Van Buren v. United States, 593 U. S. 374, 394 (2021). Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to “re- sist reading” particular sub-provisions “to create a coverall" statute, as the Government would have us do here. Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion); see also Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 6-11 (2018); Arthur Andersen, 544 U. S., at 703-704. And there is no reason to depart from that practice today. Nothing in the text or statutory history suggests that subsection (c)(2) is designed to impose up to 20 years' imprisonment on essentially all defendants who commit obstruction of justice in any way and who might be subject to lesser penalties under more specific ob- struction statutes. See, e.g., §§1503(b)(3), 1505. If Con- gress had wanted to authorize such penalties for any con- duct that delays or influences a proceeding in any way, it would have said so. Instead, Section 1512 mentions "rec- ord," "document,” or other “object” 26 times. See 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(B), (a)(2)(B)(i), (ii), (iii), 1512(b)(2)(A), (B), (C), 1512(c)(1), 1512(f). Rather than transforming this evidence-focused statute into a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of justice, we cabin our reading of subsection (c)(2) in light of the context of subsection (c)(1). Doing so affords proper respect to "the prerogatives of Congress" in carrying out the quintessen- tially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the pen- alties for them. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600. We have long recognized that “the power of punishment is vested in the legislative, not in the judicial department,” United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 76, 95 (1820), and we have as a result “traditionally exercised restraint in assessing the reach of a federal criminal statute,”” Marinello, 584 U. S., at 11 (quoting Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600). The Government's reading of Section 1512 would intrude on that deliberate arrangement of constitutional authority over federal

16 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court crimes, giving prosecutors broad discretion to seek a 20- year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish only with far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror under §1503. For all these reasons, subsection (c)(2)'s “surrounding words" suggest that we should not give this “otherwise” pro- vision the broadest possible meaning. Yates, 574 U. S., at 536 (plurality opinion). Although the Government's all-en- compassing interpretation may be literally permissible, it defies the most plausible understanding of why (c)(1) and (c)(2) are conjoined, and it renders an unnerving amount of statutory text mere surplusage. Given that subsection (c)(2) was enacted to address the Enron disaster, not some further flung set of dangers, it is unlikely that Congress re- sponded with such an unfocused and “grossly incommensu- rate patch." 64 F. 4th, at 376 (Katsas, J., dissenting). We therefore decline to adopt the Government's interpretation, which is inconsistent with "the context from which the stat- ute arose." Bond v. United States, 572 U. S. 844, 860 (2014). * * * To prove a violation of Section 1512(c)(2), the Govern- ment must establish that the defendant impaired the avail- ability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of rec- ords, documents, objects, or as we earlier explained, other things used in the proceeding, or attempted to do so. See supra, at 9. The judgment of the D. C. Circuit is therefore vacated, and the case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. On remand, the D. C. Circuit may assess the sufficiency of Count Three of Fischer's in- dictment in light of our interpretation of Section 1512(c)(2). It is so ordered.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 JACKSON, J., concurring SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE JACKSON, concurring. On January 6, 2021, an angry mob stormed the United States Capitol seeking to prevent Congress from fulfilling its constitutional duty to certify the electoral votes in the 2020 Presidential election. See ante, at 1-2. The peaceful transfer of power is a fundamental democratic norm, and those who attempted to disrupt it in this way inflicted a deep wound on this Nation. But today's case is not about the immorality of those acts. Instead, the question before this Court is far narrower: What is the scope of the partic- ular crime Congress has outlined in 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2)? In the United States of America, “men are not subjected to criminal punishment because their conduct offends our patriotic emotions or thwarts a general purpose sought to be effected by specific commands which they have not diso- beyed. Nor are they to be held guilty of offenses which the statutes have omitted, though by inadvertence, to define and condemn." Viereck v. United States, 318 U. S. 236, 245 (1943). Our commitment to equal justice and the rule of law requires the courts to faithfully apply criminal laws as writ- ten, even in periods of national crisis, see, e.g., Cramer v. United States, 325 U. S. 1, 46-48 (1945), and even when the conduct alleged is indisputably abhorrent, cf. Michaels v. Davis, 601 U. S. (2024) (JACKSON, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari) (slip op., at 3).

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring Notwithstanding the shocking circumstances involved in this case or the Government's determination that they war- rant prosecution, today, this Court's task is to determine what conduct is proscribed by the criminal statute that has been invoked as the basis for the obstruction charge at issue here. I join in the Court's opinion because I agree with the majority that §1512(c) (2) does not reach “all forms of ob- structive conduct”” and is, instead, “limited by the preced- ing list of criminal violations” in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 7-8. I write separately to explain why and how that interpreta- tion of §1512(c) follows from the legislative purpose that this statute's text embodies. I Our goal in interpreting any statute should be "to give effect to the intent of Congress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534, 542 (1940). There is no question that intent is generally expressed through the text of a statute. See American Tobacco Co. v. Patterson, 456 U. S. 63, 68 (1982). “[H]ewing closely to Congress's will" as embodied in the statute that it wrote "is especially important" when construing laws like this one, which im- plicate the possible imposition of punitive sanctions. Pugin v. Garland, 599 U. S. 600, 612 (2023) (JACKSON, J., concur- ring). Here, the majority rightly interprets the scope of §1512(c)(2) by “look[ing] for guidance from” the statutory "examples [that] come before" it those listed in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 5. In my view, the examples that Con- gress opts to include in the text of a statute evince its inten- tions concerning what the rule covers and thereby help ex- press a particular legislative purpose. The majority's football-based example is illustrative. In a football league, says the majority, “a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 JACKSON, J., concurring attack, assault, or harm any player,”” should not be inter- preted as being directed at hurt feelings, because the listed "prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. I agree. I would add that it is like- wise clear from the listed prohibited acts that such a rule is also not addressing far more serious and unexpected con- duct than the kinds of acts that the preceding examples de- scribe, which can result in serious and foreseeable physical injuries during a rough-and-tumble football game. By con- trast, if a player were to shoot or poison another player, the rule's drafters would expect the police to be called, not a referee. Thus, we conclude that the rule is best understood to be inapposite with respect to conduct at both extremes of the universe of harmful acts in which a player might con- ceivably engage. We recognize this intuitive fact that there is a certain category of conduct the rule is designed to prohibit-be- cause we recognize, albeit implicitly, that the drafters of this rule have included these particular examples for a rea- son. We understand that, given the preceding list of exam- ples, this rule was adopted with a clear intent concerning its scope. So, though a broad conception of "harm” is “liter- ally covered by the language” of the rule, ibid., we appreci- ate that the rule's drafters did not intend for that term to take on its most expansive meaning. Instead, the examples help illuminate what the drafters actually intended the rule to cover. From the preceding list, we can confidently dis- cern that the drafters meant to proscribe only conduct that risks injuries with severity akin to facemask pulling, not trash talk or murder.1 1 The majority invokes the canons of noscitur a sociis and ejusdem gen- eris to support this inference. See ante, at 5. Those canons are useful interpretive tools, but in my view, they are ultimately only devices used in furtherance of achieving our goal of determining “the intent of Con- gress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534,

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring The upshot is that, when interpreting the scope of a par- ticular statute or rule, our assessment of the words that the drafters used informs our understanding of what the rule was designed to do.² Discerning the rule's purpose is criti- cal when a court is called upon to interpret the provision. II Turning to the statutory provision at issue here, the pur- pose of $1512(c), reflected in its text, is clear. Subsection (c)(1) is indisputably focused on persons who engage in a particular kind of obstructive conduct: Anyone who "cor- ruptly alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, . . . with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official pro- ceeding." Subsection (c)(2), in turn, is directed at criminal conduct that “otherwise” achieves a similar result. I there- fore agree with the majority that §1512(c)(2)'s reach is nar- rower than the Government contends. As the majority holds, §1512(c)(2) “makes it a crime to impair the availabil- ity or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)" and to “impai[r] the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the 'record[s], document[s], or other object[s]' enumerated in (c)(1)." ... 542 (1940). "There is no invariable rule for the discovery of that inten- tion." Ibid. As one treatise explains, such canons are “not. rule[s] of law" but rather "one of various factors to be considered." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts 212 (2012); see also id., at 196–198. We apply these canons because we understand that their principles are consistent with how users of language—including legislators convey meaning. See id., at 212 ("Any lawyer or legislative drafter who writes two or more specifics followed by a general residual term without the intention that the residual term be limited may be guilty of malpractice"). As such, they are valid indicia of Congress's pur- pose. 2 Other indicia of the drafters' intent, such as the rule's context or en- actment history, can further inform our understanding of the rule. See infra, at 5-8.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) JACKSON, J., concurring 10 5 Ante, at 8-9. This understanding of §1512(c)'s text and purpose is en- tirely consistent with the statute's enactment history. Con- gress enacted §1512(c) as part of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which "was prompted by the exposure of Enron's massive accounting fraud and revelations that the company's out- side auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 535–536 (2015) (plurality opinion). When introducing what later became §1512(c) on the Senate floor, Senator Lott emphasized that its principal purpose was to target document destruction, which was, at the time, prohibited “only if ... a subpoena ha[d] been is- sued for the evidence that ha[d] been destroyed or altered." 148 Cong. Rec. S6545 (July 10, 2002). “[T]his section,” he explained, "would allow the Government to charge obstruc- tion against individuals who acted alone, even if the tam- pering took place prior to the issuance of a grand jury sub- poena." Ibid. Similarly, the Senate Report accompanying the proposed statute noted that “current federal obstruction of justice statutes relating to document destruction [were] riddled with loopholes and burdensome proof require- ments." S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 6 (2002). According to the Senate Report, §1512(c) was drafted to fill these gaps: "When a person destroys evidence with the intent of ob- structing any type of investigation and the matter is within the jurisdiction of a federal agency, overly technical legal distinctions should neither hinder nor prevent prosecution and punishment.” Id., at 7. Conversely, there is no indication whatsoever that Con- gress intended to create a sweeping, all-purpose obstruction statute. As the majority notes, "[f]ederal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific crimi- nal acts and settings." Ante, at 10. Outside of the Govern- ment's proposed interpretation of §1512(c), Congress has never enacted “a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring justice.” Ante, at 15.³ Meanwhile, many States have done just that. See J. Decker, The Varying Parameters of Ob- struction of Justice in American Criminal Law, 65 La. L. Rev. 49, 77, and n. 236 (2004) (collecting statutes). 4 The drafters of the Model Penal Code, too, proposed such a gen- eral obstruction crime. See ALI, Model Penal Code §242.1, p. 201 (1980) ("A person commits a misdemeanor if he pur- posely obstructs, impairs or perverts the administration of law or other governmental function by force, violence, phys- ical interference or obstacle, breach of official duty, or any other unlawful act"). Given that Congress has never before passed a similarly broad obstruction law when others have long existed, it is highly unlikely that Congress intended for subsection (c)(2) to establish a first-of-its-kind general federal obstruction crime. Nothing in the enactment history of §1512(c) sug- gests that Congress believed that it was creating an all-en- compassing statute that would obviate the need for any other obstruction prohibitions. This conclusion is further reinforced by the fact that, un- like §1512(c)(2), nearly all of the broad, all-purpose obstruc- tion statutes that various States have enacted are classified as misdemeanors. See, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(3) (2023); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 2921.31(B) (Lexis 2024). As a 3 That is not to say, of course, that Congress could not enact such a statute if it so chose. "We have traditionally exercised restraint in as- sessing the reach of a federal criminal statute. . . out of deference to the prerogatives of Congress,” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600 (1995), not because broad criminal proscriptions are beyond the scope of Congress's power. 4 See also, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(1) (2023) ("A person commits obstructing government operations if he intentionally obstructs, impairs, or hinders the performance of a governmental function by a public serv- ant, by using or threatening to use violence, force, or physical interfer- ence or obstacle"); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §2921.31(A) (Lexis 2024) ("No person... shall do any act that hampers or impedes a public official in the performance of the public official's lawful duties").

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 JACKSON, J., concurring result, these types of obstruction crimes are generally pun- ishable by up to a year of incarceration. See 1 W. LaFave, J. Israel, N. King, & O. Kerr, Criminal Procedure §1.8(c), pp. 557-558 (4th ed. 2015). That is so for a reason: As the Model Penal Code's drafters explained, “the existence of a residual misdemeanor offense" allows for the “appropri- ately narrow definition of the serious forms of obstruction carrying felony penalties." §242.1, Comment 2, at 203. "A broad residual offense. . . provides a hedge against the in- genuity of offenders," since "[n]ot all forms of obstruction can be anticipated and precisely proscribed in specific of- fenses." Ibid. But, at the same time, that kind of broad criminal statute “must incorporate certain limitations lest it nullify policy decisions expressed elsewhere." Ibid. In other words, these broad misdemeanor obstruction statutes are “amalgam[s] of generality and constraint.” Ibid. The Government's interpretation of §1512(c)(2), by con- trast, exhibits all the generality of these catchall misde- meanor obstruction provisions while displaying none of their restraint. Section 1512(c)(2) is a felony, and it im- poses a 20-year maximum sentence-one of the more severe potential punishments in Chapter 73 of the U. S. Code. That stands in contrast with Congress's specification that other serious obstructive acts warrant “far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror un- der $1503." Ante, at 16. Finally, it is worth remembering the statutory context in which Congress chose to prohibit the obstruction-related conduct we are considering today. The statute Congress wrote addresses this matter in a 13-word phrase, enumer- ated "2," that is located within subsection (c) of a much broader §1512, which itself consists of “a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction." Ante, at 11. However we might interpret Congress's drafting choices in other contexts, we should be wary of finding that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring a statute addresses significant criminal conduct when none of the available indicia of congressional intent, including the prohibition's placement, suggest that Congress in- tended that result. Here, it beggars belief that Congress would have inserted a breathtakingly broad, first-of-its- kind criminal obstruction statute (accompanied by a sub- stantial 20-year maximum penalty) in the midst of a signif- icantly more granular series of obstruction prohibitions without clarifying its intent to do so―not in the text of the provision itself, nor in the surrounding statutory context, nor in any statement issued during the enactment process. * * * In my view, the Court properly interprets §1512(c)(2) in the opinion it issues today. It also rightly vacates the judg- ment below and remands this case for further proceedings. Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) by corruptly obstructing “a proceeding before Congress, specif- ically, Congress's certification of the Electoral College vote." App. 183. That official proceeding plainly used certain rec- ords, documents, or objects—including, among others, those relating to the electoral votes themselves. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 65-67. And it might well be that Fischer's conduct, as alleged here, involved the impairment (or the attempted impairment) of the availability or integrity of things used during the January 6 proceeding “in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)." Ante, at 8. If so, then Fischer's prosecu- tion under $1512(c)(2) can, and should, proceed. That issue remains available for the lower courts to determine on re- mand.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 BARRETT, J., dissenting SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE BARRETT, with whom JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR and JUSTICE KAGAN join, dissenting. Joseph Fischer allegedly joined a mob of rioters that breached the Capitol on January 6, 2021. At the time, Con- gress was meeting in a joint session to certify the Electoral College results. The riot forced Congress to suspend the proceeding, delaying it for several hours. The Court does not dispute that Congress's joint session qualifies as an “official proceeding”; that rioters delayed the proceeding; or even that Fischer's alleged conduct (which includes trespassing and a physical confrontation with law enforcement) was part of a successful effort to forcibly halt the certification of the election results. Given these prem- ises, the case that Fischer can be tried for “obstructing, in- fluencing, or impeding an official proceeding” seems open and shut. So why does the Court hold otherwise? Because it simply cannot believe that Congress meant what it said. Section 1512(c)(2) is a very broad provision, and admittedly, events like January 6th were not its target. (Who could blame Congress for that failure of imagination?) But statutes often go further than the problem that in- spired them, and under the rules of statutory interpreta- tion, we stick to the text anyway. The Court, abandoning that approach, does textual backflips to find some way—

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting any way to narrow the reach of subsection (c)(2). I re- spectfully dissent. I The case for the Government's interpretation is straight- forward. It can be accomplished in three paragraphs, as compared to the Court's many, many more. Ante, at 4-12. Start with the verbs: To "obstruct" and to “impede” mean to "hinder" or "retard" something's "passage" or "progress." 10 Oxford English Dictionary 668 (2d ed. 1989); 7 id., at 705. We have previously explained that these words are "broad." Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 7 (2018). To “influence” is similarly expansive, meaning “[t]o affect the condition of” or “to have an effect on” something. 7 Ox- ford English Dictionary, at 940. The object of these verbs is an "official proceeding," defined to include “a proceeding be- fore the Congress." 18 U.S. C. §1515(a)(1)(B).¹ So (c)(2) covers all sorts of actions that affect or interfere with official proceedings. "[O]therwise," which introduces 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2), does not narrow its scope. “Otherwise” means “in a differ- ent manner,” “by other means,” or “in other respects." 10 Oxford English Dictionary, at 984; Webster's Third New In- ternational Dictionary 1598 (2002). It is often used to in- troduce a "catchall phras[e].” Texas Dept. of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, 576 U. S. 519, 535 (2015). Here, “otherwise” tells the reader how (c)(1) and (c) (2) fit together. Subsection (c)(1) prohibits "alter[ing], destroy[ing], mutilat[ing], or conceal[ing] a rec- ord, document, or other object” with “intent to impair [its] integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” In other words, (c)(1) targets document and object spoliation— 1 The D. C. Circuit held, and this Court does not dispute, that Con- gress's joint session on January 6, 2021, qualifies as an "official proceed- ing."" 64 F. 4th 329, 342 (2023).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 BARRETT, J., dissenting classic means of obstruction. Subsection (c)(2) then prohib- its obstructing, influencing, or impeding an official proceed- ing by means different from those specified in (c)(1), thereby serving as a catchall. The “enumerated" crimes in (c)(1) and the "unenumerated crimes" in (c) (2) are similar “on one spe- cific dimension": "the particular similarity specified after the 'otherwise." Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137, 150–151 (2008) (Scalia, J., concurring in judgment). Here, that means that each crime represents one means through which to obstruct, influence, or impede an official proceed- ing. Joseph Fischer allegedly participated in a riot at the Cap- itol that forced the delay of Congress's joint session on Jan- uary 6th. Blocking an official proceeding from moving for- ward surely qualifies as obstructing or impeding the proceeding by means other than document destruction. Fischer's alleged conduct thus falls within (c)(2)'s scope. II A Opting for a narrower approach, the Court declines to take (c)(2) on its own terms. Instead, it borrows the eviden- tiary focus of (c)(1) to hold that a defendant violates (c)(2) only by "impair[ing] the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or . . . other things used in the proceeding." Ante, at 16. Other means of obstructing a proceeding—say, by shutting it down are out. This interpretation might sound faithful to the statute, because the limit comes from a related provision rather than thin air. But snipping words from one subsection and grafting them onto another violates our normal interpretive principles. “[W]e ordinarily resist reading words or ele- ments into a statute that do not appear on its face."" Dean v. United States, 556 U. S. 568, 572 (2009) (quoting Bates v.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting United States, 522 U. S. 23, 29 (1997)). And “[w]here Con- gress includes particular language in one section of a stat- ute but omits it in another section of the same Act,"" we generally presume that Congress did so intentionally. Rus- sello v. United States, 464 U. S. 16, 23 (1983) (quoting United States v. Wong Kim Bo, 472 F. 2d 720, 722 (CA5 1972) (per curiam)). The Court's reasons for departing from these rules are thin. 1 The Court begins with the noscitur a sociis and ejusdem generis canons. Ante, at 5. The noscitur canon counsels that "words grouped in a list should be given related mean- ings." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law §31, p. 195 (2012) (internal quotation marks omitted). It is particu- larly useful when interpreting “a word [that] is capable of many meanings."" McDonnell v. United States, 579 U. S. 550, 569 (2016) (quoting Jarecki v. G. D. Searle & Co., 367 U. S. 303, 307 (1961)). See, e.g., Gustafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 573–575 (1995) (employing the canon to in- terpret “communication” in the statutory list “prospectus, notice, circular, advertisement, letter, or communication""). The ejusdem canon applies when “a catchall phrase" follows “an enumeration of specifics, as in dogs, cats, horses, cattle, and other animals." Scalia & Garner §32, at 199. We often interpret the catchall phrase to “embrace only objects simi- lar in nature to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words." Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U. S. 105, 115 (2001). See, e.g., Washington State Dept. of Social and Health Servs. v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler, 537 U. S. 371, 375, 385 (2003) (employing the canon to construe the general term in the statutory list "execution, levy, at- tachment, garnishment, or other legal process""). These canons are valuable tools. But applying either to (c)(2) is like using a hammer to pound in a screw-it looks like it might work, but using it botches the job. Unlike the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 BARRETT, J., dissenting pattern to which the noscitur canon applies, §1512(c) is not a list of terms that includes an ambiguous word. So the Court does not do what it does when applying noscitur: se- lect between multiple accepted meanings of the words "ob- structs,” “influences,” and “impedes." Instead, it modifies those words by adding an adverbial phrase: obstructs, in- fluences or impedes by “impair[ing] the availability or in- tegrity for use in an official proceeding of records, docu- ments, or objects." Ante, at 16 (emphasis added). The ejusdem canon is an equally poor fit. Unlike the pattern to which ejusdem applies, (c)(2) is “not a general or collective term following a list of specific items to which a particular statutory command is applicable.” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 615 (1995) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Instead, (c)(1) and (c)(2) are "distinct and independent prohibitions." Ibid. Though they share a subject and an adverb—“[w]hoever corruptly"-the two clauses contain different verbs that take different objects. §1512(c). Moreover, (c)(1) has a separate mens rea provi- sion that further disrupts the connection between the clauses. To my knowledge, we have never applied either of these canons to a statute resembling §1512(c). Rather than iden- tify such a case, the Court invents examples of a sign at the zoo and a football league rule. Ante, at 5-6. The zoo exam- ple ("do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them”) does not help, because it mim- ics the typical ejusdem format of specific words followed by a catchall. The list of specific verbs makes clear that the cleanup phrase (“otherwise disturb") is limited to conduct that involves direct interaction with the animals. But in the absence of a laundry list followed by a catchall, it is hard to see why the ejusdem canon fits. Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008) ("The absence of a list of specific items undercuts the inference embodied in ejusdem

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting generis that Congress remained focused on the common at- tribute when it used the catchall phrase"). And §1512(c) does not follow the laundry-list-plus-catchall pattern. The Court's football example is only slightly better. As a refresher: "[A] football league might adopt a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.' If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. Put aside that it is hard to imagine anyone describing “trash talk” as inflicting an “injury” or “harming" a player in a football game. The league rule plainly forecloses the possibility. Consistent with the noscitur canon, “harm” takes its meaning from its companions “attack” and “as- sault." And while the Court tries to track §1512(c)'s struc- ture by adding an extra intent clause, the two clauses in its example are still tightly focused on actions directed at the player. (After all, who is wearing the facemask, helmet, or other equipment?) Given that shared theme, it is easy to understand that the first clause's focus on physical conduct limits the (only slightly) more general clause. But §1512(c)'s subsections are not so closely related―(c)(1) fo- cuses specifically on objects in a proceeding, and (c)(2) broadens the lens to the proceeding itself. Consider a rule that actually mirrors §1512(c): "Any player who: "(1) punches, chokes, or kicks an opposing player with the intent to remove him from the game; or "(2) otherwise interrupts, hinders, or interferes with

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 the game, BARRETT, J., dissenting "shall be suspended." While the specific verbs in the first clause involve actions directed at an opposing player, the second clause is a sepa- rate prohibition with an entirely different object. Imagine that, just before the opposing team's kicker attempts a field goal, players leave the sidelines and storm the field, some tackling referees in the process. Those players have surely “interrupt[ed], hinder[ed], or interfer[ed] with the game,” even though they have not physically injured any opponent. This hypothetical, not the Court's, is analogous to §1512(c) and it supports the Government's interpretation. 2 The Court next recruits help from Begay, which inter- prets an "otherwise" clause in the Armed Career Criminal Act. Ante, at 6; 553 U. S., at 140. The ACCA defines a "vi- olent felony" as a felony that “is burglary, arson, or extor- tion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves con- duct that presents a serious potential risk of physical injury.” 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii). Begay holds that the example crimes limit the catchall clause to "crimes that are roughly similar . . . to the examples themselves." 553 U. S., at 143. So too here, the Court reasons, the list of crimes in (c)(1) limits the “otherwise” clause in (c)(2). But §1512(c) is structured differently than the statute in Begay. While §1512(c) contains two distinct criminal pro- hibitions (c)(1) and (c)(2)—the statutory definition in Be- gay contained a list of examples followed immediately by a residual clause. The latter structure more readily supports interpreting the general clause in light of the specifics, much like a statute to which the ejusdem canon would ap- ply. Moreover, the residual clause at issue in Begay called out for a limiting principle—what is a “serious potential risk of physical injury?" The breadth itself was a cue that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting the interpreter should read back to find some limit. See id., at 142–143. Subsection (c)(2)'s “otherwise” clause, by con- trast, stands on its own. Postscript: Seven years after Begay was decided, we held ACCA's residual clause void for vagueness. Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015). So the clause is not only distinguishable, but also a poor model for statutory interpretation. 3 The Court argues that "there would have been scant rea- son for Congress to provide any specific examples” in (c)(1) if (c)(2) covered all forms of obstructive conduct. Ante, at 8. Conduct like destroying and concealing records "obstructs, influences, or impedes a[n] official proceeding,” so Congress could have enacted just (c)(2) and been done with it. On the Government's interpretation, the Court asserts, the second prohibition swallows the first. If (c)(1) has any function, it must be to cast light (and impose limits) on (c)(2). What the Court does not say is that its rewrite also elim- inates the need for (c)(1)'s examples. The Court's interpre- tation assumes that Congress used a convoluted, two-step approach to enact a prohibition on “impair[ing] the integ- rity or availability of records, documents, or other objects for use in an official proceeding." So why didn't Congress just say that? And if the Court is right about what (c)(2) means, why do we need the specific examples in (c)(1)? Those acts are already covered. The problem of (c)(2) sub- suming (c)(1) is therefore not unique to my theory. It bears emphasis, though, that the broad overlap makes sense, given the statute's backstory. When the Enron scan- dal occurred, Congress (along with the general public) was taken aback to discover that seemingly criminal conduct was actually not a federal crime. As it then existed, §1512 had a loophole: It imposed liability on those who persuaded others to destroy documents, but not on the people who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 BARRETT, J., dissenting themselves destroyed documents. Ante, at 9–10. Congress enacted §1512(c) to close this “Enron gap.” Subsection (c)(1) deals with the particular problem at hand-document de- struction. Subsection (c)(2) reflects Congress's desire to avoid future surprises: It is “a catchall for matters not spe- cifically contemplated-known unknowns." Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009). So contrary to the Court's suggestion, it would not be “pe- culiar" for (c)(2) to cover conduct “far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legisla- tion in the first place." Ante, at 10. Enron exposed more than the need to prohibit evidence spoliation-it also ex- posed the need to close statutory gaps. And in any event, statutes often reach beyond the “principal evil” that ani- mated them. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U. S. 75, 79 (1998). That is not grounds for narrowing them, because “it is ultimately the provisions of our laws rather than the principal concerns of our legislators by which we are governed." Ibid. While the Court insists that (c)(1) limits (c)(2), it cannot seem to settle on the "common attribute" in the first subsec- tion that cabins the second. See Ali, 552 U. S., at 225. On one hand, the Court says that “(c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding." Ante, at 8 (emphasis added). This “physical evidence” limitation tracks the Dis- trict Court's interpretation. See United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022). On the other hand, the Court says that (c)(2) prohibits “impairing the availability or in- tegrity of other things used in an official proceeding," such as "witness testimony” or “intangible information." Ante, at 9. This broader “evidence impairment” theory resembles Judge Katsas's interpretation. 64 F. 4th 329, 363 (CADC 2023) (dissenting opinion).

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting Both formulations are problematic—and not only because both are atextual. The first, focused solely on physical items, would leave (c)(2) with almost no work to do. Sub- section (c)(1) already prohibits “alter[ing], destroy[ing], mu- tilat [ing], or conceal[ing]" documents, records, or objects. This essentially covers the waterfront of acts that impair the integrity or availability of objects. True, (c)(2) could also encompass "cover[ing] up, falsif[ying], or mak[ing] a false entry in” a record or document. See 18 U. S. C. §1519. But it seems “unlikely" that Congress used the “expansive” lan- guage of (c)(2) “to address such narrow concerns." 64 F. 4th, at 344. The somewhat amorphous “other things” limitation has the benefit of giving (c)(2) a wider berth, but it is un- clear how the Court landed on it. The term does not appear in (c)(1) or in §1512's surrounding subsections, which refer specifically to records, documents, objects, and testimony. The "other things” formulation comes from the Court, not Congress. The Court's uncertainty about the relevant “common at- tribute" is a tell that Congress did not intend to define (c)(2) by reference to (c)(1). Indeed, “[h]ad Congress intended to limit [§1512(c)(2)]'s reach" as the Court asserts, it "easily could have written” the catchall to say “otherwise impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, objects, or other things for use in an official proceeding." Ali, 552 U. S., at 227; see ante, at 8-9.2 It did not, and we should not pretend that it did. B The Court relies on statutory context to "confir[m] that 2 Indeed, Congress could have looked to 18 U. S. C. §1505 as a model. That statute makes it a crime to "willfully withhol[d], misrepresen[t], remov[e] from any place, concea[1], cove[r] up, destro[y], mutilat[e], alte[r], or by other means falsif[y] any documentary material, answers to written interrogatories, or oral testimony" with the intent to obstruct "any civil investigative demand.” §1505 (emphasis added).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 BARRETT, J., dissenting (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1)." Ante, at 10. As the Court sees it, interpreting (c) (2) according to its plain text would render other obstruction provisions, within §1512 and throughout Chapter 73, superfluous. Ante, at 10–12. The Court exaggerates. Subsection (c)(2) applies only to conduct that obstructs an “official proceeding." The Court highlights several provisions that cover obstruction of in- vestigations. See, e.g., 18 U. S. C. §§1510(a), 1511(a), 1516, 1517, 1518, 1519. The circuits have held that criminal in- vestigations do not qualify as “official proceedings." See, e.g., United States v. Ermoian, 752 F. 3d 1165, 1172 (CA9 2013); United States v. Ramos, 537 F. 3d 439, 463 (CA5 2008). Likewise, not every provision in §1512 relates to an official proceeding; instead, several target the obstruction of communications to judges and law enforcement about the commission of federal offenses. 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(C), (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), (d)(1)(2). The Court responds by stressing that for purposes of §1512, "an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted." §1512(f)(1); ante, at 13. Because obstruc- tion of investigations or communications could end up ob- structing the initiation of a future official proceeding, the Court reasons that (c)(2) may still swallow those other pro- visions. But we have previously construed federal obstruc- tion offenses similar to §1512(c) to require a tighter link be- tween the obstructive conduct and the relevant proceeding. Under the "nexus” requirement, the defendant's conduct must have a “relationship in time, causation, or logic” with the proceeding. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 599 (adopting nexus requirement for §1503's omnibus clause). And the defend- ant must act in “contemplation” of a “particular official pro- ceeding." Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 708 (2005) (adopting nexus requirement for §1512(b)(2)). The circuits have unanimously applied this requirement to §1512(c). See United States v. Young, 916 F. 3d 368, 386 (CA4 2019) (collecting cases). This element

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting eliminates much of the overlap that the Court perceives be- tween (c)(2) and the provisions that do not require an “offi- cial proceeding.” Moreover, §§1512(a)(1)(A) and (d)(1) prohibit preventing the mere attendance of any person in an official proceeding. Preventing attendance will not always have the effect of ob- structing, influencing, or impeding the proceeding. And §1512(d)(1) makes it a crime to intentionally harass some- one and thereby dissuade her from testifying in an official proceeding. In contrast to (c)(2), this provision—which car- ries a significantly lower maximum penalty-does not re- quire a defendant to act “corruptly." This is not to deny that (c)(2)—if allowed its broad, ordi- nary meaning-overlaps with several offenses in Chapter 73. See ante, at 10-11. Even so, (c)(2) still leaves a healthy amount of work for other obstruction offenses. And besides, "substantial" overlap "is not uncommon in criminal stat- utes." Loughrin v. United States, 573 U. S. 351, 358, n. 4 (2014); see also Hubbard v. United States, 514 U. S. 695, 714, n. 14 (1995) (opinion of Stevens, J.). "The mere fact that two federal criminal statutes criminalize similar con- duct says little about the scope of either.” Pasquantino v. United States, 544 U. S. 349, 358, n. 4 (2005). That is espe- cially true here, because Congress enacted (c)(2) after it had already enacted other subsections of §1512, as well as ob- struction offenses like §§1503 and 1505. The redundancy argument would have more force if (c)(2) “render[ed] super- fluous an entire provision passed in proximity as part of the same Act." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 543 (2015) (plurality opinion) (emphasis added). As it stands, the canon against surplusage does not provide any reason to ar- tificially narrow (c)(2)'s scope. In any event, the Court's formulation does not begin to cure the statutory overlap. Killing a person with the intent to prevent the production of a record in an official proceed- ing constitutes conduct that impairs the availability of a

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 BARRETT, J., dissenting record for an official proceeding. 18 U. S. C. §1512(a)(1)(B). Using physical force against a person to influence testi- mony in an official proceeding counts as impairing the in- tegrity of "other things" used in an official proceeding. §1512(a)(2)(A). And impairing the availability or integrity of documents for use in an official proceeding will often “in- fluenc[e], obstruc[t], or imped[e] . . . the due administration of justice." §1503(a); see also §1515(a)(1)(A) (“official pro- ceeding"" includes “a proceeding before a judge or court of the United States"). Examples abound. See, e.g., §§1505, 1512(a)(1)(A), (a)(2)(B), (b)(1), (b)(2), (d)(1). “[T]he canon against surplusage merely favors that interpretation which avoids surplusage”—and on that score, the Court's inter- pretation fares no better than mine. Freeman v. Quicken Loans, Inc., 566 U. S. 624, 635 (2012). In fact, the broader statutory context works against the Court's interpretation. Congress did not select the verbs "obstruct," "influence,” and “impede” at random. Those words were already in §1503, which prohibits “corruptly or by threats or force, or by any threatening letter or commu- nication, influenc[ing], obstruct[ing], or imped[ing] . . . the due administration of justice." We have described this "Omnibus Clause"" as a "catchall," because it follows sev- eral specific proscriptions against coercive behavior toward jurors and court officers. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 598. Courts have routinely declined to "rea[d] the omnibus clause” as limited to "acts similar in manner to those prescribed by the statute's specific language.” United States v. Howard, 569 F. 2d 1331, 1333, 1335 (CA5 1978) (collecting cases). And Justice Scalia agreed that ejusdem generis did not apply to limit the Omnibus Clause, “one of the several distinct and independent prohibitions contained in §1503 that share only the word 'Whoever,' which begins the statute, and the penalty provision which ends it." Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 615 (opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part). Section 1512(c) follows the very same pattern.

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting C The Court concludes with an appeal to consequences: Construing (c)(2) broadly would “expos[e] activists and lob- byists alike to decades in prison." Ante, at 14. This fear is overstated. To begin with, the Court ignores that (c)(2) requires proof that a defendant acted “corruptly.” The meaning of this term is unsettled, but all of its possible definitions limit the scope of liability. On one proposed interpretation, a defend- ant acts corruptly by “us[ing] unlawful means, or act[ing] with an unlawful purpose, or both."" United States v. Rob- ertson, 103 F. 4th 1, 8 (CADC 2023) (approving jury instruc- tions for (c)(2)). On another, a defendant acts "corruptly" if he “act[s] ‘with an intent to procure an unlawful benefit ei- ther for himself or for some other person."" 64 F. 4th, at 352 (Walker, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (quoting Marinello, 584 U. S., at 21; alterations omitted). Under either, the “corruptly” element should screen out in- nocent activists and lobbyists who engage in lawful activity. And if not, those defendants can bring as-applied First Amendment challenges. The Court also emphasizes (c)(2)'s 20-year maximum penalty. Ante, at 14-15. But it simultaneously "glosses over the absence of any prescribed minimum." Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting). “Congress presuma- bly enacts laws with high maximums and no minimums when it thinks the prohibited conduct may run the gamut from major to minor." Ibid. Indeed, given the breadth of its terms, (c) (2) naturally encompasses actions that range in severity. Congress presumably trusted District Courts to impose sentences commensurate with the defendant's particular conduct. * * * There is no getting around it: Section 1512(c)(2) is an ex- pansive statute. Yet Congress, not this Court, weighs the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 BARRETT, J., dissenting "pros and cons of whether a statute should sweep broadly or narrowly." United States v. Rodgers, 466 U. S. 475, 484 (1984). Once Congress has set the outer bounds of liability, the Executive Branch has the discretion to select particular cases to prosecute within those boundaries. By atextually narrowing §1512(c)(2), the Court has failed to respect the prerogatives of the political branches. Cf. ante, at 15. I re- spectfully dissent.