define case study in psychology class 11

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

• Case Study Approach
• Case Study Method
• Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
• “We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
• Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Class 11 Psychology Case Study Questions

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myCBSEguide has all the information you’ll need if you’re seeking for CBSE Class 11 Psychology case study questions. Our team of specialists have created ample of help to Class 11 Psychology students. We have a wide range of Class 11 Psychology case study questions, covering a variety of topics. myCBSEguide is the place to go when you’re having trouble with a topic or just need a little more support pertaining to Class 11 Psychology case study questions.

  What is psychology and how does it work?

The word psychology comes from two Greek words: psyche, which means “soul,” and logos, which means “science” or “study of a subject.” As a result, psychology was defined as the study of the soul or mind. Psychology is properly described as a discipline that investigates mental processes, experiences, and behaviour in many circumstances. It does so by employing biological and social scientific tools to collect data in a methodical manner.

Psychology is one of the most popular subjects since it deals with how people think, react, behave, and interact. It is primarily concerned with human behaviour, as well as the thoughts and emotions that influence it. Psychology studies aid students in better understanding themselves and others, as well as developing sound analytical abilities through the use of the scientific method. It also aids pupils in learning how the mind and body operate together. This blog will provide in-depth information on the Psychology Class 11 Psychology syllabus and case study questions asked in Class 11 Psychology examination

The CBSE examination now includes Case Based Questions for Class 11 Psychology. Class 11 Psychology Case Study Questions are simple to understand and will aid in your academic success. On myCBSEguide, you will receive access to the most recent NCERT textbooks for Class 11 Psychology and all other subjects including Class 11 Psychology Case Study Questions, which are created in compliance with the most recent CBSE/NCERT Psychology curriculum and examination format.

Class 11 Psychology Sample case study questions

Our skilled teachers have prepared the crucial case study questions for Class 11 Psychology based on the most recent syllabus and examination norms given by CBSE/ NCERT. It is critical for students in Class 11 Psychology to go over the case study questions. You can tackle the database of Class 11 Psychology case study questions offered by myCBSEguide using the understanding gained from the Class 11 Psychology case study questions and the NCERT Book for Class 11 Psychology. Because these questions are likely to appear on exams, Class 11 Psychology students should know them and practice them on a daily basis.

Class 11 Psychology Sample case study question 1

Socialization is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions

which enable them to participate as effective members of group and society. It is a process that continues over the entire life span and through which one learns develops ways of effective

functioning at any stage of development. It forms the basis of social and cultural transmission

from one generation to the next. Its failure in any society may endanger the very existence of that

society. (2+1+1=4)

• Why socialization is necessary in daily life
• What is the age criterion of socialization?
• What is the basis of socialization?

Answer Key:

• Socialization helps individual in acquiring knowledge, skills and aspirations. (2)
• Age criterion of socialization is life span. (1)
• Basis of socialization is social and cultural transmission. (1)

Class 11 Psychology Sample case study question 2

In our eyes, in the outer layer, there is a transparent cornea and a tough sclera that surrounds the rest of the eye. It protects the eye and maintains its shape. The middle layer is called choroid, which is richly supplied with blood vessels. The inner layer is known as retina. It contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) and an elaborate network of interconnecting neurons. The eye is generally compared with a camera. For example, the eye and camera have a lens. The lens divides the eye into two unequal chambers, namely aqueous chamber and vitreous chamber. The aqueous chamber is located between the cornea and the lens. It is smaller in size and is filled with a waterlike substance, called aqueous humor. The vitreous chamber is located between the lens and the retina. It is filled with a jelly like protein, called vitreous humor. These fluids help in holding the lens at its appropriate place and in proper shape. They also allow enough flexibility for the occurrence of accommodation — a process through which the lens changes its shape in order to focus the objects at varying distances. This process is regulated by ciliary muscles, which are attached to the lens. These muscles flatten the lens to focus the distant objects and thicken it to focus the near objects. Like a camera, the eye also has a mechanism to control the amount of light entering into it. Iris is a disc-like coloured membrane lying between the cornea and the lens. It controls the amount of light entering the eye by regulating pupil dilation. In dim light the pupil dilates; in bright light it contracts.

Our eye is made up of _____ layers.

Which muscles serve to flatten the lens so that distant objects can be focused?

• Both a and b

The eye, like a camera, has a system for controlling the amount of light that enters it. Which of the following part of eye serves this purpose?

• None of the given

Class 11 Psychology Curriculum

For Class 11 Psychology students, CBSE/NCERT has created a unique Curriculum to help them gain a foundation and grasp on their learning skills. In Class 11 Psychology, skills-based learning and the development of key concepts begin with a little broader viewpoint. We recognise that young brains are full of questions in the context of Class 11 Psychology , therefore we open up a world full of fascinating learning opportunities and introduce fresh material to our Class 11 Psychology pupils. Class 11 Psychology curriculum is created in such a way that each student masters all of his foundational concepts and achieves higher degrees of brilliance. The chapters covered in the NCERT textbook for class 11 are listed below.

CBSE Class 11 Psychology (Code No. 037) Syllabus

Theory Paper 3 Hours Marks: 70

myCBSEguide for Class 11 Psychology Case Study questions

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• Class 11 Psychology students can benefit from comprehensive myCBSEguide resources, which include previous year’s question papers and answers. Additional tools to promote students’ learning are available on myCBSEguide at all levels in order to increase students’ ability to answer exam papers and offer them more practice.

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A case study is a research method that extensively explores a particular subject, situation, or individual through in-depth analysis, often to gain insights into real-world phenomena or complex issues. It involves the comprehensive examination of multiple data sources, such as interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, to provide a rich and holistic understanding of the subject under investigation.

Case studies are conducted to:

• Investigate a specific problem, event, or phenomenon
• Explore unique or atypical situations
• Examine the complexities and intricacies of a subject in its natural context
• Develop theories, propositions, or hypotheses for further research
• Gain practical insights for decision-making or problem-solving

A typical case study consists of the following components:

• Introduction: Provides a brief background and context for the study, including the purpose and research questions.
• Case Description: Describes the subject of the case study, including its relevant characteristics, settings, and participants.
• Data Collection: Details the methods used to gather data, such as interviews, observations, surveys, or document analysis.
• Data Analysis: Explains the techniques employed to analyze the collected data and derive meaningful insights.
• Findings: Presents the key discoveries and outcomes of the case study in a logical and organized manner.
• Discussion: Interprets the findings, relates them to existing theories or frameworks, discusses their implications, and addresses any limitations.
• Conclusion: Summarizes the main findings, highlights the significance of the research, and suggests potential avenues for future investigations.

Case studies offer several benefits, including:

• Providing a deep understanding of complex and context-dependent phenomena
• Generating detailed and rich qualitative data
• Allowing researchers to explore multiple perspectives and factors influencing the subject
• Offering practical insights for professionals and practitioners
• Allowing for the examination of rare or unique occurrences that cannot be replicated in experimental settings

What Is a Case Study in Psychology?

Categories Research Methods

A case study is a research method used in psychology to investigate a particular individual, group, or situation in depth . It involves a detailed analysis of the subject, gathering information from various sources such as interviews, observations, and documents.

In a case study, researchers aim to understand the complexities and nuances of the subject under investigation. They explore the individual’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences to gain insights into specific psychological phenomena. 

This type of research can provide great detail regarding a particular case, allowing researchers to examine rare or unique situations that may not be easily replicated in a laboratory setting. They offer a holistic view of the subject, considering various factors influencing their behavior or mental processes. 

By examining individual cases, researchers can generate hypotheses, develop theories, and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in psychology. Case studies are often utilized in clinical psychology, where they can provide valuable insights into the diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes of specific psychological disorders. 

Case studies offer a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of complex psychological phenomena, providing researchers with valuable information to inform theory, practice, and future research.

Table of Contents

Examples of Case Studies in Psychology

Case studies in psychology provide real-life examples that illustrate psychological concepts and theories. They offer a detailed analysis of specific individuals, groups, or situations, allowing researchers to understand psychological phenomena better. Here are a few examples of case studies in psychology: 

Phineas Gage

This famous case study explores the effects of a traumatic brain injury on personality and behavior. A railroad construction worker, Phineas Gage survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality.

This case study helped researchers understand the role of the frontal lobe in personality and social behavior. 

Little Albert

Conducted by behaviorist John B. Watson, the Little Albert case study aimed to demonstrate classical conditioning. In this study, a young boy named Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

This case study provided insights into the process of fear conditioning and the impact of early experiences on behavior. 

Genie’s case study focused on a girl who experienced extreme social isolation and deprivation during her childhood. This study shed light on the critical period for language development and the effects of severe neglect on cognitive and social functioning. 

These case studies highlight the value of in-depth analysis and provide researchers with valuable insights into various psychological phenomena. By examining specific cases, psychologists can uncover unique aspects of human behavior and contribute to the field’s knowledge and understanding.

Types of Case Studies in Psychology

Psychology case studies come in various forms, each serving a specific purpose in research and analysis. Understanding the different types of case studies can help researchers choose the most appropriate approach. 

Descriptive Case Studies

These studies aim to describe a particular individual, group, or situation. Researchers use descriptive case studies to explore and document specific characteristics, behaviors, or experiences.

For example, a descriptive case study may examine the life and experiences of a person with a rare psychological disorder. 

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are conducted when there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a particular phenomenon. Researchers use these studies to gather preliminary information and generate hypotheses for further investigation.

Exploratory case studies often involve in-depth interviews, observations, and analysis of existing data. 

Explanatory Case Studies

These studies aim to explain the causal relationship between variables or events. Researchers use these studies to understand why certain outcomes occur and to identify the underlying mechanisms or processes.

Explanatory case studies often involve comparing multiple cases to identify common patterns or factors. 

Instrumental Case Studies

Instrumental case studies focus on using a particular case to gain insights into a broader issue or theory. Researchers select cases that are representative or critical in understanding the phenomenon of interest.

Instrumental case studies help researchers develop or refine theories and contribute to the general knowledge in the field. 

By utilizing different types of case studies, psychologists can explore various aspects of human behavior and gain a deeper understanding of psychological phenomena. Each type of case study offers unique advantages and contributes to the overall body of knowledge in psychology.

How to Collect Data for a Case Study

There are a variety of ways that researchers gather the data they need for a case study. Some sources include:

• Directly observing the subject
• Collecting information from archival records
• Conducting interviews
• Examining artifacts related to the subject
• Examining documents that provide information about the subject

The way that this information is collected depends on the nature of the study itself

Prospective Research

In a prospective study, researchers observe the individual or group in question. These observations typically occur over a period of time and may be used to track the progress or progression of a phenomenon or treatment.

Retrospective Research

A retrospective case study involves looking back on a phenomenon. Researchers typically look at the outcome and then gather data to help them understand how the individual or group reached that point.

Benefits of a Case Study

Case studies offer several benefits in the field of psychology. They provide researchers with a unique opportunity to delve deep into specific individuals, groups, or situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena.

Case studies offer valuable insights that can inform theory development and practical applications by examining real-life examples. 

Complex Data

One of the key benefits of case studies is their ability to provide complex and detailed data. Researchers can gather in-depth information through various methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of existing records.

This depth of data allows for a thorough exploration of the factors influencing behavior and the underlying mechanisms at play. 

Unique Data

Additionally, case studies allow researchers to study rare or unique cases that may not be easily replicated in experimental settings. This enables the examination of phenomena that are difficult to study through other psychology research methods . 

By focusing on specific cases, researchers can uncover patterns, identify causal relationships, and generate hypotheses for further investigation.

General Knowledge

Case studies can also contribute to the general knowledge of psychology by providing real-world examples that can be used to support or challenge existing theories. They offer a bridge between theory and practice, allowing researchers to apply theoretical concepts to real-life situations and vice versa. 

Case studies offer a range of benefits in psychology, including providing rich and detailed data, studying unique cases, and contributing to theory development. These benefits make case studies valuable in understanding human behavior and psychological phenomena.

Limitations of a Case Study

While case studies offer numerous benefits in the field of psychology, they also have certain limitations that researchers need to consider. Understanding these limitations is crucial for interpreting the findings and generalizing the results. 

Lack of Generalizability

One limitation of case studies is the issue of generalizability. Since case studies focus on specific individuals, groups, and situations, applying the findings to a larger population can be challenging. The unique characteristics and circumstances of the case may not be representative of the broader population, making it difficult to draw universal conclusions. 

Researcher bias is another possible limitation. The researcher’s subjective interpretation and personal beliefs can influence the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process. This bias can affect the objectivity and reliability of the findings, raising questions about the study’s validity. 

Case studies are often time-consuming and resource-intensive. They require extensive data collection, analysis, and interpretation, which can be lengthy. This can limit the number of cases that can be studied and may result in a smaller sample size, reducing the study’s statistical power. 

Case studies are retrospective in nature, relying on past events and experiences. This reliance on memory and self-reporting can introduce recall bias and inaccuracies in the data. Participants may forget or misinterpret certain details, leading to incomplete or unreliable information.

Despite these limitations, case studies remain a valuable research tool in psychology. By acknowledging and addressing these limitations, researchers can enhance the validity and reliability of their findings, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior and psychological phenomena. 

While case studies have limitations, they remain valuable when researchers acknowledge and address these concerns, leading to more reliable and valid findings in psychology.

Alpi, K. M., & Evans, J. J. (2019). Distinguishing case study as a research method from case reports as a publication type. Journal of the Medical Library Association , 107(1). https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2019.615

Crowe, S., Cresswell, K., Robertson, A., Huby, G., Avery, A., & Sheikh, A. (2011). The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology , 11(1), 100. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Paparini, S., Green, J., Papoutsi, C., Murdoch, J., Petticrew, M., Greenhalgh, T., Hanckel, B., & Shaw, S. (2020). Case study research for better evaluations of complex interventions: Rationale and challenges. BMC Medicine , 18(1), 301. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01777-6

Willemsen, J. (2023). What is preventing psychotherapy case studies from having a greater impact on evidence-based practice, and how to address the challenges? Frontiers in Psychiatry , 13, 1101090. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1101090

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

StudyTution

Cbse notes and sample papers, methods of enquiry in psychology class 11 notes.

December 11, 2018 Mehak Psychology 8

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Description

• In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible.
• This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours.
• Within a particular category there may be further minute descriptions.
• The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding.
• The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour.
• If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena.
• You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.
• Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.

Explanation

• The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour.
• Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur.
• Also, what are the conditions under which a particular behaviour does not occur.
• If you are able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, you can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions.
• Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it.

Application

• The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people.
• Psychological research is conducted to solve problems in various settings.
• Because of these efforts the quality of life of people is a major concern of psychologists.
• Scientific enquiry is also conducted to develop new theories or constructs, which leads to further research.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

• Science is not so defined by what it investigates as by how it investigates.
• The scientific method attempts to study a particular event or phenomenon in an objective, systematic, and testable manner.
• The objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more persons independently study a particular event, both of them, to a great extent, should arrive at the same conclusion.
• The second characteristic of scientific research is that it follows systematic procedure or steps of investigation.

Conceptualising a Problem

• The process of scientific research begins when a researcher selects a theme or topic for study.
• Then s/he narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study.
• This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences.
• After identification of the problem, the researcher proceeds by developing a tentative answer of the problem, which is called hypothesis.

Collecting Data

• The second step in scientific research is to collect data.
• Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study.
• Depending upon the nature of the study, the researcher has to decide who would be the participants in the study.
• The second decision is related to the use of methods of data collection, such as observation method, experimental method, correlational method, case study, etc.

Drawing Conclusions

• The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean.
• This can be achieved through graphical representations and by the use of different statistical methods.
• The purpose of analysis is to verify a hypothesis and draw conclusions accordingly.

Revising Research Conclusions

• S/he has to see whether the conclusions support this hypothesis.
• If they do, the existing hypothesis/ theory is confirmed.
• If not, s/he will revise or state an alternative hypothesis/theory and again test it based on new data and draw conclusions which may be verified by future researchers.
• Thus, research is a continuous process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

• human behaviour is predictable, caused by internal and external forces, and can be observed, measured, and controlled.
• It takes the stand that, in view of complex and variable nature of human behaviour and experience, its method of investigation should be different from the method of investigation of the physical world.
• This viewpoint emphasises the importance of how human beings give meaning to events and actions and interpret them as they occur in a particular context.
• we need to understand the subjective interpretation of the reality.
• The goal here is to explore the different aspects of human experiences and behaviour without attempting to disturb its natural flow.
• Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with studying behaviour and experiences of others.

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA

• Psychologists collect a variety of information from different sources employing diverse methods.
• The information, also called data (singular = datum), relate to the individuals’ covert or overt behaviour, their subjective experiences, and mental processes.
• Data form an important input in psychological enquiry.
• They in fact approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc.
• It should be understood that data are not independent entities.
• data are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs.
• data does not in itself speak about reality.
• Inferences have to be made from data.
• A researcher attaches meaning to the data by placing it in its proper context.

Demographic Information

• This information generally includes personal information

Physical Information

• This category includes information about ecological conditions

Physiological Data

• In some studies physical, physiological and psychological .

Psychological Information

• Psychological information collected, may relate to such areas as intelligence, personality, interest, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc.

SOME IMPORTANT METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

Observational Method

• Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry.
• It is an effective method of describing behaviour.
• A scientific observation differs from day-to-day observation
• Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter.
• Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation.
• While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc

Analysis of Data

• After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it.
•  It is important to know that making good observations is a skill.
• A good observer knows what s/he is looking for, whom s/he wants to observe, when and where the observation needs to be made, in what form the observation will be recorded, and what methods will be used to analyse the observed behaviour.

Types of Observation

Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation

• When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings it is called naturalistic observation.
• In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation.
• This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc.
• controlled laboratory situation. This type of observation, called Controlled Laboratory Observation, actually, is obtained in laboratory experiments.

Non-Participant vs Participant Observation

• the type of observation in which researcher is in involved is called non-participant observation.
• The danger in this type of setup is that the very fact that someone is sitting and observing may bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher.
• In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed.
• In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members.
• the degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.

The advantage

• The observation method is that it enables the researcher to study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.
• the observation method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias.
• Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event
• the observer should record the behaviour as it happens and should not interpret the behaviour at the time of observation itself

Experimental Method

• Experiments are generally conducted to establish cause-effect relationship between two sets of events or variables in a controlled setting.
•  In the experiment, cause is the event being changed or manipulated. Effect is the behaviour that changes because of the manipulation.

The Concept of Variable

• in the experimental method, a researcher attempts to establish causal relationship between two variables.
• Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values and can be measured is a variable.
• An object by itself is not a variable.
• Independent variable is that variable which is manipulated or altered or its strength varied by the researcher in the experiment.
• It is the effect of this change in the variable which the researcher wants to observe or note in the study.
• The independent variable was presence or absence of other persons in the room.
• The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called dependent variable.
• Dependent variable represents the phenomenon the researcher desires to explain.
• It is expected that change in the dependent variable will ensue from changes in the independent variable.
• independent and dependent variables are interdependent.
• Neither of them can be defined without the other.
• independent variable chosen by the researcher is not the only variable that influences the dependent variable.
• Independent and dependent variables are chosen because of the researcher’s theoretical interest.
• extraneous variables need to be controlled in an experiment so that a researcher is able to pin-point the cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables.

Experimental and Control Groups

• Experiments generally involve one or more experimental groups and one or more control groups.
• An experimental group is a group in which members of the group are exposed to independent variable manipulation.
• The control group is a comparison group that is treated in every way like the experimental group except that the manipulated variable is absent in it.
• in an experiment, except for the experimental manipulation, other conditions are kept constant for both experimental and control groups.
• One attempts to control all those relevant variables which can influence the dependent variable.
• All relevant variables in experimental studies that might influence the dependent variable need to be controlled.
• Exposure to many conditions may result in experimental fatigue, or practice effects, which may influence the results of the study and make the interpretation of the findings difficult.
• Since the goal of an experiment is to minimise extraneous variables, the best way to handle this problem is to eliminate them from the experimental setting.
• Elimination is not always possible. In such cases, effort should be made to hold them constant so that their effect remains the same throughout the experiment.
• For controlling organismic and background variables matching is also used. In this procedure the relevant variables in the two groups are equated or are held constant by taking matched pairs across conditions of the experiment.
• Counter-balancing technique is used to minimize the sequence effect

Strength and limitation 

• The strength of a well-designed experiment is that it can provide, relatively speaking, a convincing evidence of a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables.
• experiments are often conducted in a highly controlled laboratory situation.
• In this sense, they only simulate situations that exist in the outside world.
• They are frequently criticised for this reason.
• The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real situations.
• they have low external validity.
• limitation of the laboratory experiment is that it is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
• it is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

• If a researcher wants to have high generalisability or to conduct studies which are not possible in laboratory settings, s/he may go to the field or the natural setting where the particular phenomenon actually exists.
• it is more timeconsuming and expensive.
• Many variables cannot be manipulated in the laboratory settings.
• In quasi experimentation the independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated by the experimenter.
• a quasi experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form experimental and control groups.

Correlational Research

• The strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables is represented by a number, known as correlation coefficient.
• Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to –1.0.
• A positive correlation indicates that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other variable (Y) will also increase.
• Similarly when variable X decreases, a decrease in Y too takes place.
• negative correlation tells us that as the value of one variable (X) increases, the value of the other (Y) decreases.
• It is also possible that sometimes no correlation may exist between the two variables. This is called zero correlation.
• This indicates that no significant relationship exists between two variables or the two variables are unrelated.

Survey Research

• Survey research came into existence to study opinions, attitudes and social facts.
• Their main concern initially was to find out the existing reality or baseline.
• The survey research uses different techniques for collecting information.

Personal Interviews

• The interview method is one of the most frequently used methods for obtaining information from people.
• It is used in diverse kinds of situations.
• An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive factual information, opinions and attitudes, and reasons for particular behaviour, etc. from the respondents.
• It is generally conducted face-to-face but sometimes it can also take place over the phone.

structured or standardised, and unstructured or non-standardised.

• This distinction is based upon the type of preparation we make before conducting the interview.
• As we have to ask questions during the interview, it is required that we prepare a list of questions before-hand. The list is called an interview schedule.
• A structured interview is one where the questions in the schedule are written clearly in a particular sequence.
• The interviewer has little or no liberty to make changes in the wordings of the questions or the order in which they are to be asked.
• The responses to these questions are also, in some cases, specified in advance. These are called close-ended questions.
• in unstructured interview the interviewer has the flexibility to take decisions about the questions to be asked, the wording of the questions, and the sequence in which questions are to be asked.
• responses are not specified in such type of interviews, the respondent can answer the questions in the way s/he chooses to. Such questions are called open-ended questions.

Individual to Individual : It is a situation where one interviewer interviews another person.

Individual to Group : In this situation, one interviewer interviews a group of persons. One variant of it is called a Focus Group Discussion (FGD).

Group to Individuals : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview one person. .

Group to Group : It is a situation where one group of interviewers interview another group of interviewees.

• Interviewing is a skill which requires proper training.
• A good interviewer knows how to make the respondent at ease and get the optimal answer.
• S/he remains sensitive to the way a person responds and, if needed, probes for more information.
• If the respondent gives vague answers, the interviewer may try to get specific and concrete answers.
•  The interview method helps in obtaining in-depth information.
• It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations, and can often be used when no other method is possible or adequate.
• It can be used even with children, and non-literate persons.
• An interviewer can know whether the respondent  understands the questions, and can repeat or paraphrase questions.

Questionnaire Survey

• The questionnaire is the most common, simple, versatile, and low-cost self-report method of collecting information.
• It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
• The respondent has to read the questions and mark the answers on paper rather than respond verbally to the interviewer.
• They are in some ways like highly structured interviews.
•  Questionnaires can be distributed to a group of persons at a time who write down their answers to the questions and return to the researcher or can be sent through mail.
• With open-ended questions, the respondent is free to write whatever answers/he considers appropriate.
• In the closedended type, the questions and their probable answers are given and the respondent is required to select the correct answer.
• The main problem of a mailed questionnaire is poor response from the respondents.

Telephone Survey

• Surveys are also conducted through telephone, and now-a-days you must have seen programmes asking you to send your views through mobile phones’ SMS.
• The telephone survey helps in reducing time.
• the respondents do not know the interviewer, the technique is fraught with uncooperativeness, reluctance, and superficial answers by the respondents.
• This will lead to very biased kinds of results.

Advantage and Disadvantage

• The researcher needs to exercise caution in selecting a particular method.
• information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from thousands of persons.
• surveys can be conducted quickly, public opinions on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the issues arise.
• people may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher know what they really believe about a particular issue.
• People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.

Psychological Testing

• Assessment of individual differences has remained one of the important concerns of psychology from the very beginning.
• Psychologists have constructed different types of tests for assessment of various human characteristics
• a test contains a number of questions, called items, with their probable responses, which are related to a particular human characteristic or attribute.
• It is important here that the characteristic for which a test has been developed, should be defined clearly and unambiguously, and all items should be related to that characteristic only.
• a psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument which is used to assess an individual’s standing in relation to others on some mental or behavioural characteristics.
• Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer a psychological test on the same group of people, both of them would come up with more or less the same values for each person in the group.
• In order for a psychological test to become an objective measure, it is essential that items should be worded in such a manner that they communicate the same meaning to different readers.
• the instructions to the test takers about how to answer the test items should be specified in advance.
• The construction of a test is a systematic process and involves certain steps.
• Reliability of the test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions.
•  It is computed by finding out co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of scores on the same set of persons.
• split-half reliability gives an indication about the degree of internal consistency of the test.
• This is based on the assumption that items of a test if they are from the same domain should correlate with each other.
• For a test to be usable, it should also be valid.
• a test becomes a standardised test when norms are developed for the test.
• norm is the normal or average performance of the group.

Types of Tests

• Psychological tests are classified on the basis of their language, mode of administration, and difficulty level.
• Depending upon the language, we have verbal, non-verbal, and performance tests.
• Literacy is required for taking verbal tests as the items have to be written in some language.
• In non-verbal tests, items are made of symbols or pictures.
• Performance tests  require movement of objects from their respective places in a particular order.
• Depending upon the mode of administration, psychological tests are divided into individual or group tests.
• An individual test is administered by the researcher to one person at a time, while group tests can be administered to large number of persons at the same time.
• In individual tests, the researcher administers the test face to face and remains seated before the test taker and notes down the responses.
• Individual tests are time consuming, but are important ways of getting responses from children, and from those who do not know the language.
• Group tests are easy to administer and are also less time consuming.
• In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all the items.
• power test assesses the underlying ability of the individuals by allowing them sufficient time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.
•  In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an increasing order of difficulty.
• The test user or the decision maker should not rely on any single test.
• In this method, the emphasis is given on indepth study of a particular case.
• Researchers focus on cases which can provide critical information or new learning on less understood phenomena.
• The cases that we select for study are unique and, therefore, are rich in information.
• Case studies provide a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person’s life.
•  A case study is a valuable research tool in the field of clinical psychology and human development.
• Freud’s insights that led to the development of psychoanalytic theory emerged from his observations and showed that meticulous records must be maintained on individual cases.
• Piaget developed his theory of cognitive development on the basis of observations of his three children.
• Case studies provide detailed in-depth depictions of people’s lives.
• The problem of validity in a single case study is quite challenging. It is recommended that the information should be collected using multiple strategies from different sources of information by a number of investigators.
• Careful planning of data collection is also very necessary.
• the process of data collection the researcher is required to maintain a chain of evidence for linking various data sources having bearing on the research questions.
• the researcher should not depend upon only one method.
• A combination of two or more methods should be used to get the real picture.
• If the methods converge, i.e. they give the same results, one can certainly be more confident.

LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ENQUIRY

Lack of True Zero Point

• Psychological measurements do not have a true zero point.
• The problem in such type of assessment is that the difference between first and second rank holders may not be the same as is the difference between the second and third rank holders.
• This also illustrates the relative nature of the psychological measurement.

Relative Nature of Psychological Tools 

• Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular context.
• tests need to be properly modified and adapted keeping in view the characteristics of the context in which they are to be used.

Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data

• Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective since they involve interpretation on the part of the researcher as well as the person providing data.
• The interpretations may vary from one individual to the other.
• It is, therefore, often suggested that in case of qualitative studies, the field work should be done by more than one investigator, who at the end of the day should discuss their observations and arrive at an agreement before finally giving it a meaning.
• one is better off, if the respondents too are involved in such meaning-making process.

ETHICAL ISSUES

 Voluntary Participation

• This principle states that the persons on whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.
• The participants should have the freedom to decide about their participation without any coercion or excessive inducement, and the freedom to withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has begun.

Informed Consent

• It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the study.
• The principle of informed consent states that potential participants must receive this information before data from them are collected, so that they make an informed decision about participation in the study.
• They may at times be required to give some private information, which is generally not shared with others.
• It is important that the participants are explained the nature of the study before its actual commencement.
• Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of research. T
• his is particularly important if deception has been used in the study.
• Debriefing ensures that participants leave the study in the same physical and mental state as when they entered. It should offer reassurance to the participants.
• The researcher should make efforts to remove any anxiety or other adverse effects that participants may have felt as a result of being deceived in the course of the study.

Sharing the Results of the Study

• In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions.
• It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them.
• When you go for data collection, the participants develop certain expectations from you.
•  you fulfil the expectations of the participants.
• The participants may tell you their opinion about the results, which sometimes may help you develop new insights.

Confidentiality of Data Source

• The participants in a study have the right to privacy.
• The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence.
• The information should only be used for research purposes and, in no circumstances, it should be passed on to  other interested parties.
• The most effective way of protecting the confidentiality of participants is not to record their identities.
• This is, however, not possible in certain kinds of research.
• In such cases, code numbers are given on the data sheet, and the names with the codes are kept separately. The identification list should be destroyed as soon as the research is over.

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ISC Psychology Class 11 Syllabus 2025-26

There are two papers in the subject. Paper I is Theory of 3 hours and 70 marks. Part I (20 marks) consists of compulsory short answer questions relating to the fundamental aspects of the entire syllabus.

Part II (50 marks) consists of two sections, A and B. You are required to answer two out of three questions from Section A and three out of five questions from Section B. Each question in this part carries 10 marks.

1. The Subject Psychology

(i) Definition of Psychology; Nature - bio science, social science or pure science; schools of thought - Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology.

Definition of Psychology, meaning of the terms behaviour, stimulus and response. Subject matter / nature of Psychology as a bio science, social science or pure science. The eclectic approach of modern Psychology. Main features of the schools of Structuralism, Functionalism and Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology (two Psychologists of each approach and their relevant concepts).

(ii) Fields of Psychology  - clinical, counselling, developmental, educational, organizational and social.

The general importance and aims of studying Psychology and its special benefits. Applications - different branches and the kind of work done in special fields - clinical, counselling, developmental, educational, organizational and social (in brief).

(iii) Heredity and Environment - meaning of the term ‘heredity’; basic principles and mechanism of heredity (genetic). Meaning of the term ‘environment’; importance of both heredity and environment in behaviour.

The definition and role of chromosomes and genes (dominant and recessive); the laws of heredity: uniformity and variability. Significance of environment: physical and social. Heredity related diseases: Mental Retardation and Huntington’s disease. How both heredity and environment interact to produce behaviour (Twin studies, Adoption Studies, Separated Twin Study).

2. Methods of Psychology

(i) Scientific Methods in Psychology - observation, case study, surveys, psychological tests, experimentation - steps. Psychological tests and their uses.

The application of scientific methods in the study of behaviour. What is meant by scientific observation? Field study; controlled and uncontrolled observation; longitudinal and cross-sectional studies; the case history method; the experimental method - variables and controls - steps in an experiment; surveys and use of questionnaires/self reports. One advantage and one disadvantage for each method of Psychology. Meaning of samples (random, biased, representative); meaning of population. Psychological tests - characteristics, definition, uses and types.

(ii) Interpretation of research results - use of statistics in interpretation of data - understanding of why statistics is used (descriptive & inferential). Basic statistical concepts - statistics, sample, population.

Why statistics is used in Psychology - interpretation of findings: describing and summarizing data, comparing individuals/ groups, investigating relationships between variables, predicting. Descriptive statistics - for summarizing scores. Inferential statistics - to determine whether observed differences between groups are likely/unlikely to have occurred by chance.

How scores are grouped into frequency distributions; central tendency of a frequency distribution - mean, median, mode and when each measure is used; dispersion: the extent to which scores are spread out - range, variance, standard deviation; why both central tendency and variability are important in psychology.

3. Attention and Perception

(i) Nature of attention - its inner and outer determinants.

The importance of attention in perception - how both physical factors such as size, colour, movement, change, intensity, contrast and psychological factors such as need, interest and emotion determine attention and perception.

(ii) Perceptual processes - difference between sensation and perception. Organizational principles of perception - laws, constancies, depth and colour perception.

Process involved in transforming sensation to perception. Important factors in perceptual process - figure and ground, laws of grouping: similarity, proximity, continuation, simplicity, good figure; constancy of size, shape and colour; factors involved in depth perception -monocular and binocular cues; how colour is perceived - biological and psychological factors ; attributes of colour - hue, wavelength, brightness and saturation; laws of colour mixture; colour blindness, adaptation and after-images.

(iii) Errors in perception - illusions of size and shape; what is meant by extra-sensory perception (ESP).

False interpretations - illusions: Muller-Lyer, Height -Width, Ponzo, Zoellner, Poggendorf (details of experiments are required); ESP - perceptions not based on any of the known senses (general understanding of ESP).

4. Emotions and Motivation

(i) What is meant by emotion; the basic emotions.

Subjective and cognitive experience, physiological basis of emotion, reactions and overt expression. Primary emotions - fear, anger, joy, sorrow, affection.

(ii) Theories of emotion dealing with physiological, subjective and cognitive aspects.

James Lange, Cannon Bard, Schachter - Singer theories.

(iii) What is meant by motives, needs and instincts.

Motivation as an internal force generating certain behaviour - biological needs and homeostasis; instincts as unlearned and physiological desires; evidence indicating the existence of unconscious motives. Intrinsic - the desire to perform activities for their own sake.

(iv) Theories of Motivation.

Pull and push theories, Optimum Arousal theory and Expectancy theory - Graphic representation of Maslow's Needs Hierarchy.

(v) Social motives.

Three distinctively human motives: Achievement - accomplishing difficult tasks; Power - exerting influence over others; Aggression - learning and control of human aggression, causes and effects.

(vi) Frustration - blocking of motives; conflict among motives.

Frustration as a result of motives not finding free or adequate expression. Different types of conflict among motives: approach - approach, avoidance - avoidance, multiple approach - avoidance (with examples).

5. Learning

(i) What is meant by learning; how learning takes place - Classical and Operant Conditioning; Insight learning, Observational Learning and Learning Styles.

Definition of learning - Pavlov and Classical Conditioning; Thorndike and Trial and Error; Skinner and Operant Conditioning; experiments, findings and principles established. Insight and Observational Learning - Kohler and Bandura's studies. Learning Styles - Auditory, Visual and Kinesthetic.

(ii) Learning disabilities: definition and types.

Characteristics of the disabilities - Dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia (symptoms and management). Adjustment problems and remedials.

6. Remembering and Forgetting

(i) The memory system - how it works - different models.

Sensory memory, Short and Long term Memory - encoding, storage, retrieval. Terms like iconic image, free recall, serial position effects, recency effects, primary effects, episodic, working memory. Semantic and Procedural Memory. Processing memory - the Atkinson Shiffrin Model and Parallel Distributed Processing.

(ii) Why and how forgetting occurs.

Trace decay, retro and pro active interference, amnesia - retrograde and anterograde; Alzheimer's disease; Dementia.

(iii) How memory can be improved.

Attention, use of imagery, Mnemonic devices, application of principles of learning.

7. Thinking, Problem Solving and Creativity

(i) What is meant by thinking.

Definition and basic elements of thought. Nature and elements of thinking: images, visual image, concepts and language - interdependence of language and thought; different kinds of thinking: convergent, divergent, creative, goal-oriented and aimless thinking.

(ii) Concepts and how they are formed.

Definition - importance of concepts in thinking - artificial, natural, simple and complex concepts.

(iii) Reasoning - how it is carried out; common errors in reasoning, how reasoning can be made more effective. Decision making and problem solving - heuristics and algorithms.

Reaching specific conclusions from available information - deductive and inductive reasoning; common errors - faulty premises, biases, fallacy of single case, rationalization, hindsight. Improving reasoning - avoiding errors, examining premises and ambiguities, guarding against emotion. Decision Making and Problem Solving - steps involved, optimum expected utility, means-end-analysis, analogy.

(iv) Creative thinking - what is meant by convergent and divergent thinking; stages in creative thinking, how creativity can be fostered.

Use of divergent thinking in creativity - stages in creative thinking, preparation, incubation, illumination, verification / validation. How creativity may be encouraged: enrich knowledge and experience, encourage independence, curiosity and promote positive mood.

Important Questions and Answers

• 1 mark Questions and Answers
• 2 marks Questions and Answers
• 3 marks Questions and Answers

Chapter wise Questions and Answers

• Chapter 1: What is Psychology
• Chapter 1: What is Psychology - Multiple Choice Questions and Answers
• Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology
• Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology - Multiple Choice Questions and Answers
• Chapter 3: The Bases of Human Behaviour
• Chapter 3: The Bases of Human Behaviour - Multiple Choice Questions and Answers
• Chapter 4: Human Development
• Chapter 5: Sensory, Attentional and Perceptional Processes
• Chapter 6: Learning
• Chapter 7: Human Memory
• Chapter 8: Thinking
• Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion

List of Questions and Answers

1.The variables on which the effect of independent variable is observed is called___________. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

Ans:dependent variable

2.State two points of difference between Speed tests and Power tests. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

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3.State two points of difference between Structured and Unstructured interview. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

4.Explain Voluntary Participation as one of the ethical issues. (Chapter 2 - Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

• This principle states that the persons on whom you want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.
• The participants should have the freedom to decide about their participation without any pressure or excessive inducement, and the freedom to withdraw from the research without penalty, once it has begun.

5.Scientific observation is different from day to day observation in three respects. Explain. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

• Psychologist select one particular behaviour for observation instead of considering all.
• For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school.
• Based on this example two things are possible at this stage.
• As a researcher, you might think that you have a fairly good idea about what happens in school. You might prepare a list of activities and go to the school with a view to finding out their occurrences.
• Another aspect is, you do not know what happens in the school and, by your observation you would like to discover it.

6.State and explain any three goals of psychological enquiry. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

• In a psychological study, we attempt to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible.This helps in distinguishing a particular behaviour from other behaviours.
• An example, the researcher may be interested in observing study habits among students.Study habits may consist of diverse range of behaviours, such as attending all your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time, planning your study schedule, studying according to the set schedule, revising your work on a daily basis etc.
• The researcher needs to describe her/his meaning of study habits. The description requires recording of a particular behaviour which helps in its proper understanding.
• The second goal of scientific enquiry is prediction of behaviour. If you are able to understand and describe the behaviour accurately, you come to know the relationship of a particular behaviour with other types of behaviours, events, or phenomena.
• You can then forecast that under certain conditions this particular behaviour may occur within a certain margin of error.
• For example, on the basis of study, a researcher is able to establish a positive relationship between the amount of study time and achievement in different subjects.
• Later, if you come to know that a particular child devotes more time for study, you can predict that the child is likely to get good marks in the examination. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.
• The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour. Psychologists are primarily interested in knowing the factors that make behaviour occur.
• For example, what makes some children more attentive in the class? Why some children devote less time for study as compared to others?
• Thus, this goal is concerned with identifying the determinants or antecedent conditions of the behaviour being studied so that cause-effect relationship between two variables (objects) or events could be established.

7.Explain Participant and Non-Participant observation. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

• In participant observation, the observer becomes a part of the school or the group of people being observed.
• In participant observation, the observer takes some time to establish a rapport with the group so that they start accepting her/him as one of the group members.
• The degree of involvement of the observer with the group being observed would vary depending upon the focus of the study.
• In non participant observation , you decide to observe the person or event from a distance. An example is you want to observe the pattern of interaction between teachers and students in a particular class.
• There are many ways of achieving this goal. You can install a video camera to record the classroom activities, which you can see later and analyse.
• Alternatively, you may decide to sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities. This type of observation is called non-participant observation.
• The danger with this type of observation is that when you know someone is sitting and observing that will bring a change in the behaviour of students and the teacher.

8.Explain Speed and Power tests. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

• In a speed test, there is a time limit within which the test taker is required to answer all the items. Such a test evaluates the individual on the basis of time taken to answer the items accurately.
• In a speed test, all the items are of the same degree of difficulty.
• On the other hand, power test assesses the underlying ability (or power) of the individuals by allowing them sufficient time, i.e. these tests do not have any time limit.
• In a power test, the items are generally arranged in an increasing order of difficulty.If a person, for example, is unable to solve the 6th item, s/he will have difficulty in answering the subsequent items.
• It is, however, difficult to construct a pure speed or power test. Majority of the tests are a combination of both speed and power.

9. What do you understand by demographic information? (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology)

Ans:This information generally includes personal information like name, age, gender, birth order, number of siblings, education, occupation, marital status, number of children, locality of residence, caste, religion, parental education, occupation, and family income, etc.

10. A scientist observes a worth of a statement on the basis of __________. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology) a) Data collection b) Evidence c) collection d) Both a and b

Ans:d) Both a and b

11. _______________ means consistency of tests results. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology) a) Relaiability b) Validity c) Objectivity d) Subjectivity

Ans: a) Relaiability

12. ____________ refers to the extent to which the test measure what it claims to measure.

Ans: Validity

13.The situation where one interviewer interviews another person is called ___________. (Chapter 2: Methods of Enquiry in Psychology) a) Individual to group b) Group to individual c) Individual to individual d) Group to group

Ans: c) Individual to individual

14.What is correlational method of psychology ?

Ans: Correlation method is the research method in which researchers attempt to determine whether and to what extent different variables are related to each other. It is divided into a) Positive correlation b) Negative correlation c) Zero correlation

15. What are variables? State any TWO variables.

Ans: Any stimulus or event which varies, that is, it takes on different values (or changes) and can be measured is called a variable. a) Independent variable b) Dependent variable

16. Define case study .State any TWO characteristics of a case study.

Ans: Case studies provide you a narrative or detailed descriptions of the events that take place in a person's life. Following are the characteristics of case study: a) Case study, emphasis on indepth study of a particular person's life. b) The cases that are selected for study are unique and rich in information. c) Various methods are used to collect information . for example multiple methods for collecting information, such as interview, observation, and psychological tests from a variety of respondents. d) Case studies provide detailed in-depth depictions of people's lives.

17. Reliability refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions.(True/False).

18.__________ is the tentative answer to a problem.

Ans: hypothesis

19. What is observation and steps in process of observation and explain various types of observation research?

Ans: Observation is a very powerful tool of psychological enquiry. It is an effective method of describing behaviour. Following are the steps in process of observation: a) Selection : Psychologists do not observe all the behaviour that they encounter. Rather, they select a particular behaviour for observation. For example, you may be interested to know how children studying in Class XI spend their time in school. b) Recording : While observing, a researcher records the selected behaviour using different means, such as marking tallies for the already identified behaviour whenever they occur, taking notes describing each activity in greater detail using short hand or symbols, photographs, video recording, etc. c) Analysis of Data :After the observations have been made, psychologists analyse whatever they have recorded with a view to derive some meaning out of it. Following are the types of Observation methods. (a) Naturalistic vs Controlled Observation : When observations are done in a natural or real-life settings (in the above example, it was a school in which observation was made), it is called naturalistic observation. In this case the observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. This type of observation is conducted in hospitals, homes, schools, day care centers, etc. (b) Non-Participant vs Participant Observation : Observation can be done in two ways. One, you may decide to observe the person or event from a distance. Two, the observer may become part of the group being observed. In the first case, the person being observed may not be aware that s/he is being observed.

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• Psychology /

Motivation and Emotion Class 11 Notes

• Updated on  
• May 1, 2023

Motivation and emotion are connected in more ways than you can imagine. Emotions help in motivating individuals. The emotion of anger can be channelized into working hard towards your goal, and the feeling of sadness can demotivate you. The psychology subject of CBSE revolves around topics such as self and personality , and meeting life challenges and today we will be discussing motivation and emotion in class 11 notes.

This Blog Includes:

Nature of motivation, motivation cycle, biological motives,  psychosocial motives, maslow’s hierarchy of needs, frustration and conflict, nature of emotions, physiology of emotions, theories of motivation, managing negative emotions, anger management, enhancing positive emotions, motivation and emotion class 11 ncert solutions.

The first topic of motivation and emotion class 11 Notes is the nature of motivation. It is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-driven behaviours. Motivation is the process that causes us to take action. Whether it is eating food to satiate hunger or doing exercise to keep our body fit. Motivation is one of the important determinants of behaviour and instincts, drives, goals, and needs are included in the broad concept of motivation

Also Read: Thinking Class 11 Psychology Notes

• A need is defined as a lack of some necessity
• Need further leads to drive which is defined as a state of arousal which energizes us to take action that will help us in accomplishing our goal
• After the accomplishment of a goal, there is a reduction in drive and at last, the organism achieves a balanced state as the needs are fulfilled

Also Read: Chapter 7 Psychology Class 12: Social Influence And Group Processes Study Notes

Types of Motives

Motives are broadly categorized into two types. Biological and psychological motives. Let us explore more about these topics mentioned in motivation and emotion class 11 notes:

They are present from birth and are universal in nature. Its main focus is on innate, biological causes of motivation like hormones, neurotransmitters, and brain structures(Limbic System, Hypothalamus). Some examples of biological motives are mentioned below:

• Changes in the metabolic functions of the liver lead to a feeling of hunger
• The liver sends signals to the hypothalamus and the two regions involved in hunger are the Lateral Hypothalamus and Ventromedial Hypothalamus the first region’s stimulation causes hunger and the second region inhibits hunger.

Thirst   

• Drinking water is necessary to wet a dry mouth and along with dry mouth, it is the body processes within which leads to a feeling of thirst.
• Motivation to drink water is mainly triggered by conditions such as loss of water from cells, reduction of blood volume and the anterior hypothalamus containing nerve cells called osmoreceptors which generate nerve impulses in case of cell dehydration.
• One of the most powerful drives in the case of animals and human beings is called the sex drive
• Sexual activity, unlike thirst, hunger is not necessary for the survival of human beings and it develops with age.]

Also Read: Psychology Class 11 Chapter 1

They evolve with age and are influenced by culture. Its main focus is on psychological, social, and environmental factors and how these factors interact with one another which leads to a feeling of motivation. Examples include the need for achievement, affiliation, power, etc.

Need for Affiliation

• Seeking other human beings and wanting to develop a close relationship with them is termed affiliation.
• People who are high on this need, to develop friendly relations with others and have the urge to be a part of all the social groups.

Need For Power

• It is defined as the ability of a person to produce intended effects on the behaviour and emotions of another person.
• Various goals of power motivation are to influence, persuade others and enhance one’s own goodwill in the eyes of others

Need for Achievement

• This need refers to the desire of a person to meet standards of excellence
• It energizes and directs behaviour as well as influences our perception of the situations we face.

Curiosity and Exploration 

• It doesn’t have a specific and identifiable goal or target 
• It basically includes seeking new experiences, learning new things, and enhancing one’s knowledge.

Also Read: Learning Class 11 Psychology Notes

 Maslow came up with his theory of motivation which clearly portrayed all human needs in a hierarchical manner:

• Physiological needs include all the basic needs like food, water, and warmth which are necessary for survival
• Safety needs include staying safe from any kind of danger and it includes job security as well which ensures financial security
• Belongingness needs which focus on seeking out cordial relationships with others and companionship
• Esteem Needs to focus on developing a feeling of self-worth and pride which gives a boost to self-confidence and self-esteem
• Self-Actualization Needs mainly focus on unleashing one’s potential to the fullest and a self-actualized person is self-aware, socially responsive, face difficulties and challenges, etc

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Frustration – It occurs when an anticipated desirable goal is not achieved and the motive is blocked. Frustration is an aversive state and no one likes the state of frustration.

• Frustration Aggression Hypothesis- It was given by Dollard and Miller. As per this theory, Frustration produces aggression and aggressive acts are often directed towards the self or blocking agent. Sources of frustration are:
• Environmental Factors- These factors include physical objects or constraining situations that limit a person from accomplishing their goal.
• Personal Factors- They include inadequacy or lack of resources which makes it difficult for a person to accomplish their goals.

Conflict – It occurs when a person has to make a choice between desires, needs, and motives that are contradictory in nature. There are three basic forms of conflict mentioned below:

• Approach-Approach conflict is a conflict between two positive and equally attractive options and we get to choose between two of them. For example, Making a choice between two equally attractive colleges to seek admission, such as SRCC and Hindu college
• Avoidance- Avoidance conflict is a conflict between two negative and equally unattractive options and we have to make a choice between the given options. For Example- Choosing between Roadside food and starvation
• Approach Avoidance Conflict -It arises from being attracted to and repelled by the same goal. For example, a person wants to lose weight but is reluctant to follow the diet

Also Read: 50+ Topics for Psychology Projects

Emotions involve arousal, subjective arousal, and cognitive interpretation of the given situation. They move us internally and involve both psychological and physiological reactions. There are 6 basic emotions which are mentioned below in the motivation and emotion class 11 notes:

Also Read: Scope of Psychology

The nervous system central as well as peripheral plays an important role in the regulation of emotions. Check out the physiology of emotions mentioned below:

• It is composed of a group of nerve cells and acts as a relay centre of sensory nerves.
• Stimulation or Activation of the thalamus produces fear, anxiety, and automatic reactions
• A theory of emotion given by Cannon and Bard(1931) focuses on the role of the thalamus in mediating and initiating all emotional experiences.
• It is intimately involved in the regulation of emotions.
• The left frontal cortex is associated with positive feelings and the Right frontal cortex is associated with negative feelings.

Hypothalamus

• Considered as the primary centre for the regulation of emotion.
• It controls autonomic activity, and secretion of endocrine glands and organizes somatic patterns of emotional behaviour.

Limbic System

• Along with the thalamus and hypothalamus, the limbic system plays an important role in regulating our emotions.
• The Amygdala, which is an important part of the limbic system, is responsible for emotional control and the formation of emotional memories.

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Over a period of time, different theories of motivation are given. Here are the three major theories of motivation:

James Lange Theory

• The stimulus leads to arousal and that arousal leads to emotion.
• For example, the sound of breaking glass leads to physiological responses like rapid heart rate and that leads to the subjective experience of fear.

Cannon-Bard Theory

• The stimulus leads to both arousal and emotion at the same time.
• For example, The sound of breaking glass will lead to both physiological responses like rapid heart rate and subjective feelings of fear and tension at the same time.

Schachter Singer’s Theory of Motivation

• In order to understand what kind of person we are, we will first observe what we feel and act upon, and hence, we decide and interpret our nature from this.
• This implies that the first step is to experience physiological arousal, we then try to find a label to elaborate upon our feelings, usually by looking at what we are doing and what else is happening at the same time of arousal.
• Hence, we experience feelings and then try to understand what their meaning is.

Also Read: Class 12 Psychology Sample Papers

Negative emotions need to be managed in an effective manner to reduce our stress and improve our well-being. Here are a few steps to manage your negative emotions:

• Enhance Self-Awareness – Being aware of one’s emotions and delving into the hows and whys of one’s emotions help in managing negative emotions
• Appraise the situation objectively- The problematic situation faced should be appraised in an objective manner which means that it should be viewed without any bias and that will help us in seeing things from a proper perspective.
• Participate In Community Service- Being active in community service and charitable endeavours helps in reducing stress and management of negative emotions
• Be creative- Involving oneself in a creative hobby like writing, or painting gives a direction to our energy and hence, we are able to manage our negative emotions easily.
• Have Empathy- Stepping into others’ shoes and seeing the situation from their point of view not only builds a great relationship with the other person but also reduces stress and anger.

Anger Management is not easy. Here are a few tips and tricks mentioned in Motivation and Emotion class 12 notes to manage your anger:

• Give yourself time to recognize destructive behaviour and thinking patterns and come up with a positive alternative to the same
• Don’t have irrational beliefs about people and events
• Recognize the power of thoughts 
• Look inward not outward for anger control
• Find constructive and rational ways of expressing anger

Enhancing positive emotions is crucial for our physical and mental well-being and some of the effective ways of enhancing positive emotions are as follows:

• Personality traits like optimism, confidence, and hopefulness are important
• Looking at the positive side of a problematic situation
• Having cordial relationships with family members and friends 
• Being engaged in work and attaining mastery of work
• Having a strong purpose in life instils a sense of positivity in our lives

Motivation and Emotion Class 11 PDF

Q, Explain the concept of motivation .

Ans. Motivation is that process that causes us to take action, Whether it is eating food to satiate hunger or doing exercise to keep our body fit.

Q2. Why is it important to manage negative emotions? Suggest some ways to manage negative emotions?

Ans. It is important to manage negative emotions for our physiological and psychological well-being. Some of the ways of managing negative emotions are enhancing self-awareness, Doing self-monitoring, etc.

Q3. What is the basic idea behind Maslow’s hierarchy of needs? Explain with examples.

Ans. Maslow came up with his theory of motivation which clearly portrayed all the human needs in a hierarchical manner and he basically talked about 5 needs which are as follows:

• Biological Needs
• Safety and Security Needs
• Affiliation Needs
• Esteem Needs
• Self-Actualization Needs                             

Emotions are psychological sensations that cause mood swings. In psychology, motivation and emotion are linked. Motivation is the drive to achieve goals that one has set for themselves. Motives are frequently the causes of human behaviour.

We generally think of motivation as something that motivates a person to act and behave in order to attain a desired goal, whereas emotion refers to the feelings that arise from the motive or drive itself, the actions generated by the motive, and the achievement or failure of the desired goal.

Emotions are a multifaceted pattern of arousal, subjective emotion, and cognitive interpretation. Emotions, as we experience them, move us within, involving both bodily and psychological responses. Emotion is a subjective feeling, and people’s emotional experiences differ.

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