purpose of university education

What Is the Purpose and Future of Higher Education?

A sociologist explores the history and future of higher education..

Posted February 18, 2019 | Reviewed by Jessica Schrader

A recent story asked, “ Can small liberal arts colleges survive the next decade? ” This question is important as we see the closure of some small schools, mostly in areas away from big cities. Yet, as University of California Riverside sociology and public policy distinguished professor Steven G. Brint notes based on his new book Two Cheers for Higher Education , “There’s always been a small number of colleges that close every year—usually fewer than a dozen—and more are opened for the first time than closed.” This illustrates, among other things, why it is important to consider a historical perspective on higher education to place recent individual news stories in context. That’s exactly what his latest book does: It explores the rich history of higher education, leading him to argue that overall higher education appears to be doing quite well, but also that there remain important concerns for higher education on the horizon.

I asked Steven questions about the purpose of higher education, why he argues higher education is doing quite well, and what his concerns are for its future. Anyone interested in the rich history of higher education and how that informs the future of higher education should read this book. Going to college or university is increasingly a fixture and perhaps even an obsession for parents and students, and understanding the history of that industry is useful to help us think about why we encourage students to go to college in the first place.

What, in your view, is the purpose of higher education?

The aims of higher education change over time. In the United States, the original purposes were to prepare students for a few “learned professions,” especially the clergy, and to provide a strong, religiously tinged moral education. Many of the activities that we now associate with higher education—extra-curricular clubs, majoring in a defined specialization, faculty research, access for socioeconomically disadvantaged students—came later.

Today, we would have to start by recognizing the fundamental fact that the purposes of higher education are highly differentiated by the stratum in the system institutions occupy. The aims of community colleges are very different from those of research universities. I do not talk about community colleges in the book, though I did write a book on community colleges early in my career . The great majority of the 3,000 or so four-year colleges and universities are primarily devoted to teaching students, mainly in occupational fields that in theory equip graduates to obtain jobs. Students will receive a smattering of general education in lower-division and will have opportunities to participate in extra-curricular activities. The latter are more important for many students than classroom studies. Students hone interpersonal skills on campus, make contacts that can be useful for instrumental purposes as well as ends in themselves. For those who finish, their diplomas do provide a boost in the labor market, more for quantitative fields than for other fields.

Research universities are of course the most complex environments and the range of their activities is difficult to catalog in a short answer. In addition to providing instruction in hundreds of programs, they run hundreds of student clubs and organizations, contribute to the selection of high achieving students for graduate degrees, train and mentor graduate and professional students, produce thousands or tens of thousands of research papers annually, reach out to industrial partners, field semi-professional athletic teams, solve community problems, run tertiary care hospitals, patent new discoveries and attempt to create environments conducive to learning for a very wide variety of students. One could say that these activities, taken together, constitute the enacted purposes of research universities.

However, when you look at their activities from the perspective of public policy, the focus will tend to be on three main purposes: (1) human capital development (in other words, improving the cognitive and non-cognitive skills of students), (2) basic research and research in the national interest, and (3) the provision of access for students from lower-income and under-represented minority backgrounds. Implicitly, Two Cheers for Higher Education focuses more on these primary aims of public policy than on some of the ancillary activities of universities. Of course, some of the activities that could be considered ancillary—such as student clubs and the patenting of new discoveries—are clearly related to these public policy aims. For that reason, I do also discuss them at some length in the book.

At a time when we see stories of colleges closing, why is it that you argue that higher education is doing quite well?

We do see some colleges closing and more colleges merging. There’s always been a small number of colleges that close every year—usually fewer than a dozen—and more are opened for the first time than closed. We do hear a lot of talk about mergers in recent years, and some of the regional public universities in rural areas are definitely struggling. Where population is declining steadily, it becomes harder to make the case for the local college. But population is not declining in urban areas or in suburban areas around big cities. Here we see new colleges rising or existing colleges growing larger. Higher education is doing quite well in the parts of the country that are seeing growth in population and wealth. Sometimes higher education has been an important influence in attracting employers, new jobs, and new wealth. The state of Georgia is an interesting example. It now has the 10th largest economy of the 50 states, and the investments that state leaders and donors have made in Georgia Tech, Emory, the University of Georgia, and Georgia State University have played an important role in the state’s impressive development.

Though your book is largely positive about higher education, you note some concerns about the future of higher education. What are those?

According to public opinion surveys, the major concerns of Americans have to do with cost, the quality of undergraduate education, and liberal bias in the classroom. I address each of these issues in the book. One hopes that criminal justice reform may allow most of the 50 states to invest more heavily in higher education, reducing family’s burdens. I also advocate a universal, income-contingent loan repayment policy similar to the ones that already exist in England, Australia and several other countries. My research has led me to agree with the critics that the quality of undergraduate education is too low for too many. I show in the book how the lessons of the sciences of learning can be embedded without much more than forethought in even large lecture classes. The evidence on liberal bias is mixed. Clearly, minorities remain subject to many discriminatory and wounding acts on college campuses. At the same time, where we find a liberal orthodoxy there’s a risk that assumptions and commitments will substitute for evidence and reasoning. We do need more spaces on campus where contemporary social and political issues can be discussed and debated.

I also discuss what academic and political leaders can do about the threat to the physical campus represented by online competition , by the tremendous growth of campus administrative staff (compared to the slow growth of faculty), and the deplorable increase in poorly-paid and sometimes poorly-prepared adjunct instructors.

I hope that the evidence and recommendations that I provide will stimulate new thinking and action in each of these areas of concern. The U.S. is fortunate to have the strongest system of higher education in the world, but many problems arose during the period I cover. It will be important to address these problems before they undermine public support for institutions that are now central to the country’s future well-being.

Brint, S. G. (2018). Two cheers for higher education: Why American universities are stronger than ever--and how to meet the challenges they face . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Jonathan Wai, Ph.D. , is Assistant Professor of Education Policy and Psychology and the 21st Century Endowed Chair in Education Policy at the University of Arkansas.

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Achala Gupta

January 21st, 2021, what’s the purpose of university your answer may depend on how much it costs you.

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Estimated reading time: 7 minutes

Achala Gupta discusses findings from the Eurostudents project in this repost , detailing how student perceptions of the value and purpose of higher education reflect levels of marketisation in different European higher education systems.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the university sector under greater scrutiny. In some cases, this has prompted new conversations about the purpose of higher education. These have included the extent to which universities are upholding their commitment to public service , and whether the current institutional adjustments in universities will change the way higher education is delivered .

But what do students themselves think about what university is for? In 2017-18, my colleagues and I asked 295 students across six European countries – Denmark, England, Germany, Ireland, Poland and Spain – about what they believed to be the purpose of university study. Their responses shed light on the possible future of higher education in Europe.

This research , which forms part of the Eurostudents project , investigates how undergraduate students understand the purpose of higher education. We found that for many students, it serves three particular functions: to gain decent employment, to achieve personal growth, and to contribute to improvement in society.

But there were interesting variations in students’ views, which often corresponded to how much they had to pay for their studies.

The career ladder

The most common purpose of higher education that students spoke about was to prepare themselves for the labour market. Some students stated that a degree was essential to avoid having to take up a low-skilled job. However, many students believed that an undergraduate degree was insufficient for highly skilled or professional employment.

Here, we see a shift from a conception of higher education as an investment to help move up a social class to viewing it as insurance against downward social mobility .

As a student in England said:

“I don’t really think there’s much of an option. If you want to get a decent job these days, you’ve got to go to university because people won’t look at you if you haven’t been.”

There were some differences across countries. Emphasis on the purpose of university education being preparation for the job market was strongest in the three countries in our sample where students had to make greater personal financial contributions : England, Ireland and Spain.

Personal growth

The students in our study also discussed ideas of personal growth and enrichment. This was the case in all six countries, including in England where the higher education sector is highly marketised . This means it is set up as a competitive market, where students pay tuition fees and are protected by consumer rights legislation, while metrics such as league tables encourage competition among institutions.

Some students emphasised how they were “growing” through the knowledge they were gaining. Others placed more emphasis on aspects of wider learning that they had experienced since embarking upon their degree. This included interacting with a more diverse group of people than they had previously, and having to be more independent.

Students in Denmark, Germany and Poland talked about this kind of growth – which happened outside formal classes – more frequently than students in the other three nations. Notably, in these countries, students make less of a personal financial contribution to the cost of their university study. When this purpose was mentioned by English students, it was associated particularly with learning how to live independently.

Societal development

Students in all six countries talked about how higher education could improve society. This was brought up most frequently in Denmark, Germany and Poland – where students receive greater support from the government and make less of a personal financial investment to their university education than in the other countries in our sample.

Students tended to talk about their contribution to society by attending university in one of three ways: by contributing to a more enlightened society, by creating a more critical and reflective society, and by helping their country to be viewed more competitively worldwide.

A Polish student said:

“[University education is critical to] shaping a responsible and wise society …  one which is not blind, which will do as it is told.”

Meanwhile, a Danish student commented:

“We’re such a small country, we have to do well  … we have to do better because there are so many people around the world … we have to work even harder to compete with them.”

Only Danish and Irish students spoke about national competitiveness in this way. This is likely to be linked to specific geo-political and economic factors, particularly the relatively small size of both nations when compared to some of their European neighbours and the structure of their labour markets.

It is unsurprising to find that many students across Europe believe that a key purpose of university study is to equip them for the job market, as this is often the common message given by governments .

Nevertheless, as shown here, many students have broader views. They see the value of higher education in promoting democratic and critical engagement, while also furthering collective, rather than solely individual, ends.

The national variation we found also suggests that the enduring differences in funding across the continent may affect on how higher education is understood by students.

This post draws on the author’s co-authored article, Students’ views about the purpose of higher education: a comparative analysis of six European countries, published in Higher Education Research and Development . 

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article .

We are grateful to all students who gave up their time to participate in our focus groups. We would also like to thank the European Research Council for awarding Professor Rachel Brooks a Consolidator Grant, which funded this study (EUROSTUDENTS_681018).

Note: This article gives the views of the author, and not the position of the Impact of Social Science blog, nor of the London School of Economics. Please review our  Comments Policy  if you have any concerns on posting a comment below.

In text image, published with permission of the author. Featured Image Credit: Brooke Cagle via Unsplash.

About the author

Achala Gupta is a Research Fellow in Sociology at the University of Surrey

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Very interesting read. I find it facinating how in this study and from anecdotal evidence most study are looking to enter the labour force in markets rather than continuing on the doctorate level studies. In this way, it seems as though there should be more focus on funding institutions which help students prepare for life outside of academia rather than providing them which narrowly focused theoretical knowledge.

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What’s the Value of Higher Education?

Have political and fiscal debates about higher education lost sight of the value of education for individuals and society? Dr. Johnnetta Cole discusses how universities can inform and inspire.

• Dr. Johnnetta Cole President Emerita, Smithsonian National Museum of African Art; President Emerita, Spelman College and Bennett College

This interview was conducted at the Yale Higher Education Leadership Summit , hosted by Yale SOM’s Chief Executive Leadership Institute on January 30, 2018.

The value of a college degree can be measured in a number of different ways: increased lifetime earnings potential, a network of classmates and fellow alumni, subject-matter expertise, a signal of stick-to-itiveness, potentially a marker of class or the capacity to move across classes. There are also less tangible benefits, like becoming a more well-rounded individual and part of a well-informed public.

Yale Insights recently talked with Dr. Johnnetta Cole about how she measures the value of higher education. Cole is the former president of Spelman College and Bennett College, the only two historically black colleges and universities that are exclusively women’s colleges. After retiring from academia, she served as the director of the Smithsonian’s National Museum of African Art. In addition, she served on the boards of a number of corporations, including Home Depot, Merck, and Coca-Cola. She was the first African-American chair of the board for the United Way of America.

Q: Why does higher education matter?

I would say that we could get widespread agreement on what I’m going to call the first purpose of higher education: through this amazingly powerful process of teaching and learning, students come to better understand the world.

There might be some disagreement on the second purpose. I’d say it is to inspire students to figure out how they can contribute to helping to make the world better. Certainly, higher education is about scholarship, but it’s also about service. It’s about creativity. It’s about matters of the mind, but it’s also, or at least it should be, about matters of the heart and the soul.

Q: Has the public perception of universities changed in recent years?

Throughout the history—and herstory—of higher education, there have been doubters, those who have critiqued it. But I have a concern, and some polls tell us, in this period in which we are living, many people believe that higher education is not contributing in a positive way to American life.

That’s something that we need to work on, those of us who are deeply engaged in and care about higher education, because I think when one looks with as much objectivity as possible, the truth is, and it’s always been, that higher education contributes substantially.

Q: You’ve led two historically black colleges for women. What is the role of special mission institutions?

In my view, we still need special mission institutions. Remember Brandeis, Notre Dame, and Brigham Young are special mission institutions.

With respect to historically black colleges and universities (HBCU), not every African American wants to or does go to an HBCU. The same is true of women and women’s colleges. But for those who wish that kind of education, and if the fit is right, it’s almost magical.

I think it is as basic as having an entire community believe that you can. On these campuses, we believe that black students can do whatever they set their minds to do. On the women’s campuses, we believe that women can reach heights that have not been imagined for women.

HBCUs are not totally free of racism. Women’s colleges are not utopias where there are no expressions of gender inequality or sexism. But they come far closer than at our predominately white and co-ed institutions.

Q: One of the big issues with higher education now is cost. How do we solve the affordability problem?

The affordability question is highly complex and serious. James Baldwin said, “Not everything that is faced can be changed, but nothing can be changed that is not faced.” I believe that this is a perfect example. Colleges and universities are not just raising tuitions so they can make big profits. Pell grants are no longer at least a reasonable response to the affordability question.

We’ve got to figure this out because, in a democracy, accessibility to education is fundamental. The idea that something as precious, as powerful, as a solid education is only accessible to some and not to others, is an assault upon democracy.

Q: You came out of retirement to lead the Smithsonian National Museum of African Art. Why was the draw so strong?

I’ve managed, systematically, to get a failing grade in retirement.

I grew up in the South, in the days of legalized segregation—you could also call it state-sponsored racism. I didn’t have access to symphony halls. I didn’t have access to art museums. I still remember the library that I went to in order to travel the world through books, was the A. L. Lewis Colored Public Library.

As a young girl, I fell in love with the visual arts, especially African and African-American art. I went off to Fisk University at age 15 and began to see the real works of art for which we only had reproductions in my home. From Fisk, I went to Oberlin, where the Allen Memorial Art Gallery was a special place of solace for me

The opportunity with the Smithsonian wasn’t something I sought; I was asked to apply. My doctorate is in anthropology, not art history, so I was reluctant, but they told me they were looking for a leader, not an art historian. It was one of the most extraordinary experiences of my life. The work was an almost indescribable joy.

Generally, our museums across America do not reflect who America is, nor do they reflect how our world looks. They need to be far more diverse in terms of their boards, staff, exhibitions, educational programs, and visitorship.

What the African art museum has is a unique opportunity because it can speak to something that binds us together. If one is human, just go back far enough, I mean way back, and we have all come from a single place. It is called Africa.

Here’s a museum that says to its visitors, “No matter who you are, by race, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, ability or disability, or nationality, come to a place where the visual arts connect you to the very cradle of humanity.”

During those eight years when I had the joy of being the director of the National Museum of African Art, I would greet our visitors by saying “Welcome home! Welcome to a place that presents the diverse and dynamic, the exquisite arts of Africa, humanity’s original home.”

Q: Do you think that our education and cultural institutions are properly valued in our society?

I have to say no. Because if we did, we would take better care of them. If we did, we would make sure that not some but all of our educational institutions from kindergarten through post-secondary education, into graduate and professional schools, have the means to do what needs to be done.

If we really value all of our cultural expressions, whether it’s dance or music, visual arts, theater, when there is a budget shortfall, we wouldn’t say, “These are the first things to go.” We wouldn’t say, “Kids can do without music in their public school.” It’s one thing to say we love an institution; it’s another to care for and protect an institution. I think we can do far better.

What you need to know about higher education

UNESCO, as the only United Nations agency with a mandate in higher education, works with countries to ensure all students have equal opportunities to access and complete good quality higher education with internationally recognized qualifications. It places special focus on developing countries, notably Africa. 

Why does higher education matter?  

Higher education is a rich cultural and scientific asset which enables personal development and promotes economic, technological and social change. It promotes the exchange of knowledge, research and innovation and equips students with the skills needed to meet ever changing labour markets. For students in vulnerable circumstances, it is a passport to economic security and a stable future. 

What is the current situation? 

Higher education has changed dramatically over the past decades with increasing enrolment, student mobility, diversity of provision, research dynamics and technology. Some 254 million students are enrolled in universities around the world – a number that has more than doubled in the last 20 years and is set to expand. Yet despite the boom in demand, the overall enrolment ratio is 42% with large differences between countries and regions. More than 6.4 million students are pursuing their further education abroad. And among the world’s more than 82 million refugees, only 7% of eligible youth are enrolled in higher education, whereas comparative figures for primary and secondary education are 68% and 34%, respectively ( UNHCR) . The COVID-19 pandemic further disrupted the way higher education was provided.

What does UNESCO do to ensure access for everyone to higher education? 

UNESCO's work is aligned with Target 4.3 of SDG 4 which aims, by 2030, “to ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university”. To achieve this, UNESCO supports countries by providing knowledge, evidence-based information and technical assistance in the development of higher education systems and policies based on the equal distribution of opportunities for all students. 

UNESCO supports countries to enhance recognition, mobility and inter-university cooperation through the ratification and implementation of the Global Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education and regional recognition conventions . To tackle the low rate of refugee youth in higher education UNESCO has developed the UNESCO Qualifications Passport for Refugees and Vulnerable Migrants , a tool which makes it easier for those groups with qualifications to move between countries. The passport brings together information on educational and other qualifications, language, work history. UNESCO places a special focus on Africa with projects such as the Higher Technical Education in Africa for a technical and innovative workforce supported by China Funds-in-Trust.  

​​​​​​​How does UNESCO ensure the quality of higher education? 

The explosion in demand for higher education and increasing internationalization means UNESCO is expanding its work on quality assurance, helping Member States countries to establish their own agencies and mechanisms to enhance quality and develop policies particularly in developing countries and based on the Conventions. Such bodies are absent in many countries, making learners more vulnerable to exploitative providers.  

It also facilitates the sharing of good practices and innovative approaches to widen inclusion in higher education. As part of this work, it collaborates with the International Association of Universities to produce the World Higher Education Database which provides information on higher education systems, credentials and institutions worldwide. 

​​​​​​​How does UNESCO keep pace with digital change?  

The expansion of connectivity worldwide has boosted the growth of online and blended learning, and revealed the importance of digital services, such as Artificial Intelligence, Big Data and Higher Education Management Information Systems in helping higher education institutions utilize data for better planning, financing and quality. 

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated this transformation and increased the number of providers and the range of degree offerings from cross-border to offshore education.  The Organization provides technical support and policy advice on innovative approaches to widening access and inclusion including through the use of ICTs and by developing new types of learning opportunities both on-campus and online. 

How does UNESCO address the needs of a changing job market?

Labour markets are experiencing rapid changes, with increased digitization and greening of economies, but also the rising internationalization of higher education. UNESCO places a strong emphasis on developing science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) education, indispensable to sustainable development and innovation. It aims to strengthen skills development for youth and adults, particularly literacy, TVET, STEM and higher education to meet individual, labour market and societal demands.  

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It’s important to rethink the purpose of university education – a philosopher of education explains why

Director, Allan Gray Centre for Leadership Ethics, Rhodes University

Disclosure statement

Pedro Tabensky does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Rhodes University provides funding as a partner of The Conversation AFRICA.

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Most philosophers of education or philosophically inclined scholars of education in the past century and a half would agree with the claim that, ideally, education should be the practice of freedom. That is, it ought to cultivate the ability to intelligently decide how we want to shape our lives. The aim of education should be to foster human autonomy.

I’m thinking here of a diverse array of scholars. Among them are some of the most influential philosophers of education and educational theorists of the 20th century: the American John Dewey , Brazilian Paulo Freire and Indian Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore .

Yet there’s little evidence that their views have played any significant role in shaping the global contemporary education sector, including the tertiary sector.

If these scholars are correct, universities and educational institutions too often don’t understand what they are doing. It’s a shocking indictment on the higher education sector. After all, educational institutions are in the business (or should be) of fostering understanding.

I am the director of the Allan Gray Centre for Leadership Ethics , located in Rhodes University’s Department of Philosophy in South Africa. I have for many years been trying to make sense of education’s purpose and wondering why there is such a great discrepancy between what scholars of education have been telling us and what happens in the classroom.

What the big thinkers have had to say

The aforementioned authors believe that education should help to shape well-adjusted individuals who can contribute to the common good – as opposed to merely lending a hand to what is already there. Merely lending a hand is expressive of a limited understanding of the norms guiding professional work, and hence distorts autonomy.

Dewey thought that education should promote “intelligent growth”, the sort that defines an autonomous agent. In Dewey’s own words :

Impulses and desires that are not ordered by intelligence are under the control of accidental circumstances. It may be a loss rather than a gain to escape from the control of another person only to find one’s conduct dictated by immediate whim and caprice; that is, at the mercy of impulses into whose formation intelligent judgement has not entered. A person whose conduct is controlled in this way has at most only the illusion of freedom. Actually he is directed by forces over which he has no command.

An educated person can adapt to life’s challenges by critically and sensitively engaging with what is given. The alternative is what Dewey describes as someone “whose conduct is controlled … by forces over which he has no command” and hence lacks freedom. This is a subject who is unable to develop a proper understanding of the forces that undermine freedom.

Sadly, it is this sort of existence that very many contemporary universities promote. Universities aim to produce efficient professionals rather than autonomous agents who are able to adapt to life’s challenges and understand the forces that impinge on their formation.

The reality

Universities follow on from primary and secondary education by training students to be uncritical servants of the status quo, to apply their intelligence in specific spheres of life and not to ask too many questions beyond the narrow scope of their engagements.

It is this approach that the American philosopher and linguist Noam Chomsky describes in an interview when speaking about the contrast between indoctrination and genuine education.

This sort of narrowly circumscribed thinking lacks the expansiveness of the critical mind – a mind able to stand back, consider and influence autonomous action.

Intellectual subordination

In an interview which forms part of the 2012 documentary The Lottery of Birth, Jeff Schmidt, a physicist and the author of Disciplined Minds: A Critical Look at Salaried Professionals and the Soul-battering System That Shapes Their Lives, says:

Professionals are deliberately produced to be intellectually and politically subordinate.

He illustrates this idea with the anecdote of two young nuclear weapons designers working in a nuclear weapons design laboratory. When asked by a journalist what the worst part of their job was, they rejoined that it was dealing with unstable computers lacking sufficient capacity.

They were not, it seems, able to consider the higher purposes they were blindly serving. The scope of their concerns was subordinated to the aims of others in power – their employers.

Education as freedom

There are ways in which this approach to education can be challenged. For instance, at the Allan Gray Centre for Leadership Ethics, we’ve developed a programme called IiNtetho zoBomi (isiXhosa for “conversations about life”).

It aims to complement the current university offering to foster the educational ideals propounded by the scholars I’ve discussed here. Service-learning activities are a core part of the programme. Students are encouraged to take the course only if they are interested in “understanding how your life – including your inner life – is formed by the world you inhabit”.

Is it working? I hope so. But the growth we aim to foster is hard to measure.

What I can confidently say, however, is that the effect of such programmes at any university would be far greater if there was more institutional buy-in than there currently is.

The idea that education is the practice of freedom cannot be separated from the idea that education should aim to equip students to critically and creatively engage with reality to transform it for the better.

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You might think that college is just high school continued, but it’s not. College opens doors for you that high school doesn’t. And college can change you and shape you in ways that you might not imagine.

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Thanks to all the knowledge, skills and experience you’ll gain in college, you’ll be able to adapt to a greater variety of jobs and careers. Statistics show that a college diploma can help you:

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College work will challenge and inspire you. In college, you will:

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College helps students develop into mature, responsible and independent adults. But you’re not entirely on your own: colleges offer students many kinds of help making this transition, such as  tutoring and academic advising as well as  counseling and other support .

Explore Your Options

One of the great things about being able to choose your own courses is that you get the opportunity to explore. You can try classes in a lot of different subjects, or you can dive right into a favorite subject. You may choose to begin training for a career right away. Or you may pick a major after taking some time to check out your options. Colleges offer classes and majors in subjects you’ve studied in high school — plus many more that you haven’t.

Explore Outside the Classroom

College is about much more than just course work. A campus is its own world, and students have the chance to experience a wide range of activities. For example, college students may be able to:

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The list goes on. And you don’t have to live on campus to experience campus life.

Invest in Yourself

As you take on college work and participate in college life, you’ll encounter new ideas and challenges. Along the way, you’ll:

• Build knowledge, skills and brainpower
• Discover new passions
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• Prepare for a future in which you’re better equipped to give back

Whatever your destination, college can help you get there — even if you don’t know where “there” is yet. Whether you’ve mapped out a long-term plan or you see new possibilities every day, college can help you become your future self.

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What Is the Point of College?

By Kwame Anthony Appiah

• Sept. 8, 2015

I gave my first university lecture in philosophy at the University of Ghana, Legon, when I was a freshly credentialed 21-year-old. My audience was a couple of hundred students gathered in a vast hall, with ceiling fans to move the hot and humid air. Above the murmur of the fans and the muttering of students, I tried to explain why Descartes thought the mere possibility that there was an Evil Demon deceiving their senses meant they couldn’t know for sure that I was really there. Ah, Cartesian skepticism! I remember diagraming the structure of the argument in huge chalk letters on an enormous blackboard.

After the class, a group of students, many of them older than I, followed me home across campus. Was I really worried, they wanted to know, that there might be such a powerful Evil Demon? What they didn’t ask was why they had to listen to this bizarre argument made by a Frenchman three and a half centuries earlier. Yes, the material would be on the exam every student had to pass at the end of the first year. But why?

The answer used to be easy: College is a place where you come to learn such things. But as higher education expands its reach, it’s increasingly hard to say what college is like and what college is for. In the United States, where I now teach, more than 17 million undergraduates will be enrolling in classes this fall. They will be passing through institutions small and large, public and private, two-year and four-year, online and on campus. Some of them will be doing vocational courses — in accounting or nursing or web design — at for-profit institutions like DeVry University and the University of Phoenix. Many will be entering community colleges hoping to gain a useful qualification or to prepare themselves for a transfer to a four-year college. Others will be entering liberal-arts colleges without plans for a major, let alone a profession. On whatever track, quite a few will encounter Descartes as part of their undergraduate requirements. Why should that be? You’ll be hard-pressed to find a consensus on such things. That’s because two distinct visions of higher education contend throughout our classrooms and campuses.

One vision focuses on how college can be useful — to its graduates, to employers and to a globally competitive America. When presidential candidates talk about making college more affordable, they often mention those benefits, and they measure them largely in dollars and cents. How is it helping postgraduate earnings, or increasing G.D.P.? As college grows more expensive, plenty of people want to know whether they’re getting a good return on their investment. They believe in Utility U.

Another vision of college centers on what John Stuart Mill called ‘‘experiments in living,’’ aimed at getting students ready for life as free men and women. (This was not an entirely new thought: the ‘‘liberal’’ in ‘‘liberal education’’ comes from the Latin liberalis , which means ‘‘befitting a free person.’’) Here, college is about building your soul as much as your skills. Students want to think critically about the values that guide them, and they will inevitably want to test out their ideas and ideals in the campus community. (Though more and more students are taking degrees online, most undergraduates will be on campus a lot of the time.) College, in this view, is where you hone the tools for the foundational American project, the pursuit of happiness. Welcome to Utopia U.

Together, these visions — Utility and Utopia — explain a great deal about modern colleges and universities. But taken singly, they lead to very different metrics for success.

Consider the declining proportion of fac­ulty with tenure. Tenured faculty are defined by more than the fact that they are hard to fire. Tenure allows professors to pursue intellectual projects without regard for what the trustees or the governor or the community care about. It gives them the kind of intellectual freedom that has helped make our universities the research powerhouses of the world. Adjunct faculty, on the other hand, are a lot less expensive — they’re paid less and typically lack health and other benefits — and you can easily expand or contract their ranks as demand fluctuates. In the Utility vision, students are consumers; they have needs and desires to be met, at a price they’ll pay. If pleasing the customer is the goal, a tenured faculty member who wants to teach what he or she considers worth teaching can be an inconvenience. Plus, at Utility U., one obvious way to better your ‘‘value proposition’’ is to cut costs. These days, three-quarters of the teaching faculty at America’s nonprofit colleges and universities are hired as adjuncts with no tenure and no research support. A few decades ago, only a quarter were.

At Utility U., the search for efficiency requires tools for evaluating teachers. Management, as the old saw has it, is measurement. Years ago, I was on a committee at a great university that looked into the system by which students evaluated courses. The most reliable predictor of whether students liked a course, it turned out, was their answer to the question ‘‘Did the professor respect you?’’ Customers like to be loved; attentive service makes for good Yelp reviews. But that’s a very different question from, say: How, if at all, did you change through the class? What good, if any, did those changes do you? Did you learn to uncover the ideological or conceptual demons that may be flummoxing your good sense? Mr. Chips’s encouraging smile has pedagogical value, but so, perhaps, does Professor Kingsfield’s basilisk stare.

If Utility U. is concerned with value, Utopia U. is concerned with values. The values agenda can involve the content of classes, the nature of campus communities or both. When I teach a seminar that deals with theories of identity and social justice, my aim is to provide tools of analysis so that students — men and women of various ethnic, religious and sexual descriptions — can sort through such issues by themselves. But class discussions aren’t always abstract and impersonal: Everyone has identity allegiances and intuitions about justice. And the same is true for discussions elsewhere on campus. At Utopia U., the aim is to create a safe space, to check your privilege and suspend the prejudices of the larger world, to promote human development and advance moral progress.

And so ‘‘civility’’ is on the agenda, ‘‘safe’’ spaces are spreading and microaggressions — possibly unintentional slights that stem from racial, ethnic or sexual difference — are to be scrutinized, sometimes through a jeweler’s loupe. It’s easy to roll your eyes at ‘‘social justice warriors,’’ but there’s a perfectly good idea here: People don’t think well when they feel personally insulted or aggrieved. And in classes, thinking well is the main objective. Buzzwords aside, a lot of this is just courtesy — Emily Post by way of Foucault. Still, the Utopians can be reluctant to admit that there may be conflicts between expanding civility and deepening understanding, between the safe-space ideal and the free-speech ideal. (Not a few campus quarrels come down to: Who’s silencing whom?) A culture of civility sometimes does make evasion easier. Students arrive from Cincinnati and Singapore and — finally! — discover a cohort of like-minded souls. That can be a thrill. Confine yourself to their company, though, and you’ve invented a new parochialism.

Neither Utility U. nor Utopia U. has the full run of any one campus. In the familiar caricature, there’s the performance-studies major who is putting up fliers for the Naomi Klein talk, collecting signatures for the fossil-free petition and wondering whether the student alliance for gender equity is as racially inclusive as it claims. Then there’s the engineering major, first in the family to go to college, traipsing across the quad with a discounted, two-editions-out-of-date version of the material-science textbook. All that identity stuff is a dimly perceived distraction in this student’s light cone, readily tuned out. One student thinks ‘‘bi-curious’’ is a word; the other doesn’t see why you would use molecular-orbital theory when valence bonding provides answers faster. The two students cross paths only physically. It’s almost as if they’re attending two different colleges.

One reason this is a caricature is that people aren’t always found on the expected side of the disciplinary (and class) divides. At liberal-arts campuses, certainly, almost everyone drinks from the fountain of human betterment, albeit some from a Dixie cup and others from a Big Gulp. And very few are completely unmindful of the getting-a-job thing that’s rumored to follow graduation. But when you superimpose the two visions of college — as a forcing house of virtue and as means for building human capital — you inevitably get interference patterns, ripples and ridges of indignation and disquiet. That’s what you’re seeing when the safe-space ethic runs amok, as with students who claim offense when their ideas are challenged or who want to see ‘‘trigger warnings’’ on even canonical literature, like those cardboard lids on hotel-room glasses. Here, the student is at once the sensitive servant of high causes and a demanding customer.

Nor are these tensions likely to resolve themselves, because higher education has to play so many roles. The truth is that colleges and universities do a tremendous amount that neither of these pictures captures — that just can’t be reduced to the well-being of their graduates. For one thing, the old ideal of knowledge for its own sake hasn’t been extinguished. For another, universities are the homes of all kinds of public goods. They are, for example, the source of much of today’s best research. Without them we would know much less than we do about the nature of the cosmos or the workings of the human brain or the ways of reading a novel. A flourishing literary culture is made possible not because institutions of higher learning create writers but because they prepare readers (and yes, it helps that they provide jobs for plenty of poets and novelists too). There’s even something to be said, especially in a democracy, for an educated citizenry, able to question the creeds of the moment.

Which brings us back to demons and doubt. Was there any point to studying such things? My first class of freshmen, all those years ago, certainly had reservations about Monsieur Descartes’s method of systematic doubt. Once they were reassured about their instructor’s sanity, though, they got into the spirit of things, and some, at least, came to see why epistemology — the study of knowledge — might be worthwhile. Maybe not practical … unless you were looking for a job as a professor. But interesting. Mind-expanding, even. Possibly, there was something to be said for the intellectual discipline of second-guessing what you thought was true. And that wasn’t just good for them. Who would want to live in a nation of people without doubts?

Like most of the students I’ve had since, they learned that what you can do and who you can be — the qualities of your skills and of your soul — are two separate questions that aren’t quite separable. And that college was a pretty good place to work out some answers to both.

Kwame Anthony Appiah teaches philosophy at N.Y.U. and is one of the magazine’s Ethicists columnists . His most recent book is “Lines of Descent: W. E. B. Du Bois and the Emergence of Identity.”

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For What It’s Worth: The Value of a University Education

By amy gutmann, president, university of pennsylvania.

Editor’s Note: This article derives from an endowed lecture President Gutmann delivered on achieving the aims of higher education at the Spencer Foundation Conference at Northwestern University and subsequently developed further at the De Lange Conference at Rice University. Revised for publication October 21, 2013.

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In 2010, PayPal co-founder and Facebook “angel” investor Peter Thiel announced he would annually award $100,000 each to 20 young people for them to drop out of college and spend two years starting a tech-based business. “You know, we’ve looked at the math on this, and I estimate that 70 to 80 percent of the colleges in the U.S. are not generating a positive return on investment,” Thiel told an interviewer, explaining his view that we are in the midst of a higher education bubble not dissimilar to the housing and dot-com bubbles of previous decades. “Education is a bubble in a classic sense. To call something a bubble, it must be overpriced and there must be an intense belief in it… there’s this sort of psycho-social component to people taking on these enormous debts when they go to college simply because that’s what everybody’s doing.”

Since his announcement, more than 60 Thiel Fellows have decamped from university—a significant number of them from Stanford, MIT, and Ivy League schools—to follow their dreams of entrepreneurial glory. Thiel says he hopes his program will prod more people to question if a college education is really worthwhile: “Education may be the only thing people still believe in in the United States. To question education is really dangerous. It is the absolute taboo. It’s like telling the world there’s no Santa Claus.”

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This is a complex, but not impossible, question to answer. The simplest response is to tally the added income benefits a university education accrues to its graduates, subtract its added costs, and determine if in fact benefits exceed costs. Some economists have done this quite well. The overwhelming answer is that a college education has paid off for most graduates to date, has increased rather than decreased its wage premium as time has gone on, and can be expected to continue to do so moving forward. If well-paid equates to worthwhile , then the worth of a college education can be settled by the net wage premium of the average college graduate over the average high school graduate—there would be little more to discuss in the matter.

But it would be a serious mistake to equate the value of a university education to the wage premium earned by its graduates. If higher education is to be understood as something more—something much more—than a trade school in robes, before answering the question of whether a university education is worthwhile, we must first address the more fundamental—and more fundamentally complex—question of mission: What should universities aim to achieve for individuals and society?

It is reassuring to those who believe in the worth of a university education—and all the more so in a high-unemployment, low-growth economy—to show that the average person with a college education earns a lot more over her lifetime than the average high school graduate, even after subtracting the cost of college. But even if we are reassured, we should not allow ourselves to be entirely satisfied with that metric, because economic payback to university graduates is neither the only aim, nor even the primary aim, of a university education. Rather, it is best to consider the value-added proposition of higher education in light of the three fundamental aims of colleges and universities in the 21st century:

■ The first aim speaks to who is to receive an education and calls for broader access to higher education based on talent and hard work, rather than family income and inherited wealth: Opportunity , for short.

■ The second aim speaks to the core intellectual aim of a university education, which calls for advanced learning fostered by a greater integration of knowledge not only within the liberal arts and sciences but also between the liberal arts and professional education: Creative Understanding , for short.

■ The third aim is an important consequence to the successful integration of knowledge, not only by enabling and encouraging university graduates to meaningfully contribute to society, but also in the creation of new knowledge through research and the application of creative understanding: Contribution , for short.

Although the challenges of increasing opportunity, advancing creative understanding, and promoting useful social contribution are not new, they take on a renewed urgency in today’s climate. Jobs are scarce. The United States is perceived to be declining in global competitiveness. Gridlock besets our political discourse and increasingly seems to define our national sense of purpose as well. In this environment, it behooves us to remind those who would propose to reform higher education by simply removing some or all of it of the apt observation of the Sage of Baltimore, H.L. Mencken: “There is an easy solution to every human problem—neat, plausible, and wrong.”

Many external obstacles to educational and economic opportunity exist in the United States—including poverty, broken families, and cutbacks in public support—which warrant our national attention and, in some instances, urgent action. No one credibly claims that greater access to college education will solve all or even most of these issues. But there is good reason to believe that greater access to high-quality higher education is a vitally important tool in building a more just, prosperous, and successful society. We can, and we must , do a better job in meeting the three fundamental goals of opportunity, creative understanding, and contribution to afford the utmost benefits of higher education for both personal and societal progress. Taking to heart the ethical injunction, “physician heal thyself,” I focus here on what universities themselves can do to better realize their primary aims.

Starting with the first: What can universities do to help increase educational opportunity? For low- and middle-income students, gainful employment itself is likely to be the most basic economic advantage of a college degree. A recent Brookings Institution study found college is “expensive, but a smart choice,” noting that almost 90 percent of young college graduates were employed in 2010, compared with only 64 percent of their peers who did not attend college. Moreover, college graduates are making on average almost double the annual earnings of those with only a high school diploma. And this advantage is likely to stick with them over a lifetime of work. Perhaps most relevant is that even in the depths of the Great Recession, the unemployment rate of college graduates was less than half that of high school graduates, and never exceeded 5.1 percent. Clearly, the more affordable universities make their education to qualified young people from low- and middle-income families, the more we will contribute to both educational and economic opportunity. Other things being equal, universities provide even greater value-added opportunity to low- and middle-income students than to their wealthier peers.

It is especially important to note that opening the door to higher education can have profound effects both on an individual’s lifetime earnings and lifelong satisfaction, regardless of whether or not that door is framed by ivy. Less selective two-year, four-year, and community colleges have an especially important role to play here, as selective universities cannot do everything: their focus on cutting-edge study and discovery limits their ability to engage in compensatory education. (The ability to work with a broad range of student readiness is one of the great advantages of community colleges and some less selective institutions, an advantage we risk forfeiting as an ever-higher percentage of the cost of an education is shifted from state and government support to individual responsibility.) Nonetheless, the available data show that selective universities can provide greater access to qualified students from low- and middle-income families than they have in the past.

My concern for increasing access began with a focus on recruiting qualified students from the lowest income groups. Learning more led to the conclusion that increasing access for middle-income students should also be a high priority. At Penn, we began by asking: What proportion of students on a set of selective university campuses (that included Penn) come from the top 20 percent of American families as measured by income? The answer (as of 2003) was 57 percent.

Since all colleges and universities should admit only students who can succeed once admitted, selective colleges and universities also need to ask: What percent of all students who are well-qualified come from the wealthiest 20 percent? Thirty-six percent of all highly qualified seniors (with high grades and combined SATs over 1,200) come from the top 20 percent, while 57 percent of selective university students come from this group. Thus, the wealthiest 20 percent of American families are overrepresented on our campuses by a margin of 21 percent. All of the other income groups are underrepresented . Students from the lowest 40 percent of income distribution, whose families earn under about $41,000, are underrepresented by 4.3 percent. The middle 20 percent, who come from families earning $41,000 to $61,000, are underrepresented by 8.4 percent. Students from the second highest income group, whose families earn between $62,000 and $94,000, are also underrepresented by 8.4 percent.

Increasing access to our universities for middle- and low-income students is both an especially worthy, and an increasingly daunting, challenge in the wake of the Great Recession.

Increasing access to our universities for middle- and low-income students is both an especially worthy, and an increasingly daunting, challenge in the wake of the Great Recession. Before the Recession, taking financial aid into account, middle- and low-income families were spending between 25 percent and 55 percent of their annual income to cover the expense of a public four-year college education. That burden has skyrocketed in the past five years, especially for middle-income students who are ineligible for Pell grants and who attend public universities whose public funding (in many cases) has been decimated. This has led to a situation where a student from a typical middle-income family today may pay less to attend Penn than many flagship public universities!

Yet private universities too have experienced a painful financial squeeze. Only by making student aid one of their highest priorities and successfully raising many millions of dollars from generous donors can most private institutions afford to admit students on a need-blind basis and provide financial aid that meets full need. This may be the reason why only about one percent of America’s 4,000 colleges and universities are committed to need-blind admissions and to meeting the full financial need of their undergraduate students. An even smaller group—just a tiny fraction—of universities are committed not only to meeting the full financial need of all students who are admitted on a need-blind basis, but also to providing financial aid exclusively on the basis of need . Those of us in this group thereby maximize the use of scarce aid dollars for students with demonstrated financial need.

At Penn, a focus on need-only aid has enabled us to actually lower our costs to all students from families with demonstrated financial need. Since I became president, we have increased Penn’s financial aid budget by more than 125 percent. And the net annual cost to all aided undergraduates is actually ten percent lower today than it was a decade ago when controlled for inflation. Penn also instituted an all-grant/no-loan policy, substituting cash grants for loans for all undergraduates eligible for financial aid. This policy enables middle- and low-income students to graduate debt-free, and opens up a world of career possibilities to graduates who otherwise would feel far greater pressure to pick the highest paying rather than the most satisfying and promising careers.

Although much more work remains, Penn has significantly increased the proportion of first-generation, low- and middle-income, and underrepresented minority students on our campus. In 2013, one out of eight members of Penn’s freshman class will be—like I was—the first in their family to graduate from college. The percentage of underrepresented minorities at Penn has increased from 15 percent to 22 percent over the past eight years. All minorities account for almost half of Penn’s student body. After they arrive, many campus-wide initiatives enable these students to feel more at home and to succeed. Graduation rates for all groups are above 90 percent.

It is also important to note that the benefit of increasing opportunity extends far beyond the economic advancement of low- and middle-income students who are admitted. Increased socio-economic and racial diversity enriches the educational experience for everyone on a campus. By promoting greater understanding of different life experiences and introducing perspectives that differ profoundly from the prevailing attitudes among the most privileged, a truly diverse educational environment prods all of us to think harder, more deeply, and oftentimes, more daringly.

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So what does this need to cultivate global understanding in the 21st century require of our universities? Among other things, I suggest it demands that we foster intensive learning across academic disciplines within the liberal arts and integrate that knowledge with a much stronger understanding of the role and responsibilities of the professions. Whether the issue is health care or human rights, unemployment or immigration, educational attainment or economic inequality, the big questions cannot be comprehended—let alone effectively addressed—by the tools of only one academic discipline, no matter how masterful its methods or powerful its paradigms.

Consider, for example, the issue of climate change in a world that is both more interconnected and more populous than ever before. To be prepared to make a positive difference in this world, students must understand not only the science of sustainable design and development, but also the economic, political, and other issues in play. In this immensely complex challenge, a good foundation in chemical engineering—which is not a traditional liberal arts discipline nor even conventionally considered part of the liberal arts (engineering is typically classified as “professional or pre-professional education”)—is just as important as an understanding of economics or political science. The key to solving every complex problem—climate change being one among many—will require connecting knowledge across multiple areas of expertise to both broaden and deepen global comprehension and in so doing unleash truly creative and innovative responses.

A liberal arts education is the broadest kind of undergraduate education the modern world has known, and its breadth is an integral part of its power to foster creative understanding. But it is a mistake to accept the conventional boundaries of a liberal arts education as fixed, rather than as a humanly alterable product of particular historical conditions.

In my own field of political philosophy, for example, a scholarly approach centered on intellectual history ceded significant ground in the 1970s to critical analysis of contemporary public affairs, which was a paradigm common to many earlier generations of political philosophers. Were the liberal arts motivated solely by the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, and not any concern for worldly relevance, then it would be hard to make sense of such shifts. In the case of this important shift in political philosophy, scholars thought it valuable, in the face of ongoing injustice, to revive a tradition of ethical understanding and criticism of society.

A liberal arts degree is a prerequisite to professional education, and most liberal arts universities and their faculties stand firmly on the proposition that the liberal arts should inform the professions. Why then are liberal arts curricula not replete with courses that teach students to think carefully, critically, and creatively about the roles and responsibilities of professionals and the professions? Perhaps we are assuming that students will make these connections for themselves or that it will suffice if professional schools do so later. Neither of these assumptions can be sustained.

For example, we must not assume that students themselves will translate ethics as typically taught in a philosophy curriculum into the roles and responsibilities of the medical, business, and legal professions. The ethical considerations are too complex and profoundly affected by the institutional roles and responsibilities of professionals. Many lawyers, for example, are part of an adversarial system of justice; many doctors are part of a system where they financially benefit from procedures the costs of which are not paid directly by their patients; and many businesspeople operate in what is commonly called a free market, where external interferences are (rightly or wrongly) presumed, prima facie , to be suspect. These and many other contextual considerations profoundly complicate the practical ethics of law, medicine, and business.

My primary point is this: Although the separation of the liberal arts from the subject of professional roles and responsibilities may be taken for granted because it is so conventional, it really should strike us as strange, on both intellectual and educational grounds, that so few courses in the undergraduate curriculum explicitly relate the liberal arts to professional life. This is a puzzle worthy of both intellectual and practical solution.

I propose that we proudly proclaim a liberal arts education, including its focus on basic research, as broadly pre-professional and optimally instrumental in pursuit of real world goals.

This stark separation of the practical and theoretical was neither an inevitable outgrowth of earlier educational efforts, nor has it ever been universally accepted. In fact, it flew in the face of at least one early American effort to integrate the liberal arts and professional education. In his educational blueprint (“Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania”), which later led to the founding of the University of Pennsylvania, Benjamin Franklin called for students to be taught “every Thing that is useful, and every Thing that is ornamental.” Being a principled pragmatist, Franklin immediately ad dressed an obvious rejoinder, that no educational institution can teach everything. And so he continued: “But Art is long, and their Time is short. It is therefore propos’d that they learn those Things that are likely to be most useful and most ornamental.”

As Franklin’s intellectual heirs, we recognize that something educationally significant is lost if students choose their majors for either purely scholastic or purely professional reasons, rather than because they want to be both well-educated and well-prepared for a likely future career. The introduction of distribution requirements for all majors is one way of responding to this potential problem. The glory and strength of American liberal arts education is its enabling undergraduates to keep their intellectual sights and their career options open, while cultivating intellectual curiosity and creativity that will enhance any of the career paths they later choose to follow. These are among the most eminently defensible aims of a liberal arts education: to broaden rather than narrow the sights of undergraduates, and to strengthen rather than stifle their creative potential.

I propose that we proudly proclaim a liberal arts education, including its focus on basic research, as broadly pre-professional and optimally instrumental in pursuit of real world goals. At its best, a liberal arts education prepares undergraduates for success in whatever profession they choose to pursue, and it does so by virtue of teaching them to think creatively and critically about themselves, their society (including the roles and responsibilities of the professions in their society), and the world.

So what can we do to bolster this optimal educational system, as envisioned by Franklin? As 21st century colleges and universities, we can build more productive intellectual bridges between liberal arts and professional education. We can show how insights of history, philosophy, literature, politics, economics, sociology, and science enrich understandings of law, business, medicine, nursing, engineering, architecture, and education—and how professional understandings in turn can enrich the insights of liberal arts disciplines. We can demonstrate that understanding the roles and responsibilities of professionals in society is an important part of the higher education of democratic citizens.

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These are discoveries such as those made by Dr. Carl June and his team at Penn’s Abramson Cancer Center, with contributions from colleagues at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia. Their pioneering research with individualized cancer treatments produced a reengineered T-cell therapy. Just in time, too, for young Emma Whitehead, who was stricken with advanced leukemia when she was just five years old. Under Dr. June’s care, Emma, now seven, has beaten her cancer into remission. She’s back at school, laughing and learning and playing with her friends. Her miraculous recovery not only means a renewed chance at a long, fulfilling life for her and her parents— it promises renewed hope for so many who are ravaged by cancer.

In university classrooms and laboratories across the country, the brightest minds are leveraging research and discovery to contribute to the social good. Most of these stories are not as dramatic as Emma’s, but each in its own way has changed and will continue to change how we live and work and understand our world. The full tale of the benefits that universities bring extends far beyond technological and medical advances. We help governments build good public policy based on robust empirical data, garnered from university research. We build better international cooperation through the study of languages and cultures, economic markets, and political relations. We strengthen economies by fostering scores of newly discovered products, markets, and industries. We safeguard our collective health and well-being with insight into global phenomena and systems such as climate change, shifting sea levels, and food supply and agricultural production. All the vital basic and applied research being conducted by universities cannot be accounted for in any one list—the sum is too vast. What I can sum up here is this: If we do not do this research, no one will. Colleges and universities also contribute to society at the local level by modeling ethical responsibility and social service in their institutional practices and initiatives. Their capital investments in educational facilities contribute to the economic progress of their local communities. Colleges and universities at every level can be institutional models of environmental sustainability in the way they build and maintain their campuses.

While the core social contribution of universities lies in both increasing opportunity for students and cultivating their creative understanding, the analogous core social contributions of universities in the realms of faculty research and clinical service are similarly crucial. And both are only strengthened by better integrating insights across the liberal arts and the professions. An education that cultivates creative understanding enables diverse, talented, hardworking graduates to pursue productive careers, to enjoy the pleasures of lifelong learning, and to reap the satisfactions of creatively contributing to society. The corresponding institutional mission of colleges and universities at all levels is to increase opportunity, to cultivate creative understanding, and— by these and other important means such as innovative research and clinical service—to contribute to society.

At their best, universities recruit hardworking, talented, and diverse student bodies and help them develop the understandings—including the roles and responsibilities of the professions in society—that are needed to address complex social challenges in the 21st century. To the extent that universities do this and do it well, we can confidently say to our students and our society that a university education is a wise investment indeed.

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The Role of Higher Education Institutions in the Transformation of Future-Fit Education

Education is a critical driver of the 2030 Agenda . Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) including universities and colleges worldwide are preparing future professionals, conducting meaningful research, and engaging with the community and stakeholders to tackle local, national, regional, and global challenges. These HEIs are at the forefront of the solutions required to advance the Sustainable Development Goals, which underscores the fundamental role of education in creating healthy and inclusive societies as envisioned in the 2030 Agenda. 

The role of HEIs is not confined to that exclusively of higher education per se. In practice, the contribution of HEIs is quite significant to creating a continuum between all levels of education while training future and current teachers, making curricula adjustments and developing new curricula, nurturing ideas and new pedagogical approaches, instilling fundamental values through various learning methods and platforms, and cultivating innovations -including technological ones- to improve the educational experience and educational outcomes.

The debate about the education we need for the future largely depends on the complexities we face and the several conflicting crises and emergencies around us. In this sense, universities and colleges are very well placed to assess such challenges and how they can be addressed. To analyze this, the  United Nations Academic Impact (UNAI)  within the context of the Transforming Education Summit convened by the United Nations, co-organized this event to be hosted by the Center for Global Affairs of New York University , a UNAI member institution in the United States:

Topic: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF FUTURE-FIT EDUCATION

Date:  Thursday, 22 September 2022

Time:  10am - 12:30pm (EDT/New York time)

Venue: New York University (United States), with broadcast (further details to be announced prior to the event)

RSVP/Registration form:   Click here

Those who would like to attend this event in-person will need to upload proof of vaccination and booster if eligible to the New York University (NYU) portal and show a "Green" Daily Screener pass upon entry to the campus. Attendees will also be required to follow any mask requirements or COVID-19-related protocols in place. Attendees will receive more information via e-mail about accessing the campus 1-2 weeks before the event.

As of now, registrations for attending in-person are no longer possible.

Please note that UNAI cannot cover travel-related expenses to attend this event, if you decide to do so in-person. 

No certificate of attendance or participation will be provided.

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First panel:   The role of higher education in the transformation of education for the realization of the SDGs

• Mr. Robert Skinner , Deputy Director and Chief of Partnerships and Global Engagement at the Outreach Division of the United Nations Department for Global Communications

Presenters:

• Dr. Carolyn Kissane , Clinical Professor, Academic Director of the graduate programs in Global Affairs and Global Security, Conflict and Cybercrime at the Center for Global Affairs, and Director of the SPS Energy, Climate Justice and Sustainability Lab of New York University (United States)
• Mr. Sarmad Khan , Board Director of the Academic Council on the United Nations System. Co-author of the upcoming book The Sustainable University of the Future: Reimagining Higher Education and Research . Former Head and Senior Policy Adviser of the Resident Coordinator System Leadership Branch at the United Nations Development Operations Coordination Office.  
• Dr. Patrick Paul Walsh , Vice President of Education and Director of the SDG Academy at the Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Professor of International Development Studies and Director of the Centre for Sustainable Development Studies at the University College Dublin (Ireland)
• Dr. Mette Morsing , Head of Principles for Responsible Management Education - PRME) at the United Nations Global Compact. Previous Professor, Misum Chair and Executive Director of the Misum Center for Sustainable Markets, Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden)
• Dr. Priyadarshani Joshi , Senior Research Officer at the Global Education Monitoring Report of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO. Specialist on Non-State Actors in Education and Education’s Role in the Sustainable Development Goals

Second panel:   Best practices and case studies from the UNAI SDG Hubs

• Dr. Waheguru Pal Singh , Clinical Professor and Director of the United Nations Specialization at the Center for Global Affairs of New York University (United States). Co-Author of the book The Future of Global Affairs Managing Discontinuity, Disruption and Destruction [2021]
• Prof. Juan José Vásquez , Legal Advisor and Professor of Conflict Resolution, Peace and Mediation at the University for Peace (Costa Rica) / SDG Hub for Goal 12
• Prof. Katja Enberg , Professor at the Department of Biological Sciences of the University of Bergen (Norway) / SDG Hub for Goal 14
• Prof. Sheryl Hendriks , Professor and Head of the Department of Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development at the University of Pretoria (South Africa) / SDG Hub for Goal 2
• Dr. Jonas Richard , Professor and Head of the Department of Social Work at Kristu Jayanti College (India) / SDG Hub for Goal 1

Goal of the Month | June 2024: Goals 13, 14 & 15 - Special Focus - Environment

Feevale University Opens Arms to Families Displaced by Rio Grande do Sul Floods

Heavy rains and floods wreaked havoc across Rio Grande do Sul, impacting 450 cities and leaving over 500,000 homeless, with 124 people tragically missing and 148 confirmed deaths. In response to this devastating situation, UNAI member  Feevale University has become a haven for displaced families and their animals, actively working to rebuild the community.

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Purpose of College Education

Do we send students to college mainly to grow and learn or strictly to prepare for a future career? The American public is somewhat split, but ultimately comes down in favor of the latter on balance. Just under half of the public (47%) says the main purpose of a college education is to teach work-related skills and knowledge. Another 39%, however, says that college is an opportunity for students to grow personally and intellectually. A little more than one-in-ten (12%) say the time spent at college should be dedicated to both pursuits. Americans who did not attend a four-year college are the most likely to say college is best for developing work-related skills — 55% say this should be the mission of college. Americans who did attend a four-year school, however, lean the other way:50% say that individual growth is more important; 40% say learning skills for a career. Adults with a post-graduate education, by a 56%-to-26% margin, are the most likely to say the mission of college should be to help an individual grow personally and intellectually rather than to prepare students for a career. Read More

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The Purpose of the University

• First Online: 01 October 2016

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The university—with more than an 800-year history—has taken on many purposes on behalf of many external stakeholders. These purposes have accumulated over different points in time for the benefit of different stakeholders. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that these purposes—having been “grafted” together—are, at best, non-synergistic, and at worst, conflicting (e.g., research versus teaching, fielding a competitive football team versus academic integrity). Business schools operate on that same principle. They have various stakeholders and are pliable in taking on non-synergistic purposes requested by stakeholders and benefactors.

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Bennis, W. G., & O’Toole, J. (2005, May). How business schools lost their way. Harvard Business Review , 96–104.

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Miles, E.W. (2016). The Purpose of the University. In: The Past, Present, and Future of the Business School. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33639-8_5

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Commentary | business owner in canton tells police he shot, killed bear in ‘self-defense’, commentary | opinion: why college commencements give us optimism for the future , it is the commitment of these bright and passionate minds to make an impact and make a difference that should give us our greatest hope for the future.

It was both an inspiring occasion and a daunting proposition, with protests taking place on college campuses near and far and higher education across the country facing, perhaps, its greatest challenge in generations. Large portions of the American public are questioning higher education’s essential value, its cost (and resulting student debt), as well as its ultimate return on investment.

Notwithstanding, the University of New Haven celebrated graduates in our class of 2024 who already accepted jobs with JP Morgan, the U.S. Secret Service, Boeing, Amazon, Lockheed Martin, General Dynamics Electric Boat, FactSet, Yale New Haven Hospital, Travelers, M&T Bank, the Brooklyn Nets, and the Atlanta Hawks, among many other companies and organizations across a wide range of fields and industries.

One graduate received the prestigious Boren Scholarship to travel to the Republic of Georgia to assist with post-conflict reconstruction, before pursuing a master’s degree in public policy. Another heads to Georgetown to study applied intelligence. Several graduates will pursue advanced degrees and cutting-edge research here at the University of New Haven.

Over the past several years, 96 percent of our graduates received job offers or enrolled in graduate school within six months of graduating, making significant contributions to our economy and our communities.

Still, people in our own state, as well as regionally and nationally, are questioning the value of a college degree.

In addressing the class of 2024, I shared recent research that claims this is the first time in several decades that Americans have been less optimistic about young people’s prospects for the future. To anyone questioning our prospects for the future, I say come to the University of New Haven (or any number of college or university campuses) and meet the next generation of elite leaders, problem solvers, and change agents.

At commencement, we prepared a message in case a demonstration or protest occurred. Our intention was not – and will never be – to stifle free speech or to silence advocacy about issues our students are passionate about. On the contrary, our focus was on respecting the magnitude of the moment of conferring college degrees – an accomplishment that has long been the launchpad for successful and rewarding lives – economically, socially, culturally, and personally.

As an industry, higher education will always serve a critical purpose. We serve as epicenters of intellectual and professional development, and we continue to challenge the status quo in the spirit of a brighter, better, and more productive future. It is the acquired knowledge, the infused ingenuity, and the added confidence of graduates we celebrated, and it is these very qualities that will help address the daunting challenges we face as a society.

Ultimately, it is the commitment of these bright and passionate minds to make an impact and make a difference that should give us our greatest hope for the future.

Jens Fredriksen is president of the University of New Haven.

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Senior Director of Communications for Student Affairs

🔍 vice provost for student affairs, stanford, california, united states.

Note: Not all unique aspects of the job are covered by this job description.

JOB PURPOSE

Stanford University has an immediate opening for a Senior Director of Communications. This position will be in the Division of Student Affairs , which supports many student experiences outside the classroom in our residences, community centers, student organizations, health center, career education center, and more. 

In this role you will:

• Direct planning and implementation of long- and short-term communication plans with direct impact to the university, in strategic partnership with leadership.      o    Work closely with University Communications on the visioning and execution of brand management, digital strategy, media (external) relations, and strategic communications, including the Stanford Report for Students.      o    Work closely with the Office of the General Counsel, Stanford University Department of Public Safety, and the Office of Government Affairs to ensure alignment of messaging.      o    Source content, hire staff to produce stories and strategize with the Senior Director for Strategy and Communications about what stories we need to produce and what schedule we should release them.
• Accountable for the strategic execution of creative, compelling, and effective means of communicating the innovations, employee experience, academic excellence, and essential nature of the university and its components.     o    Responsible for gathering communications tools (writers, editors, photographers, web designers) to place compelling content critical to the division into Stanford’s Student Report.     o    Oversee the creation and revision of website design/content, print materials, and written leadership messages for crisis communications.     o    Ensure communications meet accessibility standards defined by the university
• Determine channels for Student Affairs key messages and execute strategies impacting multiple audiences, channels, and constituencies.     o    Examine what channels and timing are most effective for our message and set strategy for what channels we should build out long term, which are not working and how we can get the division to engage in the most effective channels.     o    Oversee our metrics for social media, website, printed materials, newsletters, etc.
• Direct the actions of a small team and provide leadership to achieve communication goals supporting the university’s mission and vision.
• Responsible for hiring and retaining staff, career coaching, personal development for direct reports and accountable for the performance of employees.
• Develop guidance on protocols and best practices for a communications functional area of responsibility.     o    Oversee and refine the divisional communications protocols and ensure they are aligned with University Communications practice.  This includes how staff engage with the media, but also what tools we use to communicate to the student body and under what circumstances we use those tools.     o    Research best practices for communication in and outside of higher education.  Educate the communications team on those practices and give them space to try new things.
• Oversee Student Affairs and university key messages and develop strategies impacting multiple audiences, channels, and constituencies.    o    Oversee the revamp of every website in the division – centering the priorities of Our Most Important Work in the messaging and ensuring accessibility standards are met.    o    Oversee a comprehensive approach to mental health and well-being communication including websites, use of Stanford Student Report, presentations, and printed materials.    o    Build campus and division-wide look and feel for key VPSA priorities for each priority area that can be used in Stanford Student Report, our website, and our printed materials; key message areas having repeated emphasis, and building multiple unique stories for each area of emphasis that includes visuals/pictures, stories, and quotes that can be broadly distributed.
• Collaborate with University Communications leadership and Student Affairs units to ensure strategic plans and activities are aligned with overall university outreach and communications.    o    In partnership with the Senior Director for Strategy and Communications, meet weekly with University Communications leaders and unit leaders to ensure alignment and coordinate:  shared messages, timing of collective messages and how we will use/engage with Stanford Student Report.
• Direct crisis communication response including emergency matters as well as issues with reputational impact and training communication leads in Student Affairs in various situations.    o    Lead all crisis communications including responding to crisis on campus, student death, incidents in the broader community that impact students, etc.  This includes writing for crisis communications and ensure we follow the crisis communication protocol.    o    Gather up and check facts and then ghost author the written communications for the Vice Provost of Student Affairs.

To be successful in this role, you will bring:

• Bachelor’s degree and eight years of relevant experience or combination of education and relevant experience.
• Depth of experience, sound judgement, and confidence befitting a functional leadership position.
• Excels at writing, analyzing and synthesizing complex materials and with demonstrated ability to communicate highly technical or nuanced information in a manner easily understood under time constraints.
• Strategic and tactical thinking ability. 
• Demonstrated ability to manage both situational and communication issues that have diverse and competing interests
• Ability to synthesize information and viewpoints quickly and act on issues that require urgency. 
• Understanding of the communications role in institutions. Excellence in communicating at all levels and for all audiences. 
• Excellent influencing, negotiating, and relationship management skills. 
• Demonstrated ability to earn credibility and influence opinion leaders. 
• Creative thinker with a desire and ability to seek and optimize opportunities. 
• Proven management skills. An ability to build and sustain a best-in-class communication team. 
• Demonstrated ability to lead communication efforts across functions and school/units towards a common goal. 
• Demonstrated ability to discern a strategy to move forward and make or escalate decisions as appropriate.

In addition, our preferred qualifications include:

• Previous experience in a higher education system in a communications role
• Strong writer for both internal and external audiences
• Team / people management experience
• Excellent collaborator with high emotional intelligence

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS

• Constantly perform desk-based computer tasks. 
• Frequently stand/walk, sit, use a telephone, grasp lightly/fine manipulation, speaking. 
• Occasionally grasp forcefully, writing by hand. 
• Rarely sort/file paperwork. 

WORKING CONDITIONS

• This is a hybrid position which requires 2 days of on-site work per week .
• Occasional work on evenings and weekends 

WORK STANDARDS

• Interpersonal Skills: Demonstrates the ability to work well with Stanford colleagues and clients and with external organizations.
• Promote Culture of Safety: Demonstrates commitment to personal responsibility and value for safety; communicates safety concerns; uses and promotes safe behaviors based on training and lessons learned.
• Subject to and expected to comply with all applicable University policies and procedures, including but not limited to the personnel policies and other policies found in the University’s Administrative Guide, http://adminguide.stanford.edu .

The expected pay range for this position is $162,000 to $200,000 per annum.

Stanford University provides pay ranges representing its good faith estimate of what the university reasonably expects to pay for a position. The pay offered to a selected candidate will be determined based on factors such as (but not limited to) the scope and responsibilities of the position, the qualifications of the selected candidate, departmental budget availability, internal equity, geographic location, and external market pay for comparable jobs.

At Stanford University, base pay represents only one aspect of the comprehensive rewards package. The Cardinal at Work website ( https://cardinalatwork.stanford.edu/benefits-rewards ) provides detailed information on Stanford’s extensive range of benefits and rewards offered to employees. Specifics about the rewards package for this position may be discussed during the hiring process.

HOW TO APPLY: We invite you to apply by clicking on the “Apply for Job” button. To be considered, please submit your résumé and a one-page cover letter covering why you are interested in joining Stanford and Student Affairs along with your online application.

STANFORD FOR YOU

Imagine a world without search engines or social platforms. Consider lives saved through first-ever organ transplants and research to cure illnesses. Stanford University has revolutionized the way we live and enrich the world. Supporting this mission is our diverse and dedicated 17,000 staff. We seek talent driven to impact the future of our legacy. Our culture and  unique perks empower you with:

• Freedom to grow . We offer career development programs, tuition reimbursement, or audit a course. Join a TedTalk, film screening, or listen to a renowned author or global leader speak.
• A caring culture . We provide superb retirement plans, generous time-off, and family care resources.
• A healthier you . Climb our rock wall, or choose from hundreds of health or fitness classes at our world-class exercise facilities. We also provide excellent health care benefits.
• Discovery and fun . Stroll through historic sculptures, trails, and museums.
• Enviable resources . Enjoy free commuter programs, ridesharing incentives, discounts and more!

The job duties listed are typical examples of work performed by positions in this job classification and are not designed to contain or be interpreted as a comprehensive inventory of all duties, tasks, and responsibilities. Specific duties and responsibilities may vary depending on department or program needs without changing the general nature and scope of the job or level of responsibility. Employees may also perform other duties as assigned.

Consistent with its obligations under the law, the University will provide reasonable accommodations to applicants and employees with disabilities. Applicants requiring a reasonable accommodation for any part of the application or hiring process should contact Stanford University Human Resources at [email protected] . For all other inquiries, please submit a contact form

Stanford is an equal employment opportunity and affirmative action employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, color, religion, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, national origin, disability, protected veteran status, or any other characteristic protected by law.

• Schedule: Full-time
• Job Code: 4228
• Employee Status: Regular
• Requisition ID: 103454
• Work Arrangement : Hybrid Eligible

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• Open access
• Published: 03 June 2024

Knowledge, usability and challenges of e-learning platforms for continuing Professional Development of healthcare professionals at University Teaching Hospital of Kigali

• Agnes Mukamana 1 ,
• Jean Claude Byungura 2 ,
• Felix Manirakiza 3 , 4 &
• Gerard Rushingabigwi 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  613 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Healthcare professionals constitute a critical component of clinical care services. To provide the expected service, they must continuously develop their profession through continuous learning. This kind of learning is recognized as continuing professional development (CPD). Traditionally, CPD is offered onsite. Onsite training is associated with some barriers that prevent healthcare professionals from attending such educational activities, including financial difficulties and long distance. This is why online learning is proposed to overcome these barriers.

The main purpose was to evaluate usability, knowledge and challenges of e-learning platforms for CPD of healthcare professionals at University Teaching Hospital of Kigali (CHUK).

The cross-sectional quantitative study approach was utilized; the data was collected at the workplace of nurses, midwives, and allied health professionals by using a pre-designed questionnaire. The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 and presented as frequencies.

A significant majority was aware of CPD e-learning platforms. For example, 95.7% of the participants were familiar with these platforms, indicating that they had some degree of knowledge about their existence and purpose. Regarding the mode of accessing CPD courses, 82.1% of participants preferred online platforms, demonstrating a strong will to use e-learning platforms.

This study highlighted a high level of awareness and utilization of CPD e-learning platforms among healthcare professionals at CHUK, additionally, participants expressed confidence in using the platforms but emphasized the need for further support and training.

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Introduction

The field of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in healthcare has a rich historical background, dating back centuries within the medical field and institutionalized teaching in the Royal Medical Colleges. In the 20th century, CPD gained global recognition as a formal approach to assist healthcare professionals in acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills for their professional growth [ 1 ].

In the UK, the US and Australia, CPD has been mandated for nurses and allied healthcare professionals to maintain competence and provide evidence-informed care. However, a lack of comprehensive data exists regarding the global adoption of CPD requirements and their impact on the skills and knowledge development of healthcare provider [ 2 ]. The core concept of CPD emphasizes lifelong learning and continuous improvement, with a focus on enhancing professional competence and personal performance [ 3 ].

In Sub-Saharan Africa, CPD has proven to be particularly vital in updating the knowledge, skills, and practices of healthcare professionals, especially in fields such as tuberculosis (TB) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) treatment and diagnosis. Online education platforms have shown promise in offering flexible and efficient education in this regard [ 4 ].

However, the cost of attending, travel distances, family responsibilities, understaffing, and the inability to take time off from work have prevented many healthcare professionals from participating in these training programs. Online learning holds the potential to overcome these barriers by providing a world-class education to anyone, anywhere, and anytime as long as they have internet connectivity [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Rwanda has been offering Continuing Medical Education (CME) through yearly sessions organized by the faculty of medicine of the former National University of Rwanda (NUR) and the Rwanda Medical Association (RMA) since 1995. The Ministry of Health (MoH) and Rwanda Biomedical Center (RBC) also provide continuing training to healthcare professionals, especially those working in public health facilities [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

In Rwanda, several online CPD providers offer e-learning opportunities for healthcare professionals. There is a critical knowledge gap in understanding the usability and challenges associated with the use of e-learning platforms for CPD within healthcare settings among healthcare. Despite the potential benefits of e-learning, it remains unclear how well healthcare professionals at University Teaching Hospital of Kigali (CHUK) are adapting to and utilizing these online platforms. Existing research has not extensively explored the actual usage patterns, satisfaction levels, and barriers faced by healthcare professionals in engaging with e-learning for their professional development. In-depth insights into knowledge, usability and challenges are essential to ensure the effectiveness of e-learning in improving the skills and knowledge of healthcare professionals.

Therefore, we conducted this study to assess healthcare provider’s knowledge about CPD e-learning platforms, their usability and the challenges they face in adopting these platforms for CPD. The findings of this research are expected to provide valuable insights in the field of healthcare education and have the potential to drive positive and innovative changes by effectively integrating digital solutions for e-learning into the continuing professional education landscape for healthcare professionals in Rwanda.

Study area and design

This study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design and was conducted among healthcare professionals, specifically nurses, midwives and allied health professionals working at University Teaching Hospital of Kigali (CHUK) who have previously used CPD e-learning platforms in their CPD courses. We chose this study design due to the exploratory nature of our research and its specific contextual focus on the Rwandan health sector and the current CPD e-learning platforms used by healthcare professionals. The theoretical framework for our study is presented in Fig.  1 .

Theoretical framework of the study

Study site and population

The research was conducted at CHUK, located in Kigali city, Nyarugenge district, Rwanda. CHUK is one of the largest referral hospitals in the country, providing quality healthcare to the population. It is actively involved in clinical research, healthcare professionals training, and offers technical support to district hospitals. The hospital offers a wide range of clinical services and specialties.

These include allied health sciences, surgery, accident and emergency, internal medicine, mental health, anesthesiology and critical care, gynecology and obstetrics, pediatrics, maternal and neonatology, Ear, Nose &Throat (ENT), ophthalmology, neurosurgery, pediatric surgery, urology and dermatology.

The study was conducted in different departments to be able to have insight from people of different skills and different healthcare responsibility.

The study population comprised of nurses, midwives, and allied health professionals who are currently working at CHUK and who were using Rwandan CPD e-learning platforms in their courses. Healthcare professionals unavailable during the data collection period in March 2023 or unwilling to participate in the study were excluded.

Sample size and sampling strategy

In this research, the Taro Yamane’s simplified formula [ 12 ] was used to calculate and determine the sufficient and representative sample size. For this study, the entire study population was of 597 subjects (i.e., nurses, midwives, and allied health professionals who are working at CHUK). Using Taro Yamane’s formula, we can determine the sample size (n) based on the total research population (N) and the margin of error (e). The formula is n = N / [1 + N*(e)^2].

Then we sought a confidence level of 95%; therefore, our estimated error (e) was 0.05.

The calculated sample size was 597/ [1 + 597(0.05) 2] = 240. Therefore, we administered research questionnaires to 240 participants but ultimately, Among the total, at least 140 participants completed the survey questionnaire.

In this study, we used convenience sampling techniques, one type of non-probability sampling strategies whereby the study sample is drawn from the entire targeted population depending on their close suitability and availability for the research [ 13 ].

Convenience sampling involved selecting participants who were readily available and willing to participate, considering the limited time due to their busy work schedules. Another criterion was that the participants should have at least used one of the Rwandan CPD e-learning platforms for their CPD training.

Data collection

In this research, primary data in the form of quantitative information was collected using a questionnaire with closed-ended questions. The data collection period spanned from March 2023 to September 2023. Data collection tools were distributed to participants both in hand and in electronic form. The data collection tool was aligned with the study’s objectives.

Section A focused on demographic data, while Section B assessed the knowledge about CPD e-learning platforms using various scales: knowledge of action scale used 5-points, level of familiarity scale used 5-points, modes of participation scale used 3-points, and CPD platform scale used 7-points.

In Section C, the usability of CPD e-learning platforms was evaluated using items/scales described in the System Usability Scale [ 14 ]. Subsections (i) and (ii) assessed the easiness of using CPD e-learning platform and satisfaction related to its use respectively, ease of use scale used (5-points), frequency scale used (5-points), priority level scale used 5-points, agreement scale used 5-points, sufficiency scale used 5-points, satisfaction rating scale used 5-points. Subsection (iii) evaluated the efficiency of CPD e-learning platform and the frequency rating scale used (5-points, level of problem scale used 4-points, agreement scale used 5-points. Subsection (iv) evaluated the intuitiveness of CPD e-learning platform: level of clarity scale used 5-points, level of accessibility scale used 5-points, and the agreement scale used 5-points.

The subsection (v) assessed the usefulness/importance of CPD e-learning platforms: the agreement scale used 5-points, and the level of importance scale also used 5-points.

Section D focused on anticipated ICT technical issues and other challenges using scales such as the agreement scale with 5-points, the level of problem scale with 4-points, the level of accessibility scale with 5-points, the level of familiarity scale using 5-points, along with a Yes/No Scale which used 2-points. Using such scales facilitated data collection from large samples over a short period and provided insights for analysis and interpretation. The tool’s closed-ended questions made the data analysis easier and the data administration more efficient.

Data analysis

The quantitative data was entered into the IBM SPSS Statistics 25 software (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, SPSS) for further analysis. To ensure the validity and reliability of our data, we assessed construct validity and reliability. Descriptive statistics were used to provide an overview of the data. We calculated frequencies and percentages for categorical variables, such as healthcare provider’s knowledge about CPD platforms, the usability of e-learning platforms, and the challenges they faced.

Constructs validity

The Table  1 above shows that all the constructs in question achieved loading factors exceeding 50%, indicating a strong validation of the model. To enhance the validity of the measured constructs even further, the researcher conducted a pre-test of the survey questionnaire and this was also complemented by interviews with the study participants. This approach confirmed significant correlations and support for all the constructs used in the study, with convergent validity values greater than zero.

Construct’s reliability

The reliability of the constructs in this study was measured on each item by using the Cronbach’s Alpha [ 15 ] As reported in Table  2 , the reliability analysis indicates that all the constructs used in the study questionnaire explain a positive degree of construct reliability.

Based on the conducted reliability analysis all the items proposed under each construct have been used to collect data for this study.

In this study, 140 out of 240 participants returned a completed questionnaire, resulting in a participation rate of 58.3%. The results indicate that the majority of participants are females 71% (99/140) as indicated in Table  3 :

Accordingly, as indicated in Table  4 , the majority of the participants belong to the category of nurses (63%) (88/140), while the rest were midwives (23%) and allied health professionals with 29% representation.

Regarding the participants’ level of education, the majority possess A 1 and A 0 degrees respectively, especially for general nursing and midwifery. Very few participants (2.9%) are master’s degree holders as reported in Table  5 below.

Moreover, several participants in this study have been in the healthcare profession for 10 years and more and a good number of them has this experience for more than 4 years. More information on experience in health profession is visualized in Table  6 below.

Interestingly, the total number of participants 100% (140/140) reported that they are aware of and utilize CPD e-learning platforms during their courses.

Participants familiarity with CPD e-learning platforms

Regarding their familiarity with the e-learning platforms, 4.3% (6/140) of the participants are not at all familiar with it, while 95.7% (134/140) reported being familiar. When it comes to the mode of accessing courses, 82.1% (115/140) of the participants took their courses through online, while 12.9% (18/140) attended courses on-site and 5% (7/140) utilized video conferencing. Regarding the Rwandan CPD e-learning platforms, the majority of participants 71.4% (100/140) used National Council of Nurses and Midwives of Rwanda (NCNMR) CPD platform, surpassing other Rwandan CPD providers.

The study also revealed that the primary purpose of using e-learning platforms was to renew their licenses, as indicated by 71.4% (100/140) of the participants as shown in Table  7 .

Figure  2 below summarizes the finding about six indicators of usability of CPD e-learning platforms. It indicates that, 40% (56/140) had a neutral option, 35.7% (50/140) agreed and 15.7% (22/140) strongly agreed that they felt very confident when using the platform. Next, it indicates that 28.6% (40/140) had a neutral option, 28.6% (40/140) agreed and 15% (21/140) strongly agreed that they needed assistance to use the CPD e-learning platform.

Six indicators of participants’ perception on CPD e-learning usability each expressed in terms of frequency of agreement or disagreement

Regarding the necessity of face to face with the instructor, 35.7% (50/140) agreed and 20.7% (29/140) strongly agreed that face-to-face with the instructor is necessary for CPD learning to occur. We also found that 45.7% (64/140) agreed and 23.6% (33/140) strongly agreed that the CPD e-learning platform improved their time management skills and helped them acquire new skills in a short time. In addition, 41.4% (58/140) agreed and 22.1% (31/140) strongly agreed that the CPD e-learning platform helped them to save money.

Finally, a large number of participants reported that the platform helped them to access CPD resources anywhere and anytime, with 41.4% (58/140) agreeing and 28.6% (40/140) strongly agreeing.

Results about challenges of using e-learning based CPD courses are shown in Fig.  3 below. In summary, 33.6% (47/140) of the participants reported internet interruption as a moderate problem, and 52.1% (73/140) reported it as a serious problem while using the CPD e-learning platform. Consequently, the majority of participants encountered internet interruptions while using the CPD e-learning platform.

Results of evaluation of anticipated ICT technical issues and other challenges

Furthermore, 31.4% (44/140) of the participants reported electricity blackout as a minor problem, 24.3% (34/140) reported it as a moderate problem, and 22.9% (32/140) reported it as a serious problem. Consequently, the majority of participants experience electricity blackout as a challenge when using this platform.

Accordingly, from the Fig.  3 below, it can be observed that participants reported the higher cost of internet as a minor problem by 10% (14/140), a moderate problem by 25% (35/140), and a serious problem by 56.4% (79/140) when using the CPD e-learning platform at home.

This study explored the usability of e-learning platforms for CPD of healthcare professionals. Regarding the easiness of the used e-learning platforms, the majority of participants (50.7%) expressed that the CPD e-learning platforms were easy to use, indicating a positive perception of its usability. However, a significant portion (22.1%) disagreed on its easiness, suggesting areas that may require improvement. Additionally, a considerable percentage (43.6%) required assistance while using the e-learning platforms during their CPD courses, indicating potential usability issues or complexities that users encountered. Regarding the e-learning platforms efficiency, the findings indicate that while a notable percentage (37.1%) use the e-learning platforms frequently, there is also a considerable proportion (45.7%) who are neutral about its efficiency. Understanding the factors contributing to this neutrality can provide insights into areas where the platform can be optimized to enhance efficiency and productivity for users.

The majority of participants (77.9%) in this study agreed that all multimedia elements (images, sound, text) in the e-learning platform were clearly visible and accessible, indicating positive feedback regarding the platform’s design and presentation. Hence, this explains a considerable level of the platform intuitiveness vis-à-vis the healthcare professionals. However, the presence of disagreement (18.6%) suggests that there may be aspects of the e-learning platform’s intuitiveness that require attention. Additionally, the perception of lack of interaction or discussion with others as a threat to course completion highlights the importance of fostering engagement and collaboration within the e-learning environment that are used for CPD of healthcare professionals.

Furthermore, while nearly half of the participants (49.3%) expressed satisfaction with the e-learning platform for their learning needs during their CPD, a significant proportion (32.1%) reported dissatisfaction. This underscores the importance of addressing user concerns and preferences to improve overall satisfaction levels. Furthermore, comparing CPD e-learning versus face-to-face courses, a majority of participants (60%) expressed satisfaction, indicating the perceived value and effectiveness of the e-learning approach for CPD. However, the presence of dissatisfaction (22.1%) suggests areas where traditional face-to-face methods may still hold advantages for some users. With these findings, a blended learning mode for CPD could be promoted to cater for both learning needs and preferences of the healthcare professionals in the case study institution.

Overall, regarding the usability of CPD e-learning platform, healthcare professionals exhibited a high level of confidence (51.4%) when utilizing CPD e-learning platforms, which aligns with the findings supported by the literature review [ 4 ]. Concerning the need for assistance in using CPD e-learning platforms, the results indicate that 43.6% of participants recognized the necessity for training.

While e-learning offers numerous benefits for healthcare professionals, the results also underscore the importance of face-to-face instruction, particularly for practical skills as 56.40% agreed that face to face with instructor is necessary for e-learning. As for time management and the ability to quickly acquire new skills, the majority (69.3%) of healthcare professionals reported that they were able to learn new skills in a short period. The majority of participants (63.5%) acknowledged the cost savings and convenient access to resources provided by the platform.

These findings align with previous research on e-learning, emphasizing the advantages of online platforms in generating student interest, enhancing learning outcomes, and streamlining teaching practices [ 16 ]. Cost effectiveness, time saving, accessibility of resources anytime and anywhere are reported as an e-learning benefits [ 11 ]. Online CPD opportunities were well-received by healthcare workers in sub-Saharan Africa from diverse backgrounds. The study conducted by Feldacker et al. [ 4 ] suggested the need to expand these opportunities to provide more flexibility for self-directed learning. However, it is important for such courses to take into account the limited resources of individuals seeking these educational opportunities. The findings of Cheok et al. [ 17 ] reveal that students’ experience, or lack thereof, does not carry significant weight in this study. However, it does confirm that usability attributes are crucial for facilitating natural and spontaneous interactions with e-learning websites.

Regarding time savings, most healthcare professionals emphasized that CPD e-learning platforms helped them save on transportation expenses. In terms of resource accessibility at any time and from anywhere, the results demonstrated that the majority of participants were able to access platform resources whenever and wherever they needed.

These findings are supported by the existing literature which reported that the cost effectiveness, time saving, accessibility of resources anytime and anywhere are reported as an e-learning benefits [ 11 , 18 ].

Despite this usability of E-learning based platforms, there are also challenges related to them; the majority of participants (77.9%) did not have their own computers, and sometimes used their smartphones to access the platform. Familiarity with the instructional language (English) was a limitation for some participants, with only 15.7% being familiar. Providing additional language options for users is recommended. Participants reported internet interruptions while learning, with 52.10% experiencing them. Additionally, only 40% felt they had sufficient time to attend CPD courses, emphasizing the need for additional time provided by the hospital in the workplace.

Accordingly, 56.40% of participants reported a high home internet cost, suggesting a need for reduced internet costs. These findings are supported by findings from previously study which reported that the absence of internet access and computers at home for students, particularly in rural areas, hindered their involvement in e-learning beyond the classroom [ 16 , 19 ]. Highlighting the importance of technical support, training, and infrastructure improvement to enhance e-learning experiences. Therefore, It is crucial to bridge the digital divide, promote a culture of shared learning, and provide training to effectively use e-learning systems [ 20 ].

Conclusions

This study evaluated the knowledge, usability, and challenges of CPD e-learning platforms for healthcare professionals at CHUK. Participants expressed confidence in using the platforms but highlighted the need for further support and training. Factors such as time constraints, technical assistance, the high cost of internet, resource accessibility, and language proficiency were identified as important factors to consider for improving the e-learning based CPD experience. Implementing these findings can improve Rwandan CPD e-learning platforms dedicated to healthcare professionals.

In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight both strengths and areas for improvement in the CPD e-learning platform for healthcare professionals. By addressing e-learning platform usability issues, optimizing efficiency, enhancing intuitiveness, and aligning the platform with user satisfaction, developers and educators’ expectations, can create a more effective and engaging online learning experience for healthcare professionals pursuing continuing education. To mitigate some challenges for adopting CPD e-learning platforms by healthcare professionals, participants expressed the belief that every healthcare professional embarking on CPD should have their own laptop and that hospitals should provide a reliable internet connection during the training period. In alignment with the study by Cheok et al. [ 16 ] analyzing the teachers’ perceptions of e-learning in secondary schools, this study reported also that there is a need for additional training and technical support to improve health professional digital literacy skills and confidence in utilizing new technologies such as e-learning platforms.

More emphasis should also be put on the importance of the e-learning platform to accommodate different languages, and include interactive live questions and answers. Additionally, as new technologies for e-learning platforms are not conversant for several healthcare professionals, some face-to-face sessions with instructors for each course are also recommended, which in this case a blended learning mode for CPD.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to a lack of ethical approval for sharing the raw data. However, they can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Our deep appreciation and immeasurable gratitude to CEBE leadership for the funding and to CHUK to allow data collection. We are also grateful to the nurses, midwives, and allied health professionals who participated in this study by providing the research data.

This study has been supported and funded by the Regional Centre of Excellence in Biomedical engineering and e-Health (CEBE).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Health Informatics Department, Regional Centre of Excellence in Biomedical Engineering and e-Health (CEBE), University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Agnes Mukamana

Department of Business Information Technology, College of Business and Economics (CBE), University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Jean Claude Byungura

Pathology Department, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, P.O. Box 3286, Kigali, Rwanda

Felix Manirakiza

Pathology Department, University Teaching Hospital of Kigali, P.o. Box 655, Kigali, Rwanda

Biomedical Engineering Program, Regional Centre of Excellence in Biomedical Engineering and e-Health (CEBE), University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

Gerard Rushingabigwi

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Contributions

The data collection tool was designed by MA, BJC and MF. All the authors discussed and agreed on the instruments and data collection method. MA conducted data gathering. While data analysis was performed by MA, BJC, MF. MA and the other authors collaborated on formatting and the overall interpretation of study findings and drafted the manuscript. Proofreading was done by BJC, MF, and RG. All authors have read, critically reviewed, and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Agnes Mukamana .

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Mukamana, A., Byungura, J.C., Manirakiza, F. et al. Knowledge, usability and challenges of e-learning platforms for continuing Professional Development of healthcare professionals at University Teaching Hospital of Kigali. BMC Med Educ 24 , 613 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05585-x

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Iowa Reading Research Center

Research Article of the Month: May 2024

This blog post is part of our  Research Article of the Month series. For this month, we highlight “ Beyond Decoding: A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Language Comprehension Interventions on K–5 Students’ Language and Literacy Outcomes ,” an article published in the journal Reading Research Quarterly in 2020. Important words related to research are bolded, and definitions of these terms are included at the end of the article in the “Terms to Know” section.

Why Did We Pick This Paper?

Comprehension is a foundational reading skill that helps students improve their reading proficiency (Foorman et al., 2016). Language comprehension is the ability to make meaning from spoken and written language, and it is critical for reading comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Florit & Cain, 2011). In their Simple View of Reading, Gough and Tunmer (1986) propose that reading comprehension is the product of language comprehension and decoding—the ability to break down and sound out words based on sound and spelling correspondences. Much attention has been placed on the role of decoding in reading comprehension, whereas language comprehension has been understudied. Nevertheless, language comprehension plays an equally critical role in reading comprehension. Moreover, the role of language comprehension is believed to increase over time as students become more efficient decoders and are tasked with reading increasingly complex texts (Florit & Cain, 2011). 

In this study, the researchers review studies on the effects of explicit language comprehension instruction for K–5 students on a variety of language and literacy outcomes. Understanding the relationship between language comprehension instruction and other language and literacy skills may help educators design instruction that supports language and reading comprehension and improves students’ foundational reading skills. 

What Are the Research Questions or Purpose?

The researchers examined the effects of K–5 language comprehension instruction as interventions on various student language and literacy outcomes, as well as how these effects varied by participant and intervention characteristics by addressing the following questions:

• What are the effects of language comprehension interventions on K–5 students’ language and literacy outcomes?
• Do these effects differ for particular populations of students?
• Do these effects differ according to specific intervention characteristics?

What Methodology Do the Authors Employ?

The researchers conducted a meta-analysis of 43 studies on explicit language comprehension instruction for K–5 students.

To be included in the review, the studies needed to:

• include sustained language comprehension instruction, defined as five or more sessions with at least half of instructional time dedicated to language comprehension
• focus on the K–5 general education context
• report student outcomes in language comprehension, listening comprehension, or reading comprehension
• use quasi-experimental or experimental designs
• report effect sizes or the information needed to calculate them
• be written in English, set in the United States, and published in a peer-reviewed journal

The researchers identified or calculated effect sizes for each study to evaluate the impact of language comprehension instruction on student language and literacy outcomes. They synthesized effect sizes for each specific student outcome (i.e., academic language, decoding, listening comprehension, reading comprehension, vocabulary, morphology, and syntax) using a random effects model . 

Researchers also considered other variables in the studies that could affect the outcomes of the language comprehension interventions. These variables included:

• grade level
• race/ethnicity
• income status (whether a student qualified for free or reduced lunch)
• language status (EL or non-EL)
• disability status
• setting (whole-class, small-group, partner, or one-on-one)
• number of language comprehension components (single or multiple) 
• components of language comprehension addressed (vocabulary, morphology, or syntax)
• inclusion of decoding instruction, other comprehension instruction, content area instruction, writing, or discussion
• inclusion of technology

To examine whether effects differed by participant and intervention characteristics, the researchers conducted moderator analyses on outcomes. Moderator analyses were not conducted for outcomes in morphology, syntax, academic language, and decoding due to the limited number of studies addressing these outcomes. 

What Are the Key Findings?

Research question 1: what are the effects of language comprehension interventions on k–5 students’ language and literacy outcomes.

• Interventions in language comprehension had a large and statistically significant  effect on vocabulary (g = 0.85) and a small effect on listening comprehension (g = 0.10) and reading comprehension (g = 0.19). However, these effects were seen only on research-designed measures, not standardized measures, so it is unclear how generalizable these findings are. 
• Interventions in language comprehension had positive and statistically significant effects on morphology (g = 1.14) and academic language (g = 0.08), but studies on these outcomes were limited, so these results should be interpreted with caution. 
• No effects were seen on syntax or decoding. 

Research Question 2: Do these effects differ for particular populations of students?

• Effects did not differ depending on grade level. However, it is important to note that most studies focused on K–2 settings, so more research on upper elementary grades is needed.
• Due to inconsistent reporting across studies, the researchers were unable to examine whether effects differed depending on race/ethnicity or disability status of the students.
• Studies with a higher proportion of students from low-income families tended to have smaller effects on vocabulary outcomes.
• Interventions in language comprehension had greater effects on vocabulary and reading comprehension for multilingual English learners as opposed to monolingual students. 

Research Question 3: Do these effects differ according to specific intervention characteristics?

• Whole-group interventions in language comprehension had greater effects on vocabulary (g = 0.76) than those in small groups, with partners, or one-on-one.
• Duration of intervention did not predict effects.
• Multicomponent interventions had higher effects (g = 0.50) on vocabulary than single-component interventions.
• Interventions that included morphology had a positive effect on vocabulary (g = 0.66).
• Interventions that included syntax had a positive effect on reading comprehension (g = 0.36).
• Interventions that incorporated technology had a positive effect on reading comprehension (g = 0.31).

What Are the Practical Applications of Key Findings?

Based on the research findings from in this study, it’s clear that explicit language comprehension instruction can significantly enhance vocabulary development, which also impacts listening and reading comprehension throughout elementary education. Rather than focusing on a single component of language comprehension, integrating multiple components such as morphology, syntax, and vocabulary into instruction, particularly when combined with technology, can boost reading comprehension. Educators can also consider targeted interventions for English learners, who tend to benefit more from language comprehension interventions. When making instructional decisions to improve comprehension, it is crucial for policymakers and educators to focus on both language comprehension and decoding. 

What Are the Limitations of This Paper?

Most studies included in this meta-analysis focused on early elementary grades (K-2), with fewer studies examining outcomes in upper elementary grades. This limitation suggests that findings may not fully represent the effects of language comprehension instruction across K-5. In addition, the lack of reporting from studies about participant characteristics, such as disability status and race/ethnicity, limits the researchers’ ability to detect differences in effects between specific groups and understand how effects might vary among diverse populations. Further research should continue to explore the potential benefits of incorporating teaching strategies such as discussion and writing, as well as using content from other subjects like science and social studies to support language comprehension. 

Terms to Know

• Effects: In statistics, effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables in statistical analyses. A commonly used interpretation is to refer to effect size as small (g = 0.2), medium (g = 0.5), and large (g = 0.8) based on the benchmarks suggested by Cohen (1988), where “g” refers to Hedge’s g, a statistical measure of effect size.
• Meta-analysis: A meta-analysis synthesizes the results of separate studies addressing the same research question by systematically identifying and evaluating studies on a certain phenomenon, pooling their data and conducting statistical analyses, and interpreting the collective results.
• Experimental: Experimental research aims to determine whether a certain treatment influences a measurable outcome—for example, whether a certain instructional method influences students’ reading comprehension scores. To do this, participants are assigned to one of two groups: the experimental group, which receives the treatment, and the control group, which does not receive the treatment. In an experimental study, these groups are randomly assigned, meaning each participant has equal probability of being in either the treatment or the control group.
• Quasi-experimental: A quasi-experimental study is similar to an experimental study except that participants are not randomly assigned to groups. In educational research, groups often are assigned by classroom rather than through random assignment, making this kind of research quasi-experimental. In either case, participants in both groups are tested before and after the treatment, and their results are compared.
• Peer-reviewed journal: When an author submits an article to a peer-reviewed journal , the article is reviewed by scholars in the field. They make sure that the article is accurate, relevant, high quality, and well written.
• Random effects model: A random effects model is a type of statistical model that measures how an independent variable affects a dependent variable across a number of different samples or studies. Unlike a fixed effects model, a random effects model accounts for variability between different groups in a dataset.
• Moderator analyses: Moderator analyses aim to determine whether the association between two variables (such as phonemic awareness instruction and student outcomes) differs depending on a third variable (such as student grade level).
• Statistically significant: If a study’s findings are statistically significant , it means they are unlikely to be explained by chance alone.
• Generalizable: Generalizability refers to the extent to which the findings of one study can be extended to other people, settings, or past/future situations.

Florit, E., & Cain, K. (2011). The simple view of reading: Is it valid for different types of alphabetic orthographies?. Educational Psychology Review , 23 , 553–576.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-011-9175-6

Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. RASE: Remedial & Special Education , 7 (1), 6–10.  https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104

Silverman, R. D., Johnson, E., Keane, K., & Khanna, S. (2020). Beyond decoding: A meta-analysis of the effects of language comprehension interventions on K–5 students’ language and literacy outcomes. Reading Research Quarterly , 55 (S1), S207-S233.  https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.346  

What Works Clearinghouse. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3 rd grade . National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.  https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/PracticeGuide/wwc_foundationalreading_040717.pdf  

• Academic Vocabulary
• comprehension
• interventions
• listening comprehension
• morphological knowledge
• Research Article of the Month
• sentence structure
• vocabulary learning

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