what is library research definition

Definition of a Library: General Definition

Definition of a library.

In The Librarian’s Book of Lists (Chicago: ALA, 2010), George Eberhart offers this definition: 

"A library is a collection of resources in a variety of formats that is (1) organized by information professionals or other experts who (2) provide convenient physical, digital, bibliographic, or intellectual access and (3) offer targeted services and programs (4) with the mission of educating, informing, or entertaining a variety of audiences (5) and the goal of stimulating individual learning and advancing society as a whole." (p.1)

This definition is in turn compiled from:

(1) Heartsill Young, ed., The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science (ALA, 1983) (2) Robert S. Martin, "Libraries and Learners in the Twenty-First Century," Cora Paul Bomar Lecture, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, April 5, 2003. (3) Deanna B. Marcum, "Research Questions for the Digital Era Library," Library Trends 51 (Spring 2003): 636-651.

Another general definition of library is from the Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science (ODLIS):

“Library -- from the Latin liber, meaning "book." In Greek and the Romance languages, the corresponding term is bibliotheca. A collection or group of collections of books and/or other print or nonprint materials organized and maintained for use (reading, consultation, study, research, etc.). Institutional libraries, organized to facilitate access by a specific clientele, are staffed by librarians and other personnel trained to provide services to meet user needs. By extension, the room, building, or facility that houses such a collection, usually but not necessarily built for that purpose. Directory information on libraries is available alphabetically by country in World Guide to Libraries, a serial published by K.G. Saur. Two comprehensive worldwide online directories of library homepages are Libdex and Libweb. See also the UNESCO Libraries Portal. Abbreviated lib. See also: academic library, government library, monastic library, new library, proto-library, public library, special library, and subscription library.

ANSI/NISO Z39.7-2013-Information Services and Use: Metrics & Statistics for Libraries and Information Providers : Data Dictionary : an American National Standard  identifies categories for basic library statistical data reported at the national level, and provides associated definitions of terms” (p. 1), including the main types of libraries (public, academic, special, school, medical, etc.).

The American Library Association has also curated a listing of library related acronyms and initalisms.

• ODLIS: Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science ODLIS is designed as a hypertext reference resource for library and information science professionals, university students and faculty, and users of all types of libraries. Expansion of the dictionary is an ongoing process. Broad in scope, ODLIS includes not only the terminology of the various specializations within LIS but also the vocabulary of publishing, printing, binding, the book trade, graphic arts, book history, literature, bibliography, telecommunications, and computer science when, in the author's judgment, a definition might prove useful to librarians and information specialists in their work.
• IMLS Public Libraries in the United States Survey definitions This is the list of state characteristics data element definitions for the Survey.
• ANSI/NISO Z39.7-2013 Information Services and Use: Metrics & Statistics for Libraries and Information Providers Data Dictionary This standard identifies categories for basic library statistical data reported at the national level, and provides associated definitions of terms.
• Library-Related Acronyms and Initialisms An alphabetical listing of library acronyms and initalisms including ALA units, ALA publications, acronyms for a selected group of other library and related organizations, and abbreviations commonly used in library literature.

Public Libraries

Per the Institute for Museum and Library Services (IMLS), a  public library is established under state enabling laws or regulations to serve a community, district, or region, and provides at least the following:

• an organized collection of printed or other library materials, or a combination thereof;
• paid staff;
• an established schedule in which services of the staff are available to the public;
• the facilities necessary to support such a collection, staff, and schedule, and
• is supported in whole or in part with public funds.

Public libraries continue to be places for education and self-help, and offer opportunity for people of all ages and backgrounds.  They offer opportunity for everyone to  learn and to pursue self-improvement. In response to community needs for information, many libraries offer such programs as English as a  Second Language (ESL) classes, homework help, after-school programs for children, job information centers, assistance for new immigrants, literacy programs, and much, much more.  To serve such community needs, public libraries collect and make available information in many, many formats.

• Public Library Association A division of the American Library Association (ALA), the oldest and largest library association in the world. Founded in 1944, PLA is a member-driven organization that exists to provide a diverse program of communication, publication, advocacy, continuing education, and programming for its members and others interested in the advancement of public library service.

School Libraries

Learning for life…whether the focus is on readiness for the next grade or college and career readiness, the school library program plays a crucial role in preparing students for informed living in the 21 st  century. The school library program provides learning opportunities that enable students to become efficient and effective in the pursuit of information. 

Beyond its curricular role, the school library program gives each individual member of the learning community a venue for exploring questions that arise out of individual curiosity and personal interest.  As part of the school library program, the school librarian provides leadership in the use of information technologies and instruction for both students and staff in how to use them constructively, ethically, and safely. The school librarian offers expertise in accessing and evaluating information, using information technologies, and collections of quality physical and virtual resources. In addition, the school librarian possesses dispositions that encourage broad and deep exploration of ideas as well as responsible use of information technologies. These attributes add value to the school community.

The school library represents for students one of our most cherished freedoms--the freedom to speak our minds and hear what others have to say. Students in America have the right to choose what they will read, view, or hear and are expected to develop the ability to think clearly, critically, and creatively about their choices, rather than allowing others to do this for them. 

• American Association of School Librarians (AASL) The American Association of School Librarians (AASL), is a division of the American Library Association (ALA). It is the only national professional membership organization focused on school librarians and the school library community.

Academic Libraries

Academic libraries encompass research libraries, baccalaureate, masters and doctoral degree granting institutions, junior and community colleges, and distance learning programs of higher education.   Academic libraries work together with other members of their institutional communities to participate in, support, and achieve the educational mission of their institutions by teaching the core competencies of information literacy—the abilities involved in identifying an information need, accessing needed information, evaluating, managing, and applying information, and understanding the legal, social, and ethical aspects of information use. The systematic delivery of instructional programs and services should be planned in concert with overall strategic library planning, including the library’s budgeting process. Such planning may also involve strategizing with other campus units to deliver collaboratively designed programming.  Research has shown that the academic library is a positive influencing factor on students' academic success.

• Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) The Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) is the largest division of the American Library Association (ALA). ACRL is the higher education association for librarians. Representing more than academic and research librarians and interested individuals, ACRL develops programs, products and services to help academic and research librarians learn, innovate and lead within the academic community.

• Last Updated: Jun 27, 2022 3:20 PM
• URL: https://libguides.ala.org/library-definition

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• Why Can't I Find That Article?

Library Research Methods

• Evaluating Websites
• Citing Sources
• Productivity Tools for Scholars

(Adapted from Thomas Mann, Library Research Models )

Keyword searches . Search relevant keywords in catalogs, indexes, search engines, and full-text resources. Useful both to narrow a search to the specific subject heading and to find sources not captured under a relevant subject heading. To search a database effectively, start with a Keyword search, find relevant records, and then find relevant Subject Headings. In search engines, include many keywords to narrow the search and carefully evaluate what you find.

Subject searches .  Subject Headings (sometimes called Descriptors) are specific terms or phrases used consistently by online or print indexes to describe what a book or journal article is about. This is true of the library’s Catalog as well as many other library databases . 

Look for recent, scholarly books and articles. Within catalogs and databases, sort by the most recent date and look for books from scholarly presses and articles from scholarly journals. The more recent the source, the more up-to-date the references and citations.

Citation searches in scholarly sources .  Track down references, footnotes, endnotes, citations, etc. within relevant readings. Search for specific books or journals in the library’s Catalog . This technique helps you become part of the scholarly conversation on a particular topic.

Searches through published bibliographies (including sets of footnotes in relevant subject documents).  Published bibliographies on particular subjects (Shakespeare, alcoholism, etc.) often list sources missed through other kinds of searches. BIBLIOGRAPHY is a subject heading in the Catalog , so a Guided Search with BIBLIOGRAPHY as a Subject and your topic as a keyword will help you find these.

Searches through people sources (whether by verbal contact, e-mail, etc.). People are often more willing to help than you might think. The people to start with are often professors with relevant knowledge or librarians.

Systematic browsing, especially of full-text sources arranged in predictable subject groupings . Libraries organize books by subject, with similar books shelved together.  Browsing the stacks is a good way to find similar books; however, in large libraries, some books are not in the main stacks (e.g., they might be checked out or in ReCAP), so use the catalog as well.

The advantages of trying all these research methods are that:

Each of these ways of searching is applicable in any subject area

None of them is confined exclusively to English-language sources

Each has both strengths and weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages

The weaknesses within any one method are balanced by the strengths of the others

The strength of each is precisely that it is capable of turning up information or knowledge records that cannot be found efficiently—or often even at all—by any of the others

How to Gut a (Scholarly) Book in 5 Almost-easy Steps

Evaluating sources.

From Wayne C. Booth et al., The Craft of Research , 4th ed., pp.76-79

5.4 EVALUATING SOURCES FOR RELEVANCE AND RELIABILITY When you start looking for sources, you’ll find more than you can use, so you must quickly evaluate their usefulness; use two criteria: relevance and reliability.

5.4.1 Evaluating Sources for Relevance

If your source is a book, do this:

• Skim its index for your key words, then skim the pages on which those words occur.
• Skim the first and last paragraphs in chapters that use a lot of your key words.
• Skim prologues, introductions, summary chapters, and so on.
• Skim the last chapter, especially the >rst and last two or three pages.
• If the source is a collection of articles, skim the editor’s introduction.
• Check the bibliography for titles relevant to your topic.

If your source is an article, do this:

• Read the abstract, if it has one.
• Skim the introduction and conclusion, or if they are not marked by headings, skim the first six or seven paragraphs and the last four or five.
• Skim for section headings, and read the first and last paragraphs of those sections.

If your source is online, do this:

• If it looks like a printed article, follow the steps for a journal article.
• Skim sections labeled “introduction,” “overview,” “summary,” or the like. If there are none, look for a link labeled “About the Site” or something similar.
• If the site has a link labeled “Site Map” or “Index,” check it for your key words and skim the referenced pages.
• If the site has a “search” resource, type in your key words.

This kind of speedy reading can guide your own writing and revision. If you do not structure your report so your readers can skim it quickly and see the outlines of your argument, your report has a problem, an issue we discuss in chapters 12 and 14.

5.4.2 Evaluating Sources for Reliability You can’t judge a source until you read it, but there are signs of its reliability:

1. Is the source published or posted online by a reputable press? Most university presses are reliable, especially if you recognize the name of the university. Some commercial presses are reliable in some fields, such as Norton in literature, Ablex in sciences, or West in law. Be skeptical of a commercial book that makes sensational claims, even if its author has a PhD after his name. Be especially careful about sources on hotly contested social issues such as stem-cell research, gun control, and global warming. Many books and articles are published by individuals or organizations driven by ideology. Libraries often include them for the sake of coverage, but don’t assume they are reliable.

2. Was the book or article peer-reviewed? Most reputable presses and journals ask experts to review a book or article before it is published; it is called “peer review.” Many essay collections, however, are reviewed only by the named editor(s). Few commercial magazines use peer review. If a publication hasn’t been peer-reviewed, be suspicious.

3. Is the author a reputable scholar? This is hard to answer if you are new to a field. Most publications cite an author’s academic credentials; you can find more with a search engine. Most established scholars are reliable, but be cautious if the topic is a contested social issue such as gun control or abortion. Even reputable scholars can have axes to grind, especially if their research is financially supported by a special interest group. Go online to check out anyone an author thanks for support, including foundations that supported her work.

4. If the source is available only online, is it sponsored by a reputable organization? A Web site is only as reliable as its sponsor. You can usually trust one sponsored and maintained by a reputable organization. But if the site has not been updated recently, it may have been abandoned and is no longer endorsed by its sponsor. Some sites supported by individuals are reliable; most are not. Do a Web search for the name of the sponsor to find out more about it.

5. Is the source current? You must use up-to-date sources, but what counts as current depends on the field. In computer science, a journal article can be out-of-date in months; in the social sciences, ten years pushes the limit. Publications have a longer life in the humanities: in philosophy, primary sources are current for centuries, secondary ones for decades. In general, a source that sets out a major position or theory that other researchers accept will stay current longer than those that respond to or develop it. Assume that most textbooks are not current (except, of course, this one).

If you don’t know how to gauge currency in your field, look at the dates of articles in the works cited of a new book or article: you can cite works as old as the older ones in that list (but perhaps not as old as the oldest). Try to find a standard edition of primary works such as novels, plays, letters, and so on (it is usually not the most recent). Be sure that you consult the most recent edition of a secondary or tertiary source (researchers often change their views, even rejecting ones they espoused in earlier editions).

6. If the source is a book, does it have a notes and a bibliography? If not, be suspicious, because you have no way to follow up on anything the source claims.

7. If the source is a Web site, does it include bibliographical data? You cannot know how to judge the reliability of a site that does not indicate who sponsors and maintains it, who wrote what’s posted there, and when it was posted or last updated.

8. If the source is a Web site, does it approach its topic judiciously? Your readers are unlikely to trust a site that engages in heated advocacy, attacks those who disagree, makes wild claims, uses abusive language, or makes errors of spelling, punctuation, and grammar.

The following criteria are particularly important for advanced students:

9. If the source is a book, has it been well reviewed? Many fields have indexes to published reviews that tell you how others evaluate a source.

10. Has the source been frequently cited by others? You can roughly estimate how influential a source is by how often others cite it. To determine that, consult a citation index.

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• Last Updated: Oct 17, 2023 3:09 PM
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The Oxford Guide to Library Research

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With all of the new developments in information storage and retrieval, researchers today need a clear and comprehensive overview of the full range of their options, both online and offline, for finding the best information quickly. In this third edition of The Oxford Guide to Library Research, Thomas Mann maps out an array not just of important databases and print sources, but of several specific search techniques that can be applied profitably in any area of research. From academic resources to government documents to manuscripts in archives to business Web sites, Mann shows readers how best to exploit controlled subject headings, explains why browsing library shelves is still important in an online age, demonstrates how citation searching and related record searching produce results far beyond keyword inquiries, and offers practical tips on making personal contacts with knowledgeable people. Against the trendy but mistaken assumption that "everything" can be found on the Internet, Mann shows the lasting value of physical libraries and the unexpected power of traditional search mechanisms, while also providing the best overview of the new capabilities of computer indexing. Throughout the book Mann enlivens his advice with real-world examples derived from his experience of having helped thousands of researchers, with interests in all subjects areas, over a quarter century. Along the way he provides striking demonstrations and powerful arguments against those theorists who have mistakenly announced the demise of print. Essential reading for students, scholars, professional researchers, and laypersons, The Oxford Guide to Library Research offers a rich, inclusive overview of the information field, one that can save researchers countless hours of frustration in the search for the best sources on their topics.

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Research Basics

• What Is Research?
• Types of Research
• Secondary Research | Literature Review
• Developing Your Topic
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Evaluating Sources
• Responsible Conduct of Research
• Additional Help

A good working definition of research might be:

Research is the deliberate, purposeful, and systematic gathering of data, information, facts, and/or opinions for the advancement of personal, societal, or overall human knowledge.

Based on this definition, we all do research all the time. Most of this research is casual research. Asking friends what they think of different restaurants, looking up reviews of various products online, learning more about celebrities; these are all research.

Formal research includes the type of research most people think of when they hear the term “research”: scientists in white coats working in a fully equipped laboratory. But formal research is a much broader category that just this. Most people will never do laboratory research after graduating from college, but almost everybody will have to do some sort of formal research at some point in their careers.

So What Do We Mean By “Formal Research?”

Casual research is inward facing: it’s done to satisfy our own curiosity or meet our own needs, whether that’s choosing a reliable car or figuring out what to watch on TV. Formal research is outward facing. While it may satisfy our own curiosity, it’s primarily intended to be shared in order to achieve some purpose. That purpose could be anything: finding a cure for cancer, securing funding for a new business, improving some process at your workplace, proving the latest theory in quantum physics, or even just getting a good grade in your Humanities 200 class.

What sets formal research apart from casual research is the documentation of where you gathered your information from. This is done in the form of “citations” and “bibliographies.” Citing sources is covered in the section "Citing Your Sources."

Formal research also follows certain common patterns depending on what the research is trying to show or prove. These are covered in the section “Types of Research.”

• Next: Types of Research >>
• Last Updated: May 17, 2024 11:08 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.iit.edu/research_basics

An Introduction to Library Research

• The Research Ecosystem
• The Research Question
• The Research Process
• Staying Organized
• Getting Help

Subject Librarian

Gottesman Libraries

Russell Hall

Teachers College, Columbia University

525 West 120th Street

New York, NY 10027

+1 (212) 678-3494

@tcgottesman  

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Russell Hall. Library. Curriculum Reading Room (Floor 5). Historical Photographs of Teachers College. Courtesy of Gottesman Libraries.

Guide Creator

Becca Gates, Research and Instruction Librarian

Getting Started at the Library

Here you will find information about how to get started with research, whether you are a seasoned scholar or brand new to the process.

But first, what is a Library?

Libraries can be defined in many different ways, as demonstrated by the quote below. The Gottesman Libraries specifically are the main form of support for information collection, retrieval, and development at Teachers College. We are housed in Russell Hall and our library began with our physical research collection which can be found in the stacks (definition below) on each floor. Now, we maintain many different physical and digital resources, provide physical spaces for study, host educational and entertaining events, and much more. Think of the library as the hub of information at TC. Below you will find key terms associated with Libraries, definitions are drawn from the Multilingual Glossary for Today's Library Users by the Instruction Section of the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) unless otherwise noted.

Library Catalog

"A database (either online or on paper cards) listing and describing the books, journals, government documents, audiovisual and other materials held by a library. Various search terms allow you to look for items in the catalog. "

Educat+ is Gottesman Libraries online catalog that can be searched from our website.

" Shelves in the library where materials—typically books—are stored. Books in the stacks are normally arranged by call number . May be referred to as 'book stacks.'"

A collection of information stored in an electronic format that can be searched by a computer.

Typically databases in libraries contain searchable information resources, including journal articles, books, images, etc. The A-Z Database List on our website includes all databases you have access to through Teachers College.

Peer Review

Peer review is a process by which editors have experts in a field review books or articles submitted for publication by the experts’ peers. Peer review helps to ensure the quality of an information source. A peer-reviewed journal is also called a refereed journal or scholarly journal .

1. A space which houses historical or public records. 2. The historical or public records themselves, which are generally non-circulating materials such as collections of personal papers, rare books, ephemera, etc.

The Gottesman Libraries Archive contains collections on the history of Teachers College, Faculty papers, and more.

An information source published in multiple parts at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, biannually). Journals , magazines , and newspapers are all periodicals. Also called a serial publication.

Trade Journal

A trade journal is a serial publication with a target audience of people within a specific trade or industry. These may also be called trade magazines or trade papers. The example in the photo is a popular trade magazine in the aviation industry. Image from Wikimedia in public domain.

• Next: The Research Ecosystem >>
• Last Updated: Mar 20, 2024 12:38 PM
• URL: https://tc-columbia.libguides.com/library_research

University of Illinois Chicago

University library, search uic library collections.

Find items in UIC Library collections, including books, articles, databases and more.

Advanced Search

Search UIC Library Website

Find items on the UIC Library website, including research guides, help articles, events and website pages.

• Search Collections
• Search Website

English 160 &161: Introduction to Library Research

• Introduction to Library Research
• Explore Your Topic
• Find sources
• Evaluate sources
• Citation Help
• Eng 555 Orientation

Welcome to the UIC Library

During your library sessions, you will be learning the basics of how to conduct college-level research.  Your instructor and the librarians have developed these sessions to help you complete your research assignments as successfully as possible. After the sessions you should be able to:

• Determine keywords related to your topic.
• Find books and articles on your topic.
• Determine the difference between a scholarly and popular article.

If you need more help once you start researching, just ask a librarian ! 

UIC Library Tutorial: Constructing a Successful Search

How to Search Like a Librarian

Link to first video in this sequence of asynchronous instructional videos for English 160 and 161 above. This will take you to the YouTube Playlist including the following videos which you can also view individually:

Part 1: How to Search LIke a Librarian (2:24)

Part 2: Boolean Search Terms (3:10)

Part 3: Doing a Search and Counting Your Results  (3:08)

Part 4: Get More with OR/Incorporating Synonyms (3:13)

Part 5: Getting More Relevant Results with Filters (3:24)

Part 6: Three Ways to Get Articles  (2:53)

Part 7: Trying Other Sources/Search Tools  (3:40)

Part 8: Getting Help (1:58)

Part 9: Making Bibliographies Easy: The Bonus Episode (3:54)

Research is a Process

Research is Messy

Research can be messy, but that's okay. You may end up changing your topic as you go, and you may not follow these steps in order. As long as you cover them all, that's research. 

Making a mind map of your topic.

Mindmapping, or concept mapping as it is also called, can be an effective way of brainstorming. By plotting out your topic in a visual manner, you can discover connections and identify any missing pieces. It's also a great way to develop keywords and synonyms for database searching.

• Mindmapping Guide (PDF)
• Next: Explore Your Topic >>
• Last Updated: Apr 18, 2024 11:44 AM
• URL: https://researchguides.uic.edu/intro

University Libraries

• Ohio University Libraries
• Library Guides
• Library Research Process

Research: An Overview

• Narrowing a Topic
• Doing Presearch
• Words and Synonyms
• Scholarly vs. Popular
• What's in a Scholarly Article?
• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Film & Video
• Subject Databases and Guides
• Spotting Fake News
• The Four Moves
• Quick Journal Article Evaluation
• Zotero: Tracking Sources
• Information In Real Life Tutorial
• Scholarship as a Conversation and Article Deep Dive
• UC 1900 Library Tutorial Covers six components to help new students understand what the library offers and how to use its resources. ArticlesPlus ALICE Digital collections Your Library Account Printing Get Help

The Library Research Process: What's On These Pages

A strategy for your project; where to start?

Finding a Topic  & Presearch

Start Big; narrow by aspect; start investigating

Search Techniques

How to find what you need in a database

Types of Resources  & Finding Them

Formats and characteristics of information

Evaluating Sources

Investigate or test the information for reliability

Citing Sources

Details of style and using Zotero

Information in Real Life Tutorial 

Finding and using information after college

Librarians can be especially helpful in two aspects of the information-gathering portion of the research process:

• WHERE to search: recommending appropriate databases and other research tools for your particular topic
• HOW to search: coming up with good terms to use when you use these research tools, and arranging those terms in ways that will give you the best results
• Next: Research: An Overview >>

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The Elements of Library Research

What every student needs to know.

• Mary W. George
• X / Twitter

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• Language: English
• Publisher: Princeton University Press
• Copyright year: 2008
• Audience: Professional and scholarly;College/higher education;
• Main content: 224
• Other: 6 line illus. 24 Tables.
• Keywords: Database ; Bibliography ; Library classification ; Peer review ; Publication ; Thought ; Brainstorming ; Plagiarism ; Writing ; Primary source ; Academic journal ; Librarian ; Thesis statement ; Secondary source ; Newspaper ; Phrase ; Guideline ; Textbook ; Special collections ; Encyclopedia ; Literature review ; Instance (computer science) ; Illustration ; Project ; Suggestion ; Handbook ; Table of contents ; Vocabulary ; Thesis ; Result ; Editorial ; Diagram ; Academic publishing ; Manuscript ; Monograph ; Article (publishing) ; Public library ; Concept search ; Glossary ; Faculty (division) ; Full text search ; Thesaurus ; EndNote ; Academic library ; Classroom ; The Chicago Manual of Style ; Search algorithm ; Web search engine ; Book review ; Checklist ; Technology ; Council of Science Editors ; Career ; Understanding ; Flowchart ; Computer file ; Browsing ; Punctuation ; Terminology ; How-to ; University of Chicago Press ; Usage ; Addition ; Paragraph ; Reprint ; Alphabetical order ; Qualitative research ; Scientific method ; APA style ; Cataloging ; Library of Congress Classification ; Periodical literature ; Special library ; Verb ; Word processor ; Email ; Login ; Presentation ; Author ; Microform ; Social science ; Annotated bibliography ; Adjective ; Learning ; Writing process ; Outline (list) ; Library of Congress Subject Headings ; Server (computing) ; Online public access catalog ; Finding ; Recipe ; Ingredient ; Library of Congress ; Information seeking ; Tool ; Library consortium ; Stage (cooking) ; Measurement ; Known-item search ; Quotation mark
• Published: August 11, 2008
• ISBN: 9781400830411

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LIB101: Intro to Library Research

• What you will learn
• About LIB101

Course Description

Lib101 learning outcomes, topics covered.

• Transfer credit
• Get more info

Introduces and strengthens college-level research skills. Students will build an understanding of strategies for finding, evaluating, and using information responsibly. Prepares students for success in research-based college assignments and real-life research needs.

After successfully completing LIB101, students will be able to:

• Practice information searching skills across multiple formats and tools.
• Evaluate information resources for credibility and suitability for college-level coursework.
• Demonstrate ethical and socially-responsible creation and use of information.
• Introduction to the research process.
• Introduction to developing a basic research topic.
• Developing effective keywords.
• Effective use of the CCC Library Catalog to identify and access full-text resources relevant to a research topic.
• Effective use of academic databases (including search limits) to identify and access full-text articles relevant to a research topic.
• Effective use of search engines for finding credible online information.
• Evaluation of information resources for credibility and relevancy for information needs.
• Introduction to responsible information use, including citing sources and avoiding plagiarism.
• << Previous: About LIB101
• Next: Transfer credit >>
• Last Updated: Mar 18, 2024 9:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.clackamas.edu/LIB101Info

Librarians Conducting Library Research: What Is Happening Outside the Academy?

• First Online: 05 September 2018

Cite this chapter

• Diane Mizrachi 3  

364 Accesses

This chapter discusses the facets and conditions for library research performed by practitioners—librarians who work in library and information institutions. We define the types of research that librarians perform, review the differences in publication behaviors of academics and practitioners, look at the scope of research in different types of library settings, and discuss the motivations for engaging in research, modes of dissemination of results, intended audiences, as well as training and support provided by library schools and institutions. Overall, most librarians are expected to engage in certain types of research as part of their job duties whether for publication or not, and the majority of them consist of practical research for assessment and improvement of services, programs, and workflows.

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Advocating Users’ Needs through a Leadership Role in Research Libraries

Knowledge infrastructures in science: data, diversity, and digital libraries

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Suggested Readings

Connaway, L. S., & Powell, R. R. (2010). Basic research methods for librarians . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Koufogiannakis, D., & Crumley, E. (2006). Research in librarianship: Issues to consider. Library Hi Tech, 24 (3), 324–340.

Koufogiannakis, D., Slater, L., & Crumley, E. (2004). A content analysis of librarianship research. Journal of Information Science, 30 (3), 227–239.

Markless, S., & Streatfield, D. (2006). Evaluating the impact of your library . London: Facet.

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University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles, CA, USA

Diane Mizrachi

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Correspondence to Diane Mizrachi .

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Lisa Börjesson

Isto Huvila

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Mizrachi, D. (2019). Librarians Conducting Library Research: What Is Happening Outside the Academy?. In: Börjesson, L., Huvila, I. (eds) Research Outside The Academy. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94177-6_5

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University Library

Robert S. Swanson Library and Learning Center

• I have a research assignment, where do I start?
• Read Your Assignment Carefully
• Understand Your Assignment
• How do I develop a good research question?
• Too Broad, Too Narrow, or Just Right?
• Customize Your Topic
• Turn Your Topic into a Question
• How do I choose the right keywords?
• Bring your keywords together!
• More or Fewer Results
• Advanced Keyword Tricks
• A Timeline of Information
• What is a Scholarly Source?
• Scholarly vs. Popular Sources
• Where might I find relevant information?
• How Do I Use Search@UW?
• Can I Save My Search@UW Search Results?
• Access The Full Text
• How Do I Get an Article That's Not Full Text?
• Requesting a UW-System Item
• Database Basics
• How Do I Find the UW-Stout Library Databases?
• How Do I Choose a Database?
• How Do I Search in a Database?
• Database Tutorials

What are Research Guides?

• Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
• Questions about this tutorial?

Library Research 101: What are Research Guides?

  NAVIGATE DATABASES

• Find Databases
• Search strategies
• Research Guides

Adapted from Houston Community College Libraries

If you’re still not sure which library resources to start with for your research, try using our Research Guides!

Research Guides are librarian-curated pathways to information, videos, databases, and other resources for your discipline. That is, they pull many different types of resources on a subject or topic together in one place.

You can access the UW-Stout Library Research Guides by clicking the “Research Guides” button on the library homepage.

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• Next: Get Help >>
• Last Updated: Nov 29, 2022 3:24 PM
• URL: https://library.uwstout.edu/lr101

Theater of the Real

Library research methods, starting your research.

• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Finding Plays
• Conducting Interviews
• Primary Sources
• Locating Documentary Films
• Finding Images & Videos
• Citing Information

Use these tips while conducting research in the library:

(Adapted from Thomas Mann, Library Research Models )

• Keyword searches in online and print sources. Search relevant keywords in catalogs, indexes, search engines, and full-text resources. Useful both to narrow a search to the specific subject heading and to find sources not captured under a relevant subject heading. To search a database effectively, start with a Keyword search, find relevant records, and then find relevant Subject Headings. In search engines, include many keywords to narrow the search and carefully evaluate what you find.
• Subject searches in online and print sources.   Subject Headings (sometimes called Descriptors) are specific terms or phrases used consistently by online or print indexes to describe what a book or journal article is about. This is true of the Library’s Online Catalog as well as Proquest or the Reader’s Guide or other indexes.  For example, in the online catalog, DIVORCE and CHILDREN OF DIVORCED PARENTS are different subject headings with different books under them.  If you want the latter and find the specific subject heading, you’ll save time finding the most relevant resources.  DIVORCE as a Keyword in the Online Catalog will pick up both topics above, but also about 1300 other catalog records with the word “divorce” in them.
• Citation searches in printed sources.   Track down footnotes, endnotes, and citations in relevant readings. Search for specific books or journals in the Library’s Online Catalog. This technique helps you become part of the scholarly conversation on a particular topic.
• Searches through published bibliographies (including sets of footnotes in relevant subject documents).  Published bibliographies on particular subjects (Shakespeare, alcoholism, etc.) often list sources missed through other kinds of searches. BIBLIOGRAPHY is a subject heading in the Online Catalog, so a Guided Search with BIBLIOGRAPHY as a Subject and your topic as a keyword will help you find these.
• Searches through people sources (whether by verbal contact, e-mail, electronic bulletin board, letters, etc.). People are often more willing to help than you might think. The people to start with are often Reference Librarians at the Reference Desks in the Library.
• Systematic browsing, especially of full-text sources arranged in predictable subject groupings. Libraries organize books by subject, with similar books shelved together.  Browsing the stacks is a good way to find similar books; however, in large libraries, some books are not in the main stacks, so use the catalog as well.

The advantages of trying all these research methods are that:

• Each of these ways of searching is applicable in any subject area
• None of them is confined exclusively to English-language sources
• Each has both strengths and weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages
• The weaknesses within any one method are balanced by the strengths of the others
• The strength of each is precisely that it is capable of turning up information or knowledge records that cannot be found efficiently—or often even at all—by any of the others
• Credo Reference This link opens in a new window Online collection of dictionaries, encyclopedias, biographical sources, quotations, bilingual dictionaries, and measurement conversions covering topics from the arts to the sciences.
• Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance This encyclopedia provides authoritative and up-to-date information about theatre and performance from ancient Greek theatre to the latest developments in London, Paris, New York, and around the globe. In addition to performances in playhouses, it covers dance, opera, radio, film, television, and popular performance, including carnivals, circus, and public executions. Entries range from short definitions of terms to lengthy considerations of genres and movements, such as feminism and psychoanalytic criticism. Entries on cities and regions place performance in its local social and political context. Written in accessible language, this encyclopedia brings together an international cast of over 300 specialist contributors.
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Library Research: An Introduction

Types of information sources.

• Developing a Search Strategy
• Searching for Triton Library Books
• Searching I-Share
• Searching Library Databases
• Evaluating Sources
• Citing Sources & Tools This link opens in a new window

Ask-a-librarian

When finished, select "Clear Chat History" at the top of the box.

Chat reference service is available during Library Hours .

If offline, call 708-456-0300 ext. 3698 or email [email protected] . 

Introduction & Learning Objectives

Information can come from virtually anywhere — social media, blogs, personal experiences, books, journal and magazine articles, expert opinions, newspapers, and websites — and the type of information you need will change depending on the question you are trying to answer. Different assignments require information from a variety of sources; therefore, you need to understand where to go to find certain types of information.

After reviewing the material in this section, students will be able to:

• Differentiate different types of information sources
• Select a type of source needed for a specific information need based on appropriateness
• Explain the difference between scholarly and popular articles

The Information Timeline

What is an academic journal?

Reference Books

• Include facts, figures, addresses, statistics, definitions, dates, etc.
• Useful for finding factual or statistical information or for a brief overview of a particular topic.
• Examples : dictionaries, encyclopedias, directories

Newspapers (News sources)

• Provides very current information about events, people, or places at the time they are published
• Useful for information on current events or to track the development of a story as it unfolds
• Examples : The Chicago Tribune , The New York Times , The Wall Street Journal , CNN
• Include articles on diverse topics of popular interest and current events
• Articles typically written by journalists or professional writers
• Geared toward the general public
• Examples : Time , Newsweek , National Geographic

Academic Journals (Peer-reviewed or scholarly journals)

• Include articles written by and for specialists/experts in a particular field
• Articles must go through a peer review process before they're accepted for publication
• Articles tend to have a narrower focus and more analysis of the topic than those in other types of publications
• Include cited references or footnotes at the end of research articles
• Examples:  Journal of Communication , The Historian , Journal of the American Medical Association
• Cover virtually any topic, fact or fiction 
• Useful for the complete background on an issue or an in-depth analysis of a theory or person
• Can take years to publish, so may not always include the most current information
• Examples: The Politics of Gun Control , To Kill a Mockingbird , Hemingway and Faulkner in their Time
• Next: Developing a Search Strategy >>
• Last Updated: Jan 18, 2024 1:53 PM
• URL: https://library.triton.edu/research

Library Research: Understanding Library Databases: Defining Databases

• Defining Databases
• How to Access Databases at the Library
• Accessing Databases On/Off Campus
• Why are databases useful?
• Facts about databases
• Types of databases
• Strategies for finding databases
• Understanding What's in a database
• Define your topic
• Choose keywords
• Boolean Operators
• Examples of using AND, OR, NOT
• Wildcards and Truncation
• Subject Headings
• Video: Choosing a Database
• Tutorial: Choosing & Using Keywords
• Quiz: Choosing and Using Keywords
• Quiz: Choosing a Database
• Tutorial: Search Techniques, Part 1
• Tutorial: Search Techniques, Part 2
• Quiz: Search Techniques
• Video: Refining Search Results

John B. Cade Library

A library database is an organized collection of electronic information that allows a user to search for a particular topic, article, or book in a variety of ways (e.g. keyword, subject, author, title, year). Information found in databases is not available through the open web, as you may be required to purchase articles for a fee. 

• scholarly peer-reviewed articles
• newspaper articles
• trade publications
• book reviews
• magazine articles
• dissertations/theses
• Journal articles are free.
• You control the amount and type of information. 
• You will save time and money.
• The library has databases geared towards your research.
• Next: How to Access Databases at the Library >>
• Last Updated: Feb 28, 2024 2:03 PM
• URL: https://subr.libguides.com/ULD

What is a Library?

Introduction:  A library is a collection of books, magazines, newspapers, and other materials made available for people to borrow or use for reference. Libraries have been around for thousands of years and are an essential part of society, providing everyone access to information and knowledge, regardless of their background or financial means. They serve as a hub for education, research, and leisure, allowing people to expand their horizons, explore new ideas, and connect with others who share their interests. Libraries offer services beyond just lending books, including computer access, community events, and educational programs. They are crucial in promoting literacy, intellectual freedom, and cultural diversity and are vital resources for individuals, communities, and society.

1.1 What is a Library?

A library is a place of knowledge and discovery where endless possibilities exist. When you walk through the doors of a library, you are greeted by shelves upon shelves of books, magazines, and newspapers, all waiting to be explored. The scent of paper and ink fills the air, and the peaceful silence creates an atmosphere perfect for reading, studying, or relaxing.

The first thing you will notice when you enter a library is the wide variety of materials available. There are books on every subject imaginable, from classic literature to modern bestsellers, scientific journals, and historical biographies. You can find resources on art, music, business, and technology, to name a few“. The library also provides access to online databases, e-books, and audiobooks, making finding the information you need more accessible than ever. They are not just places for reading, though. They are also centers for community engagement and learning. Many libraries host events and programs for all ages, from storytimes for children to book clubs for adults. They offer classes on computer skills, job searching, and language learning. Some libraries even have maker spaces where patrons can learn and experiment with technology, such as 3D printing and coding.

In addition to the vast collection of resources and programs, libraries provide a welcoming and inclusive environment. They are places where people of all ages, races, religions, and backgrounds can come together and learn from one another. Libraries offer free and equal access to information, essential for democracy and civic engagement.

Libraries also have a long and rich history. Some of the world’s oldest libraries date back to ancient civilizations, such as the Library of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in the 3rd century BC. Today, libraries play a vital role in preserving and sharing knowledge and culture.

1.2 Definitions of Library:

A library is a collection of books, magazines, newspapers, and other materials made available for people to borrow or use for reference. Libraries have been around for thousands of years and are an essential part of society, providing everyone access to information and knowledge, regardless of their background or financial means. They serve as a hub for education, research, and leisure, allowing people to expand their horizons, explore new ideas, and connect with others who share their interests. Libraries offer services beyond just lending books, including computer access, community events, and educational programs. They are crucial in promoting literacy, intellectual freedom, and cultural diversity and are vital resources for individuals, communities, and society.

Rabindranath Tagore , the famous Indian poet, philosopher, and Nobel laureate, deeply appreciated the value of libraries. In his view, a library was much more than just a collection of books. He believed a library was a place of transformation where people could learn, grow, and be inspired.

According to Rabindranath Tagore, “A library can be thought of as a Tower of Silence — like a sleeping child, which embodies the entrapped vibrations of an age-old ocean. Here, language is still, like a calm mass of water that has stopped flowing. Man’s unbounded enlightenment, shackled with words, is imprisoned in the papers in black and white. Suppose all these sublime aspirations of the quest of the human mind suddenly find expression. In that case, if the rebellious words fly in all directions, it will be akin to a torrent from the melted ice of the Himalayas. The library encloses this very deluge of the ardent expressions of human souls within itself.” 1

UNESCO (2020) defines library as an “Organisation, or part of an organisation, whose main aims are to build and maintain a collection and to facilitate the use of such information resources and facilities as are required to meet the informational, research, educational, cultural or recreational needs of its users; these are the basic requirements for a library and do not exclude any additional resources and services incidental to its main purpose.” 2

S.R Ranganathan – “A library is a public institution or establishment charged with the care of books, the duty of making them accessible to those who require the use of them.”

ALA (American Library Association) glossary of Library and Information Science: “Library as a collection of materials organized to provide physical bibliographical and intellectual access to group with a staff trained to provide services and program related to information needs of the target group.” 3

Harrods librarian’s glossary and reference book define the Library as: 4

“1) A collection of books and other literary material kept for reading, study, and consultation. 2) A place, building, rooms, set apart for the keeping and use of a collection of books, etc.”

1.3 Types of Library:

Libraries are invaluable resources that provide access to knowledge , information, and literature. They come in many different forms, each with a unique purpose and target audience. There are public libraries, academic libraries, special libraries, and more. Each type of library has its collections, services, and mission tailored to the needs of its patrons. Understanding the different types of libraries and what they offer can help individuals make the most of these valuable resources.

Libraries can be divided into types based on various factors, including their physical existence, collections, and services. One common way to categorize libraries is based on their physical presence, including academic, public, special, and national libraries.

1.3.1. Academic Library :

An academic library is located within a college or university and serves students and faculty’s research and educational needs. Academic libraries have collections of books, journals, and other materials tailored to specific academic disciplines, such as business, law, medicine, or engineering.

The primary purpose of an academic library is to support the educational programs of the institution it serves. This includes providing access to scholarly publications, textbooks, and other essential resources for students and faculty to conduct research, write papers, and complete coursework. It also provides study spaces, computer labs, and other amenities to support academic pursuits. They may have reference librarians available to assist students and faculty with their research needs and provide guidance on using library resources effectively.

Academic libraries can be further classified into different types based on the level of education they serve. The most common types of academic libraries include school libraries, college libraries, and university libraries.

• School Library: A school library serves the educational and research needs of elementary, middle, and high school students and faculty. School libraries typically have collections of books and other materials tailored to the student’s age and grade level. They may also provide instructional materials, such as textbooks and curriculum guides, to support the teaching and learning activities of the school.
• College Library: A college library serves students, and faculty’s educational and research needs in a community college or a four-year college or university. College libraries typically have collections of books, journals, and other materials tailored to specific academic disciplines, such as business, law, or engineering. They may also provide access to specialized databases and other electronic resources to support the research needs of the college community.
• University Library: A university library serves students, and faculty’s educational and research needs in a large research university. University libraries typically have extensive collections of books, journals, and other materials covering various academic disciplines. They may also have specialized collections of rare books, manuscripts, and archives used for research and teaching. In addition, university libraries often provide various services, such as interlibrary loans, reference assistance, and instruction on how to use library resources effectively.

1.3.2. Public Library :

A public library is a dynamic and community-centered institution that serves as a cornerstone for education, cultural enrichment, and information accessibility. Unlike specialized libraries, public libraries are designed to cater to the diverse needs of the general public, offering a wide array of resources, services, and programs. These institutions are open to everyone, regardless of age, background, or socio-economic status, embodying the principles of inclusivity and equal access to information. Public libraries typically house extensive collections of books, periodicals, multimedia materials, and digital resources, covering a broad spectrum of subjects and interests.

One of the primary objectives of public libraries is to foster a love for learning and reading among individuals of all ages. They often serve as hubs for literacy initiatives, providing educational programs for children, teenagers, and adults. Public libraries play a crucial role in supporting formal education by offering resources for research, homework assistance, and lifelong learning opportunities. Beyond traditional book lending, public libraries have evolved to incorporate digital technologies, providing access to e-books, online databases, and other digital resources, thereby adapting to the changing information landscape.

Public libraries also serve as community spaces, offering meeting rooms, event spaces, and collaborative areas where people can gather for discussions, workshops, and cultural events. Additionally, public libraries frequently act as technology hubs, providing free internet access and computer facilities to bridge the digital divide and ensure that individuals without personal access to technology can still benefit from online resources.

1.3.3. Special Library :

A special library is a specialized information resource center established to cater to the distinct needs of a particular organization, industry, or field of interest. Unlike public libraries that serve a diverse community, special libraries are tailored to provide targeted information and resources to a specific group with unique requirements. These libraries can be found in various settings, including corporations, government agencies, research institutions, museums, and nonprofit organizations. A special library’s primary mission is to support its parent organization’s goals and objectives by offering in-depth, relevant, and often proprietary information. Special libraries curate collections that reflect the specialized knowledge needs of their users, encompassing industry reports, technical documentation, market research, patents, and other materials that may not be readily available in general libraries.

Librarians in special libraries play a crucial role in understanding and addressing the specific information needs of their stakeholders. They often collaborate closely with subject matter experts and organizational leaders to ensure that the library’s resources align with the institution’s strategic priorities. In addition to traditional library services, special libraries increasingly leverage technology to enhance information accessibility, utilizing digital databases, online catalogs, and other tools to streamline information retrieval.

Furthermore, special libraries contribute significantly to knowledge management within organizations by actively participating in organizing and disseminating internal knowledge. They foster innovation, support decision-making processes, and facilitate ongoing professional development. In summary, a special library is a tailored information hub that is an indispensable asset for organizations, providing specialized knowledge resources that contribute to their success and competitiveness.

1.3.4. National Library :

A National Library is a flagship institution within a country that serves as the custodian of its literary and cultural heritage, playing a pivotal role in preserving and promoting the nation’s intellectual wealth. These libraries are typically government-funded and are entrusted with collecting, cataloging, and archiving a comprehensive range of materials representative of the nation’s literature, history, and culture. National Libraries house vast collections of books, manuscripts, periodicals, maps, and other valuable documents, often repositories of rare and unique materials. They play a crucial role in fostering scholarship and research by providing access to a wealth of information and resources, thereby advancing knowledge within the country.

In addition to repositories of cultural and historical treasures, National Libraries often act as educational centers, offering services to the public, researchers, and scholars. These services may include reference assistance, educational programs, and exhibitions that showcase the nation’s cultural heritage. National Libraries also collaborate with other institutions, both domestically and internationally, to share resources and enhance the accessibility of information.

National Libraries are instrumental in promoting a sense of national identity and pride by preserving the written and printed works that define a country’s heritage. They often serve as symbols of intellectual freedom, cultural diversity, and the importance of knowledge in shaping a nation’s destiny. Through strategic partnerships and innovative initiatives, National Libraries contribute not only to the preservation of the past but also to the ongoing development of a nation’s intellectual and cultural landscape, making them vital institutions for fostering a sense of unity, understanding, and appreciation for the shared heritage of a country.

1.4 Type of Libraries based on their collection:

Based on the collections of the Libraries can be divided into Traditional Libraries, Automated Libraries, Hybrid Libraries, Virtual Libraries, and Online Libraries.

1.4.1. Traditional Library :

Traditional libraries have been around for centuries and have played a crucial role in preserving and disseminating knowledge. These libraries primarily contain physical materials such as books, journals, magazines, and newspapers, organized according to the subject matter. Traditional libraries usually have a physical space where users can browse and borrow materials, and they often have librarians who can assist users in locating the materials they need.

One of the most significant benefits of traditional libraries is the opportunity for users to interact with physical books and other materials. This hands-on experience can be precious for students and researchers who need to access primary sources or study rare materials. Traditional libraries may also offer specialized collections, such as rare books or archives, which can provide a unique perspective on historical events or cultural phenomena.

Another benefit of traditional libraries is the sense of community they can provide. Libraries have historically been a place for people to come together and share knowledge, and they often host events such as book clubs, lectures, and workshops. Additionally, traditional libraries may provide spaces for study or research, which can be particularly valuable for students who need a quiet and focused environment.

While many libraries are now incorporating digital materials into their collections, traditional libraries are essential for students, researchers, and anyone who enjoys reading and learning from physical books. They provide a tangible connection to our collective history and culture and offer a unique experience that cannot be replicated by digital resources alone.

1.4.2. Automated Library :

An automated library, also known as a computerized or digital library, uses technology to automate specific tasks such as cataloging, circulation, and acquisitions. These libraries use specialized software to manage their collections and automate routine tasks, making it easier for users to access and use library resources.

One of the key benefits of automated libraries is the speed and efficiency with which they can manage their collections. Automated systems allow librarians to catalog new materials quickly and easily and make them available to users. It also streamlines the borrowing process, allowing users to check out materials and renew them online without interacting with a librarian.

Another benefit of automated libraries is providing remote access to digital materials. These libraries often have a website or online portal where users can search for and access digital resources such as e-books, e-journals, and multimedia materials. This can be particularly valuable for users who cannot visit the physical library, such as distance learners or people with disabilities.

In addition to these benefits, automated libraries can provide valuable data and insights into library usage. The software used by automated libraries can track borrowing patterns and provide analytics on which materials are most frequently used. This information can help librarians make informed decisions about collection development and resource allocation.

1.4.3 Hybrid Library :

A hybrid library is a type of library that combines both physical and digital resources, providing users with a wider range of materials and access options. These libraries allow users to access materials in the best format, whether a physical book or an e-book. Hybrid libraries typically have physical collections of books, other materials, and digital resources that can be accessed online.

One of the key benefits of hybrid libraries is the ability to offer physical and digital resources in one location. This allows users to access materials in the best format, whether they prefer to read a physical book or an e-book. Hybrid libraries can also offer a wider range of resources than traditional libraries since physical space constraints do not limit them.

Another benefit of hybrid libraries is the ability to provide remote access to materials. Users can search for and access digital resources from anywhere with an internet connection, making it easier to conduct research or access materials for distance learning. At the same time, users can also come to the physical library to access materials unavailable online or to work in a quiet and focused environment.

1.4.4 Virtual Library :

A Virtual Library, also known as a digital or online library, is a modern and dynamic concept that harnesses digital technologies to provide access to a vast array of information resources in a virtual environment. Unlike traditional brick-and-mortar libraries, virtual libraries exist in the digital realm, allowing users to access their collections remotely through the Internet. These libraries often host diverse digital content, including e-books, academic journals, multimedia materials, and databases, making them an invaluable resource for individuals, researchers, and students worldwide. Virtual libraries facilitate convenient and flexible access to information, breaking down geographical barriers and enabling users to explore resources from the comfort of their homes or any location with internet connectivity.

One of the key advantages of virtual libraries is the ability to offer an extensive collection without the physical constraints of shelf space. Users can search, browse, and retrieve information quickly and efficiently using online catalogs and search tools. Virtual libraries are often interactive, providing features such as hyperlinks, multimedia content, and advanced search functionalities to enhance the user experience.

Additionally, virtual libraries support e-learning and distance education programs by providing a centralized platform for accessing educational materials. They contribute to the democratization of information by making knowledge more widely available, bridging gaps in accessibility, and promoting lifelong learning.

However, digital literacy, information security, and the digital divide must be addressed to ensure equitable access to virtual library resources. Overall, virtual libraries represent a transformative evolution in the dissemination of information, offering a flexible and efficient means of accessing and sharing knowledge in the digital age.

1.4.5 Online Library:

An online library is a digital repository of information and resources accessible via the Internet, providing users with a convenient and flexible platform for accessing a wide array of materials. Often synonymous with virtual or digital libraries, online libraries transcend physical boundaries, enabling users to explore and utilize resources from anywhere with an internet connection. These libraries typically house digital versions of books, journals, articles, multimedia content, and databases. Users can access and search for specific information using online catalogs and search functionalities, streamlining the information retrieval. Online libraries have become instrumental in disseminating knowledge, supporting academic research, distance education, and self-directed learning.

One of the key features of online libraries is the ability to offer a vast and diverse collection without constraints on physical space. This allows for the inclusion of a broad range of materials, including rare and out-of-print works, and facilitates easy updates and additions to the collection. Additionally, online libraries often provide interactive features such as hyperlinks, multimedia content, and collaborative tools, enhancing the user experience and engagement.

Online libraries play a crucial role in democratizing access to information and breaking down geographical, time, and resource barriers. They contribute to global knowledge sharing, fostering collaborative research endeavors and supporting diverse educational initiatives. While online libraries offer unparalleled accessibility, challenges such as digital literacy, information security, and reliable internet connectivity must be addressed to ensure equitable access for users worldwide. In essence, online libraries represent a transformative shift in how information is stored, accessed, and shared in the digital age, making knowledge more widely available and empowering individuals to engage with information in unprecedented ways.

1.5 Importance of Library:

Libraries play a vital role in our lives, providing access to knowledge, resources, and community. They are essential for promoting education, literacy, and the development of critical thinking skills.

First and foremost, libraries are a vital source of information and resources. They provide access to many materials, including books, periodicals, and multimedia resources. This information can be used for personal enrichment, research, or academic pursuits. Libraries also offer access to databases, research journals, and other materials that may not be available elsewhere. This access to information is crucial for staying informed, keeping up with trends and innovations, and fostering lifelong learning.

Libraries also play a critical role in promoting literacy and education. They offer programs and services encouraging reading, learning, and developing critical thinking skills. For example, libraries offer summer reading programs for children, book clubs for adults, and educational workshops for people of all ages. These programs help to improve literacy rates, promote learning, and foster a love of reading and learning.

Libraries also serve as community hubs, providing spaces for people to gather, learn, and connect. They offer opportunities for cultural and educational events, such as book clubs, workshops, and lectures. This fosters a sense of community and promotes lifelong learning. Libraries also provide access to technology, such as computers and internet access, which is essential for people who do not have access to these resources at home.

In addition to providing access to information and resources, libraries also play an important role in preserving and promoting cultural heritage. They serve as repositories of knowledge, preserving and organizing materials such as books, periodicals, and multimedia resources. This is important for preserving cultural heritage and making it accessible to future generations.

Finally, libraries play a critical role in promoting social justice and equality. They provide all members of society access to information and resources, regardless of their background, income, or location. This is particularly important for marginalized communities, who may lack access to other sources of information and resources.

Libraries are important institutions that play a vital role in society. They provide access to information, resources, and community, promoting education, literacy, and the development of critical thinking skills. Here are five reasons why libraries are essential:

• Access to Information: Libraries provide access to a vast array of information and resources, including books, periodicals, and multimedia resources. They also offer access to databases, research journals, and other materials that may not be available elsewhere. This access to information is crucial for staying informed, keeping up with trends and innovations, and fostering lifelong learning.
• Promoting Literacy and Education: Libraries offer programs and services that encourage reading, learning, and developing critical thinking skills. They offer summer reading programs for children, book clubs for adults, and educational workshops for people of all ages. These programs help to improve literacy rates, promote learning, and foster a love of reading and learning.
• Community Hub: Libraries serve as community hubs, providing spaces for people to gather, learn, and connect. They offer opportunities for cultural and educational events, such as book clubs, workshops, and lectures. This fosters a sense of community and promotes lifelong learning.
• Preserving Cultural Heritage: Libraries play an important role in preserving and promoting cultural heritage. They serve as repositories of knowledge, preserving and organizing materials such as books, periodicals, and multimedia resources. This is important for preserving cultural heritage and making it accessible to future generations.
• Promoting Social Justice and Equality: Libraries provide access to information and resources to all members of society, regardless of their background, income, or location. This is particularly important for marginalized communities, who may lack access to other sources of information and resources. Libraries play a critical role in promoting social justice and equality by providing everyone in the community access to knowledge and resources.

Libraries are essential for promoting education, literacy, and the development of critical thinking skills. They provide access to information, resources, and community, fostering a sense of belonging and promoting lifelong learning. Libraries also play an important role in preserving and promoting cultural heritage, social justice, and equality. As such, libraries are vital to any society that values access to information, education, and opportunity.

References:

• Rabindranath Tagore’s love for a Library of Books . (n.d.). Get Bengal. Retrieved April 20, 2023, from https://www.getbengal.com/details/rabindranath-tagores-love-for-a-library-of-books
• UNESCO. (2020, June 22). Library . http://uis.unesco.org/en/glossary-term/library
• Levine-Clark, M., & Carter, T. M. (2013). ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, Fourth Edition . American Library Association.
• Prytherch, R. (2016). Harrod’s Librarians’ Glossary and Reference Book (0 ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315586243

Related Posts

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Thanks for the contributing of these definitions

Very. Helpful tho

Please I need 5 library definition and the authors

Good job, but how can we get the references?

I like all the definition, they are all related to what I av been taught

Kogi state LGA dekina

Thanks for the valid information.

I need standard library definition

How can we get tge reference

Thanks for providing this definition.

Interesting

I need to know more about library

Very helpful.

I want to become a information scientist.

That’s sound gr8

Thanks for this answers but how do I reference this work as a researcher?

I need five definition of library with reference

Hello I’m in Rwanda, African continent

I appreciate your kindly work.

Mbega byiza! Murakoze(thank you)

I need 10 definition of library by different Liberians in the world

Thank you ndabashimiye cyane

I need the reference on qations

Thank you for your comment and interest in the references for the quotations in my blog post. I appreciate your diligence in seeking out the sources.

Rest assured, all the quotations mentioned in the blog post are appropriately referenced and can be found in the designated reference section at the end of the article. If you have any specific questions about a particular quotation or reference, feel free to ask, and I’ll be more than happy to provide additional information or clarification.

Thank you once again for engaging with my content.

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Interesting post! As a librarian, I appreciate the explanation of the different types of libraries and their functions. It’s great to see a comprehensive overview of the library landscape. Thanks for sharing!

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Library Terminology: Glossary of Library Terms

How to use this glossary.

Did you see word on the library's website that confused you?  Use this guide to find words commonly used in the library.  

Is there a word you found on the library's website that doesn't appear in this glossary?  Contact Christal Young for help or to have the term added to this list.

This glossary is designed to introduce you to words/terminology commonly used in an academic library setting.

Click on the letters below to jump to that section of the alphabet:

Abstract: "A summary or brief description of the content of another longer work. An abstract is often provided along with the citation to a work."

Almanac: " 1. A collection, usually annual, of statistics and facts, both current and retrospective. May be broad in geographical and subject coverage, or limited to a particular country or state or to a special subject. 2. An annual containing miscellaneous matter, such as a calendar, a list of astronomical events, planting tables, astrological predictions, and anecdotes" (Definition from Yale University Library )

Annotation: " 1. A note that describes, explains, or evaluates; especially such a note added to an entry in a bibliography, reading list, or catalog. 2. Process of making such notes. Annotation is the end product of making such notes." (Definition from Colorado State University Libraries )

Archives: " 1. A space which houses historical or public records. 2. The historical or public records themselves, which are generally non-circulating materials such as collections of personal papers, rare books, ephemera, etc."

Article: "A brief work—generally between 1 and 35 pages in length—on a topic. Often published as part of a journal, magazine, or newspaper."

Atlas: "A book or bound collection of maps, illustrations, etc.; Volume of maps, plates, engravings, tables, etc., which may be used to accompany a text; or it may be an independent publication." (Definition from Colorado State University Libraries )

Attachment: "A separate file (e.g., text, spreadsheet, graphic, audio, video) sent with an email message."

Authentication: "A security process that typically employs usernames and passwords to validate the identity of users before allowing them access to certain information."

Author: "The person(s) or organization(s) that wrote or compiled a document. Looking for information under its author's name is one option in searching."

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Bibliography: "A list containing citations to the resources used in writing a research paper or other document." See also:  Reference .  

Book: "A relatively lengthy work, often on a single topic. May be print or electronic."

Book stacks: "Shelves in the library where materials—typically books—are stored. Books in the book stacks are normally arranged by call number . May be referred to simply as the “stacks.”

Boolean operator: "A word—such as AND, OR, or NOT—that commands a computer to combine search terms. Helps to narrow (AND, NOT) or broaden (OR) searches."

Browser: "A software program that enables users to access Internet resources. Microsoft Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, and Mozilla Firefox are all browsers."

Call Number "A group of letters and/or numbers that identifies a specific item in a library and provides a way for organizing library holdings. Two major types of call numbers are Dewey Decimal Call Numbers and Library of Congress Call Numbers."

Catalog "A database (either online or on paper cards) listing and describing the books, journals, government documents, audiovisual and other materials held by a library. Various search terms allow you to look for items in the catalog."

CD "An abbreviation for compact disc; it is used for storing digital information."

Chat "The ability to communicate with others, computer to computer, via typed messages."

Check out: "To borrow/rent/loan/issue an item from a library for a fixed period of time in order to read, listen to, or view it. Check-out periods vary by library. Items are checked out at the circulation desk ."

Circulation desk: "The place in the library where you check out , renew , and return library materials. You may also place a hold , report an item missing from the shelves, or pay late fees or fines there." Also called a Loan desk . 

Citation "A reference to a book, magazine or journal article, or other work containing all the information necessary to identify and locate that work. A citation to a book thus includes its author's name, title, publisher and place of publication, and date of publication."

Controlled vocabulary: "Standardized terms used in searching a specific database." Also see:  Descriptors ,   Subject heading .

Course reserve: "A selection of books, articles, videotapes, or other materials that instructors want students to read or view for a particular course. Print reserve materials are usually kept in one area of the library and circulate for only a short period of time." See also: Electronic reserve .

Database: "A collection of information stored in an electronic format that can be searched by a computer."

Descriptor "A word that describes the subject of an article or book; used in many computer databases."

Dial-up: "A device using telephone lines that allows a computer to access the Internet or two computers to communicate."

Dissertation: "An extended written treatment of a subject (like a book) submitted by a graduate student as a requirement for a doctorate."

Document delivery - A service that retrieves or photocopies information sources for library users."  Also see Interlibrary Loan and Document Delivery (IDD) , our guide on USC's document delivery system.

Download: " 1. To transfer information from a computer to a program or storage device to be viewed at a later date. 2. To transfer information from one computer to another computer using a modem."

E-book (or Electronic book): "An electronic version of a book that can be read on a computer or mobile device."

Editor: "A person or group responsible for compiling the writings of others into a single information source. Looking for information under its editor's name is one option in searching."

Electronic reserve (or E-reserve): "An electronic version of a course reserve that is read on a computer display screen." See also: Course reserve .

Encyclopedia: "A work containing information on all branches of knowledge or treating comprehensively a particular branch of knowledge (such as history or chemistry). Often has entries or articles arranged alphabetically."

Full-text: "A complete electronic copy of a resource, usually an article, viewed on a computer display screen. The term "full-text" is often used to refer to the electronic version of an article or book that is also published in print."

Glossary:  "An   alphabetical   list   of   terms   specialized   to   a   field   of knowledge   with   definitions   or  explanations."

Hardware: "The physical and electronic components of a computer system, such as the monitor, keyboard and mouse. Hardware works in conjunction with software."

Hold: "A request by a user to a library that a book checked out to another person be saved for that user when it is returned. “Holds” can generally be placed on any regularly circulating library materials through an in-person or online circulation desk ."

Holdings: "The materials owned by a library."

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): "The computer language used to create documents on the World Wide Web so that they are readable by Web browsers."

Hyperlink: "An image or a portion of text which a Web user can click to jump to another document or page on the Web. Textual hyperlinks are often underlined and appear as a different color than the majority of the text on a Web page."

Icon: "A small symbol on a computer screen that represents a computer operation or data file."

Index: " 1. A list of names or topics—usually found at the end of a publication—that directs you to the pages where those names or topics are discussed within the publication. 2. A printed or electronic publication that provides references to periodical articles or books by their subject, author, or other search terms."

Instant Messaging (IM): "An Internet-based service allowing real-time, text communication between two or more users. Instant messaging is also known as chat, especially when more than two people are communicating."

Interlibrary Loan (ILL): "A service that allows you to borrow materials from other libraries through your own library." See also: Document delivery .

Internet: "A worldwide network of computer networks that allows for the transmission and exchange of files. The World Wide Web is part of the Internet."

Journal: "A publication, issued on a regular basis, which contains scholarly research published as articles, papers, research reports, or technical reports.: See also: Periodical .

Journal title: "The name of a journal. Journal title is one common search term."

Keyword: "A significant or memorable word or term in the title, abstract, or text of an information resource that indicates its subject and is often used as a search term."

Known Item Search:  "A search for an item or article when you have some or all of the citation information ."

Limits/limiters: "Options used in searching that restrict your results to only information resources meeting certain other, non-subject-related, criteria. Limiting options vary by database, but common options include limiting results to materials available full-text in the database, to scholarly publications, to materials written in a particular language, to materials available in a particular location, or to materials published at a specific time."

Link: See Hyperlink .

Loan Desk : See Circulation desk . 

Magazine: "A publication, issued on a regular basis, containing popular articles, written and illustrated in a less technical manner than the articles found in a journal."

Microform: "A reduced sized photographic reproduction of printed information on reel to reel film (microfilm) or film cards (microfiche) or opaque pages that can be read with a microform reader/printer."

Mouse: "A device that allows the user to move and click the cursor on a computer screen for different functions."

Multimedia: "Any information resource that presents information using more than one media (print, picture, audio, or video)."

Newspaper: "A publication containing information about varied topics that are pertinent to general information, a geographic area, or a specific subject matter (i.e. business, culture, education). Often published daily."

Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC): "A computerized database that can be searched in various ways—such as by keyword, author, title, subject, or call number—to find out what resources a library owns. OPAC’s will supply listings of the title, call number, author, location, and description of any items matching one's search. Also referred to as “library catalog” or “online catalog.” You can search USC's OPAC (or USC Library's Catalog)  here .

Page/Paging: "To summon or call by name" (Definition from The Free Dictionary ).  If a book or other library item is located at another location, you can page, or "summon" the book to be sent to your location.  For example, to obtain a book from Grand Avenue Library, an off-site USC Library, will require you to page the item and pick it up from Leavey Library.  This generally takes one business day.  For more information on paging from Grand, click here . 

PDF: "A file format developed by Adobe Acrobat® that allows files to be transmitted from one computer to another while retaining their original appearance both on-screen and when printed. An acronym for P ortable D ocument F ormat."

Peer reviewed journal: "Peer review is a process by which editors have experts in a field review books or articles submitted for publication by the  experts’ peers. Peer review helps to ensure the quality of an information source by publishing only works of proven validity, methodology, and quality. Peer-reviewed journals are also called refereed or scholarly journals."

Periodical: "An information source published in multiple parts at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly, biannually). Journals , magazines , and newspapers are all periodicals." See also: Serial .

Primary source : "An original record of events, such as a diary, a newspaper article, a public record, or scientific documentation."

Print: "The written symbols of a language as portrayed on paper. Information sources may be either print or electronic."

Print Card: "A card that enables its user to print from a computer, or to make copies of a document at a photocopy machine. Student ID cards sometimes serve as copy cards."  For more information see the " Library Printing and Copying " page.

Proxy server: "An Internet server that acts as a “go-between” for a computer on a local network (secure system) and the open Web. Often checks to determine “right of access” to the secure environment and speeds up requests by caching frequently accessed Web pages. Can also act as a firewall."

Recall: "A request for the return of library material before the due date."

Refereed journal: See Peer reviewed journal .

Reference: " 1. A service that helps people find needed information. 2. Sometimes "reference" refers to reference collections, such as encyclopedias, indexes, handbooks, directories, etc. 3. A citation to a work is also known as a reference."

Remote access: "The ability to log onto (or access) networked computer resources from a distant location. Remote access makes available library databases to students researching from home, office, or other locations outside the library."

Renew/Renewal: "A lengthening (or extension) of the loan period for library materials."

Reserve: " 1 . A service providing special, often short-term, access to course-related materials (book or article readings, lecture notes, sample tests) or to other materials (CD-ROMs, audio-visual materials, current newspapers or magazines). 2. Also the physical location—often a service desk or room—within a library where materials on reserve are kept. Materials can also be made available electronically." See also: Course reserve , Electronic reserve .

Scholarly: See Peer reviewed .

Search statement/Search Query: "Words entered into the search box of a database or search engine when looking for information. Words relating to an information source's author, editor, title, subject heading or keyword serve as search terms. Search terms can be combined by using Boolean operators and can also be used with limits/limiters."

Secondary sources: "Materials such as books and journal articles that analyze primary sources. Secondary sources usually provide evaluation or interpretation of data or evidence found in original research or documents such as historical manuscripts or memoirs."

Serial: "Publications such as journals, magazines and newspapers that are generally published multiple times per year, month, or week. Serials usually have number volumes and issues. The words journal, magazine, periodical, and serial may be used interchangeably."

Software: "The programs installed on and used by the components of a computer system (or, hardware)."

Stacks: See Book stacks .

Style manual: "An information source providing guidelines for people who are writing research papers. A style manual outlines specific formats for arranging research papers and citing the sources that are used in writing the paper." See Citation .  Also see our Citation Guide .

Subject heading: "Descriptions of an information source’s content assigned to make finding information easier." See also: Controlled vocabulary , Descriptors .

Thesaurus: "A list of terms which serves as a standardized or controlled vocabulary for identifying, locating, and retrieving information." (Definition from New York Public Library ) 

Thumb drive: "A small portable device for storing computerized information. A thumb drive can plug into the USB (Universal Serial Bus) port of any computer and store electronic information."

Title: "The name of a book, article, or other information source."

Upload: "To transfer information from a computer system or a personal computer to another computer system or a larger computer system."

U niform R esource L ocator (URL) : "The unique address for a Web page which is used in citing it. A URL consists of the access protocol (http), the domain name (www.nmsu.edu), and often the path to a file or resource residing on that server."

User ID: "A number or name unique to a particular user of computerized resources. A user ID must often be entered in order to access library resources remotely."

Virtual reference: "A service allowing library users to ask questions through email or live-chat as opposed to coming to the reference desk at the library and asking a question in person. Also referred to as “online reference” or “e-reference.”

Wireless: "The name given to any electronic device that sends messages through space via electric or electromagnetic waves instead of via power cords."

World Wide Web: "A network of information, as a part of the Internet, that includes text, graphics, sounds, and moving images. Also know as the Web or WWW or W3. It incorporates a variety of Internet tools into one method of access, such as the Web browser Internet Explorer, Safari, or Firefox."

Zip drive/zip disk: "Devices used in the creation of compressed (or “zipped”) electronic information."

Multilingual Library Terms

Resources retrieved from  ACRL's Instruction Section Multilingual Glossary for Today's Library Users

Multilingual Glossary Language Table  

Multilingual Glossary Definitions

New South Wales State Library Multilingual Glossary  database is a professionally generated signage tool designed for libraries by the Library of New South Wales. It contains common library phrases in 49 languages.

Further Reading

Dictionary for library and information science

ALA glossary of library and information science

LibrarySpeak: A glossary of terms in librarianship and information management

Harrod's librarians' glossary and reference book

Christal Young, Librarian

• Last Updated: Sep 22, 2022 11:20 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/libraryterms

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What is a Research Library?

Research libraries are libraries that contain a large volume of academic research, peer-reviewed work, primary source materials, and a number of other fiction and non-fiction works on a variety of topics. Typically, academic research libraries are affiliated with universities, but this is not always the case. Some of the most popular research libraries in the world are the University of Toronto Library, Harvard University Library, the Bodleian and Magdalen Libraries at Oxford University, and the Beinecke Library at Yale University. Research libraries that are not associated with an academic institution are typically independent research libraries, like the Linda Hall Library. There are 21 members of the Independent Research Libraries Association. Some of the most well-known independent research libraries include the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC, the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles, the Morgan Library and Museum in New York, NY, and Linda Hall Library in Kansas City, Missouri.

What do I do at a research library?

When you visit a research library for the first time, there is a world of opportunity waiting for you. You can begin your quest for information with a visit to the library catalog , which typically will provide a searchable resource of the library’s collection. Alternatively, you might choose to work with highly trained research librarians to find the materials you need and who will help you navigate both the catalog and collection. You can access scholarly journals and articles to explore the library’s unique collections through the online catalog. Regardless of how you start your visit, a research library has many resources available to help support your research. As you navigate these unique spaces and collections, here are some tips on how to make the most out of your visit:

• Research: Research librarians can help you find sources necessary for your unique research projects. Using a variety of methods, including the reference interview, literature reviews, or citation analysis, research librarians can connect you with the primary and secondary sources that will support your research needs and questions. If you’d like to set up a research consultation with one of the Library’s reference and public services staff, visit this link . Research libraries typically have large, comprehensive collections that are made up of books, journals, conference proceedings, archival materials, and rare books. The last two – rare books and archival materials are typically held in special collections libraries or departments, and some people refer to their collections as historical documents.
• Study: Research libraries often serve as ideal study spaces with their quiet atmosphere and access to computers, books, and other resources. If you need a place to focus, a library is a great option. The Linda Hall Library also offers an urban arboretum, which provides a reflective, peaceful outdoor space, complementing LHL’s interior. For more information, check out the Linda Hall Library Arboretum .
• Connecting to Scholarly Networks: Research libraries provide many opportunities to build relationships with other researchers, students, faculty, and staff. The Library also supports scholars from around the world through its fellowship program. You can learn more about this year’s fellows by visiting this page . Many independent and academic research libraries host additional learning opportunities like workshops or seminars. Linda Hall Library offers a wide variety of in-person and online programs for lifelong learners, including our public programs and adult education classes .
• Explore: Libraries frequently have book displays, highlighting themes in their collections or significant materials that they hold. Research libraries also offer digital collections and exhibits, allowing you to explore collections from the comfort of your own home. Who knows what new avenues you might discover?

What is the process of research at a research library like?

The process of research at a research library will vary depending on the type of project you are working on and the library you want to attend. Many research libraries are only open to university students and faculty, while independent research libraries, like Linda Hall Library, are open to the public . However, it involves a few key steps:

• Identifying your research topic or question.
• Exploring existing resources such as the library catalog , online databases, and library Research Guides .
• Checking the library’s website to read about user and patron requirements .
• Developing search strategies to locate additional sources.
• Evaluating the sources that you find and using them to support your findings.
• Writing up your research findings in an organized way.
• Cite all sources you used throughout the writing process.

How do you handle rare books and materials appropriately?

When visiting a research library with special collections, there are proper ways to handle rare and historic books to ensure they are well taken care of. These libraries often contain rare, valuable items that must be handled with extra care. Each library will have its own set of handling guidelines for rare and fragile items. Here are some general things to remember when handling rare books:

• Book an appointment with your local research library to use select historic books.
• Follow all instructions given by the research librarian.
• Freshly washed hands are best when handling books and manuscript material.
• Do not use pens or markers anywhere near the materials.
• Do not bring food or drinks into the library area.
• Speak quietly and respect other researchers in the space.
• Return any material promptly after you are done using it.
• Notify the research librarian if you find any materials that need to be repaired or replaced.
• Replace any bookmarks and dividers before leaving the library area.
• Follow all other rules established by the research librarian or library staff.

Why are library databases important for research libraries?

Library databases are critical for research libraries because they provide access to a large amount of information. Databases can contain full-text searchable journals and articles and other types of content, like books, videos, case studies, and images. Other databases provide access to citation information but do not contain full-text access to materials. Research librarians can help you identify which databases have the material that is most relevant to your research project. With library databases at your fingertips, you will have an invaluable resource that will lead to greater success in completing your research.

As a library that emphasizes the collection and preservation of printed materials, Linda Hall Library subscribes to a single database , Compendex, used for helping patrons and staff search for and navigate the Library’s collection of industrial standards.

Can you make copies of research library materials?

In most research libraries, the ability to make copies of materials will depend on the type and condition of the item. Research librarians can provide specific guidelines for making copies of certain items. Depending on the age of the material, you may need to get permission from a copyright holder before making copies. Some libraries have additional restrictions in place regarding what types of items can be copied and how much can be copied at once. It is best to check with the research librarian or library staff before attempting to make any copies. Linda Hall Library’s policy on copying and digitization is available here.

When should I ask for research librarian help?

Researching in a research library can sometimes be overwhelming or confusing, so it is important that you seek help if you are ever unsure about something. You should not hesitate to ask the research librarian or library staff if you have questions about locating materials, using library resources, or need help with other research-related tasks. Our librarians and staff at the Linda Hall Library are specially trained to help you find the information you are looking for. They are there to assist you in making your visit successful! Read more about how to use our library .

What should I bring with me?

When visiting a research library, it is important that you come prepared for success. Here are some recommended items to bring along:

• Pencil and paper – Writing notes and jotting down ideas can help make your research process more efficient.
• Laptop or tablet – Many libraries offer Wi-Fi access, making electronic research a breeze.
• Proper identification – You may be asked to show your school ID or other form of identification when entering the library space.

Visiting a research library can be both exciting and intimidating at first. However, by following these tips and guidelines, you can ensure that your research experience is successful. If you still have any questions about preparing for your first research library visit, ask a research librarian or library staff member!

Visit us today to learn more about research libraries and browse our selection of books and resources.

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What Does "Scholarly" Mean?

Scholarly materials and other useful resources and tools are crucial for effective university-level research, whether you conduct your research in the library research databases or on the free web.

Scholarly literature:

• Is written by researchers who are experts in their fields
• Is sometimes original (primary) research
• Is often peer-reviewed (carefully reviewed to determine academic quality by other experts)
• Is often the best for gathering, developing, and citing ideas in academic work
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Not all data are created equal; some are structured, but most of them are unstructured. Structured and unstructured data are sourced, collected and scaled in different ways and each one resides in a different type of database.

In this article, we will take a deep dive into both types so that you can get the most out of your data.

Structured data—typically categorized as quantitative data—is highly organized and easily decipherable by  machine learning algorithms .  Developed by IBM® in 1974 , structured query language (SQL) is the programming language used to manage structured data. By using a  relational (SQL) database , business users can quickly input, search and manipulate structured data.

Examples of structured data include dates, names, addresses, credit card numbers, among others. Their benefits are tied to ease of use and access, while liabilities revolve around data inflexibility:

• Easily used by machine learning (ML) algorithms:  The specific and organized architecture of structured data eases the manipulation and querying of ML data.
• Easily used by business users:  Structured data do not require an in-depth understanding of different types of data and how they function. With a basic understanding of the topic relative to the data, users can easily access and interpret the data.
• Accessible by more tools:  Since structured data predates unstructured data, there are more tools available for using and analyzing structured data.
• Limited usage:  Data with a predefined structure can only be used for its intended purpose, which limits its flexibility and usability.
• Limited storage options:  Structured data are usually stored in data storage systems with rigid schemas (for example, “ data warehouses ”). Therefore, changes in data requirements necessitate an update of all structured data, which leads to a massive expenditure of time and resources.
• OLAP :  Performs high-speed, multidimensional data analysis from unified, centralized data stores.
• SQLite : (link resides outside ibm.com)  Implements a self-contained,  serverless , zero-configuration, transactional relational database engine.
• MySQL :  Embeds data into mass-deployed software, particularly mission-critical, heavy-load production system.
• PostgreSQL :  Supports SQL and JSON querying as well as high-tier programming languages (C/C+, Java,  Python , among others.).
• Customer relationship management (CRM):  CRM software runs structured data through analytical tools to create datasets that reveal customer behavior patterns and trends.
• Online booking:  Hotel and ticket reservation data (for example, dates, prices, destinations, among others.) fits the “rows and columns” format indicative of the pre-defined data model.
• Accounting:  Accounting firms or departments use structured data to process and record financial transactions.

Unstructured data, typically categorized as qualitative data, cannot be processed and analyzed through conventional data tools and methods. Since unstructured data does not have a predefined data model, it is best managed in  non-relational (NoSQL) databases . Another way to manage unstructured data is to use  data lakes  to preserve it in raw form.

The importance of unstructured data is rapidly increasing.  Recent projections  (link resides outside ibm.com) indicate that unstructured data is over 80% of all enterprise data, while 95% of businesses prioritize unstructured data management.

Examples of unstructured data include text, mobile activity, social media posts, Internet of Things (IoT) sensor data, among others. Their benefits involve advantages in format, speed and storage, while liabilities revolve around expertise and available resources:

• Native format:  Unstructured data, stored in its native format, remains undefined until needed. Its adaptability increases file formats in the database, which widens the data pool and enables data scientists to prepare and analyze only the data they need.
• Fast accumulation rates:  Since there is no need to predefine the data, it can be collected quickly and easily.
• Data lake storage:  Allows for massive storage and pay-as-you-use pricing, which cuts costs and eases scalability.
• Requires expertise:  Due to its undefined or non-formatted nature, data science expertise is required to prepare and analyze unstructured data. This is beneficial to data analysts but alienates unspecialized business users who might not fully understand specialized data topics or how to utilize their data.
• Specialized tools:  Specialized tools are required to manipulate unstructured data, which limits product choices for data managers.
• MongoDB :  Uses flexible documents to process data for cross-platform applications and services.
• DynamoDB :  (link resides outside ibm.com) Delivers single-digit millisecond performance at any scale through built-in security, in-memory caching and backup and restore.
• Hadoop :  Provides distributed processing of large data sets using simple programming models and no formatting requirements.
• Azure :  Enables agile cloud computing for creating and managing apps through Microsoft’s data centers.
• Data mining :  Enables businesses to use unstructured data to identify consumer behavior, product sentiment and purchasing patterns to better accommodate their customer base.
• Predictive data analytics :  Alert businesses of important activity ahead of time so they can properly plan and accordingly adjust to significant market shifts.
• Chatbots :  Perform text analysis to route customer questions to the appropriate answer sources.

While structured (quantitative) data gives a “birds-eye view” of customers, unstructured (qualitative) data provides a deeper understanding of customer behavior and intent. Let’s explore some of the key areas of difference and their implications:

• Sources:  Structured data is sourced from GPS sensors, online forms, network logs, web server logs,  OLTP systems , among others; whereas unstructured data sources include email messages, word-processing documents, PDF files, and others.
• Forms:  Structured data consists of numbers and values, whereas unstructured data consists of sensors, text files, audio and video files, among others.
• Models:  Structured data has a predefined data model and is formatted to a set data structure before being placed in data storage (for example, schema-on-write), whereas unstructured data is stored in its native format and not processed until it is used (for example, schema-on-read).
• Storage:  Structured data is stored in tabular formats (for example, excel sheets or SQL databases) that require less storage space. It can be stored in data warehouses, which makes it highly scalable. Unstructured data, on the other hand, is stored as media files or NoSQL databases, which require more space. It can be stored in data lakes, which makes it difficult to scale.
• Uses:  Structured data is used in machine learning (ML) and drives its algorithms, whereas unstructured data is used in  natural language processing  (NLP) and text mining.

Semi-structured data (for example, JSON, CSV, XML) is the “bridge” between structured and unstructured data. It does not have a predefined data model and is more complex than structured data, yet easier to store than unstructured data.

Semi-structured data uses “metadata” (for example, tags and semantic markers) to identify specific data characteristics and scale data into records and preset fields. Metadata ultimately enables semi-structured data to be better cataloged, searched and analyzed than unstructured data.

• Example of metadata usage:  An online article displays a headline, a snippet, a featured image, image alt-text, slug, among others, which helps differentiate one piece of web content from similar pieces.
• Example of semi-structured data vs. structured data:  A tab-delimited file containing customer data versus a database containing CRM tables.
• Example of semi-structured data vs. unstructured data:  A tab-delimited file versus a list of comments from a customer’s Instagram.

Recent developments in  artificial intelligence  (AI) and machine learning (ML) are driving the future wave of data, which is enhancing business intelligence and advancing industrial innovation. In particular, the data formats and models that are covered in this article are helping business users to do the following:

• Analyze digital communications for compliance:  Pattern recognition and email threading analysis software that can search email and chat data for potential noncompliance.
• Track high-volume customer conversations in social media:  Text analytics and sentiment analysis that enables monitoring of marketing campaign results and identifying online threats.
• Gain new marketing intelligence:  ML analytics tools that can quickly cover massive amounts of data to help businesses analyze customer behavior.

Furthermore, smart and efficient usage of data formats and models can help you with the following:

• Understand customer needs at a deeper level to better serve them
• Create more focused and targeted marketing campaigns
• Track current metrics and create new ones
• Create better product opportunities and offerings
• Reduce operational costs

Whether you are a seasoned data expert or a novice business owner, being able to handle all forms of data is conducive to your success. By using structured, semi-structured and unstructured data options, you can perform optimal data management that will ultimately benefit your mission.

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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole . Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N.  et al.  Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research.  Nature   533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review.  Restorative neurology and neuroscience ,  28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

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[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

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[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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