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The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking-Concepts and Tools Paperback – October 1, 2009

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The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools (Thinker's Guide Library)

Print length 19 pages
Language English
Publisher Foundation for Critical Thinking
Publication date October 1, 2009
Dimensions 4 x 0.05 x 5.5 inches
ISBN-10 0944583105
ISBN-13 978-0944583104
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Product details

Publisher ‏ : ‎ Foundation for Critical Thinking (October 1, 2009)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Paperback ‏ : ‎ 19 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0944583105
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0944583104
Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 8 ounces
Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 4 x 0.05 x 5.5 inches
#313 in Miniatures
#1,974 in Curricula (Books)
#19,599 in Education Theory (Books)

About the authors

Richard paul.

As Director of Research and Professional Development at the Center for Critical Thinking and Chair of the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, Dr. Paul is an internationally recognized authority on critical thinking, with eight books and over 200 articles on the subject. He has written books for every grade level and has done extensive experimentation with teaching tactics and strategies, and devising, among other things, novel ways to engage students in rigorous self-assessment.

Dr. Paul has received four degrees and has given lectures on critical thinking at many universities in both the United States and abroad, including Harvard, the University of Chicago, the University of Illinois, and the universities of Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, British Columbia, Toronto, and Amsterdam. He taught beginning and advanced courses in critical thinking at the university level for over 20 years. He has been the recipient of numerous honors and awards, including Distinguished Philosopher (by the Council for Philosophical Studies, 1987), O.C. Tanner Lecturer in Humanities (by Utah State University, 1986), Lansdown Visiting Scholar (by the University of Victoria, 1987), and the Alfred Korsybski Memorial Lecturer (by the Institute for General Semantics, 1987).

His views on critical thinking have been canvassed in the New York Times, Education Week, The Chronicle of Higher Education, American Teacher, Reader’s Digest, Educational Leadership, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report. For more information about Dr. Paul and the work of the Center and Foundation for Critical Thinking, go to www.criticalthinking.org

Linda Elder

Dr. Linda Elder is an educational psychologist and a prominent authority on critical thinking. She is President of the Foundation for Critical Thinking and Executive Director of the Center for Critical Thinking. Dr. Elder has taught psychology and critical thinking at the college level and has given presentations to more than 20,000 educators at all levels. She has co-authored four books, including Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your Life, Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Professional and Personal Life and Twenty-Five Days to Better Thinking and Better Living. She has co-authored eighteen thinker’s guides on critical thinking and co-authors a quarterly column on critical thinking in the Journal of Developmental Education.

Dr. Elder has also developed an original stage theory of critical thinking development. Concerned with understanding and illuminating the relationship between thinking and affect, and the barriers to critical thinking, Dr. Elder has placed these issues at the center of her thinking and her work. For more information on Dr. Elder and the work of the Foundation for Critical Thinking visit www.criticalthinking.org

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Free miniguide to critical thinking

This is a very short booklet containing some of the content from this website. It serves as a short introduction to critical thinking. This booklet is written by Dr Joe Lau and is completely free:

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The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools

LIMITED DOWNLOAD COPY The Miniature Guide to

Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

By Dr. Richard Paul and Dr. Linda Elder

The Foundation for Critical Thinking www.criticalthinking.org 707-878-9100 [email protected] LIMITED DOWNLOAD COPY

Why A Critical Thinking Mini-Guide? This miniature guide focuses on of the essence of critical thinking concepts and tools distilled into pocket size. For faculty it provides a shared concept of critical thinking. For students it is a critical thinking supplement to any textbook for any course. Faculty can use it to design instruction, assignments, and tests in any subject. Students can use it to improve their learning in any content area. Its generic skills apply to all subjects. For example, critical thinkers are clear as to the purpose at hand and the question at issue. They question information , conclusions, and points of view. They strive to be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant. They seek to think beneath the surface, to be logical, and fair. They apply these skills to their reading and writing as well as to their speaking and listening. They apply them in history, science, math, philosophy , and the arts; in professional and personal life. When this guide is used as a supplement to the textbook in multiple courses, students begin to perceive the usefulness of critical thinking in every domain of learning. And if their instructors provide examples of the application of the subject to daily life, students begin to see that education is a tool for improving the quality of their lives. If you are a student using this mini-guide, get in the habit of carrying it with you to every class. Consult it frequently in analyzing and synthesizing what you are learning. Aim for deep internalization of the principles you find in it—until using them becomes second nature. If successful, this guide will serve faculty, students, and the educational program simultaneously.

Richard Paul Linda Elder Center for Critical Thinking Foundation for Critical Thinking LIMITED DOWNLOAD COPY

The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

Why Critical Thinking?� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 4

The Elements of Thought � �� 5

A Checklist for Reasoning � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 6

Questions Using the Elements of Thought � � � � � � � � � � � � 8

The Problem of Egocentric Thinking � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 9

Universal Intellectual Standards � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �10

Template for Analyzing the Logic of Articles and Textbooks � � �13

Criteria for Evaluating Reasoning � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �14

Essential Intellectual Traits� �� 15

Three Kinds of Questions � �� 18

A Template for Problem-Solving � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �19

Analyzing and Assessing Research � �� 20

What Critical Thinkers Routinely Do� �� 21

Stages of Critical Thinking Development� �� 22

The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

Why Critical Thinking? The Problem: Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our thought. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be system- atically cultivated. A Definition : Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. The Result: A well cultivated critical thinker: • raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely; • gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively; • comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards; • thinks openmindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and • communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems. Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcome our native egocen- trism and sociocentrism.

The Elements of Thought

Point of View Purpose frame of reference , goal, perspective, objective orientation

Implications and Question at issue Consequences problem, issue

Assumptions Information presupposition , data, facts , taking for granted observations, experiences Concepts theories, Interpretation definitions , axioms, and inference laws, principles, conclusions, models solutions

Used With Sensitivity to Universal Intellectual Standards Clarity  Accuracy  Depth  Breadth  Significance Precision Relevance

12 The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools

Could you elaborate further? Clarity Could you give me an example? Could you illustrate what you mean?

How could we check on that? Accuracy How could we find out if that is true? How could we verify or test that?

Could you be more specific? Precision Could you give me more details? Could you be more exact?

How does that relate to the problem? Relevance How does that bear on the question? How does that help us with the issue?

What factors make this a difficult problem? Depth What are some of the complexities of this question? What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with?

Do we need to look at this from another perspective? Breadth Do we need to consider another point of view? Do we need to look at this in other ways?

Does all this make sense together? Logic Does your first paragraph fit in with your last? Does what you say follow from the evidence ?

Is this the most important problem to consider? Significance Is this the central idea to focus on? Which of these facts are most important?

Do I have any vested interest in this issue? Fairness Am I sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others?

The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools 15

Intellectual Integrity Intellectual Intellectual Autonomy Humility

Intellectual Intellectual Confidence Empathy Traits or Virtues in Reason

Intellectual Intellectual Courage Perseverance Fairmindedness

The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools 21

Critical thinkers routinely apply the intellectual standards to the elements of reasoning in order to develop intellectual traits.

The Standards Clarity Precision Accuracy Significance Relevance Completeness Must be Logicalness Fairness applied to Breadth Depth

The Elements Purposes Inferences Questions Concepts As we learn Points of view Implications to develop Information Assumptions

Intellectual Traits Intellectual Humility Intellectual Perseverance Intellectual Autonomy Confidence in Reason Intellectual Integrity Intellectual Empathy Intellectual Courage Fairmindedness

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Your Mini Guide to Critical Thinking Tools & Concepts

Post author: Hayden J Williams
Post published: March 22, 2024
Post category: Mindset / Productivity

The average person consumes approximately 34 gigabytes of data every single day! That’s like reading a newspaper front-to-back every 7 seconds. Millions of messages bombard us daily, making it hard to distinguish truth from fiction.

But fear not, because there’s a superpower waiting to be unleashed within you: Critical Thinking . It will equip you to analyze, evaluate, and conquer this information overload. This guide to critical thinking tools & concepts will be your roadmap to becoming a master of your information world, not its victim. Let’s unlock the power of critical thinking togethe r!

Table of Contents

What is Critical Thinking

Critical thinking and its significance in everyday life

Critical thinking is the ability to reason accurately without being affected by biases and emotions. This means to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information to form judgements and make sound decisions.

It is crucial for our success and happiness since it affects all the aspects of our life. Without it you may believe everything that is told in the media, befriend wrong people, and even put yourself in dangerous situations unknowingly.

It also helps us to navigate complex situations and solve problems.

Key components of critical thinking

Facts are the basic building block to make decisions. Hence finding facts from information and selecting the important ones is the first step of critical thinking.

Analysis is required to categorize various components (facts) and see their mutual relationships. From there we can evaluate the credibility, relevance, and significance of information

Inference : The last step is the process of drawing logical conclusions (decisions) and predictions based on the evidence.

Benefits of developing strong critical thinking skills

Developing strong critical thinking skills has many benefits. It helps problem-solving abilities , navigating complex challenges with confidence and efficiency.

Critical thinkers make informed decisions based on evidence and reasoning. This reduces the likelihood of errors and biases.

These skills also make people effective communicators , by being able to articulate their ideas clearly and persuasively.

Moreover, critical thinking promotes intellectual curiosity and lifelong learning. It empowers us to adapt to new situations and continuously improve our knowledge and skills. In conclusion, critical thinking enhances overall personal and professional success.

Core Concepts

Critical thinking involves several core concepts that are essential for effective analysis and decision-making. Here are key principles along with examples and actionable tips for application in real-life scenarios.

Definition : Breaking down complex information into smaller parts to understand its structure.
Example : Imagine you’re a manager facing declining sales. You gather evidence such as sales reports, customer feedback, and market analysis to understand the situation thoroughly. While analyzing, you also acknowledge your assumptions about customer preferences and market trends, ensuring they’re grounded in evidence rather than speculation.
How to Apply: Use brainstorming and SWOT analysis to uncover insights, relying on evidence to validate assumptions and identify root causes.
Definition : Assessing the credibility and importance of information.
Example : Suppose you’re a scientist reviewing a research study. In addition to examining the methodology and potential biases, you scrutinize the evidence presented to support the findings. You critically evaluate whether the evidence is robust and relevant, ensuring your judgment is based on reliable information rather than unsubstantiated claims.
How to Apply: Question sources, verify information, and assess the strength of evidence before forming conclusions.
Definition : Making logical conclusions based on evidence.
Example : Picture yourself as a business analyst predicting future market trends. As you analyze current data, you consider the quality and quantity of evidence available. You’re mindful of your assumptions and ensure they’re supported by the evidence. This helps you to make sound predictions based on logical reasoning rather than unfounded beliefs.
How to Apply: Use deductive and inductive reasoning to draw conclusions, relying on evidence to validate assumptions and minimize bias.
Definition : Identifying challenges and finding solutions.
Example : Imagine you’re a customer service representative handling a complaint. You gather evidence from customer interactions and feedback to understand the problem’s scope and impact. While brainstorming solutions, you challenge assumptions about the underlying causes and test them against the available evidence. This helps your problem-solving approach be grounded in reality rather than speculation.
How to Apply: Use structured problem-solving approaches and collaborate with colleagues to validate assumptions and leverage diverse perspectives for effective solutions.

By understanding and applying these core critical thinking concepts, we can enhance their analytical skills, make informed decisions, and navigate complex challenges with confidence and clarity.

Practical Applications

Decision Making : Critical thinking helps make choices, like job offers or where to live. It involves looking at choices and thinking about what might happen next.
Problem Solving : Critical thinking helps solve problems, such as arguments or fixing things. It involves figuring out why they happened and finding ways to fix them.
Career Development : Critical thinking helps with career decisions, like which job to take or how to move up in a job. It means thinking about what’s best for you and what’s happening in the job world.
Financial Management : Critical thinking helps with money decisions, such as making budgets or investing. It means thinking about what’s important and what’s not.
Health and Wellness : Critical thinking helps with health choices, like what to eat or how to take care of yourself. It involves looking at information and thinking about what’s good for you.
Media Literacy : Critical thinking helps understand news and media . It involves thinking about what’s true and what’s not.
Community Engagement : Critical thinking helps understand and solve community problems. It means thinking about what’s going on and working with others to make things better.
Personal Relationships : Critical thinking helps in relationships. It involves thinking about how to talk to others and fix problems when they happen.
Personal Development : Critical thinking helps with personal goals and learning new things. It involves thinking about what you want and how to get there.
Ethical Decision Making : Critical thinking helps in making fair and right choices. It involves thinking about what’s best for everyone involved.

In Decision Making we need to evaluate different facts and choose a path. Evaluating different facts or evidence requires objective analysis clear of biases.

How to apply critical thinking concepts to address these scenarios effectively.

Identify the Problem : Write down the problem you’re facing in clear, specific terms.
Research and Gather : Spend time gathering relevant information, such as data, articles, or expert opinions, to understand the problem thoroughly.
Break it Down : Divide the problem into smaller components to analyze each aspect individually.
Assess Options : List potential solutions or courses of action, and evaluate them based on feasibility, potential outcomes, and alignment with your goals.
Make a Decision : Choose the best solution based on your analysis and intuition, and commit to implementing it.
Take Action : Develop a plan of action with specific steps and deadlines, and start executing it.
Monitor Progress : Keep track of your progress and adjust your approach as needed to overcome challenges.
Reflect and Learn : After implementing the solution, reflect on the outcomes, identify lessons learned, and apply them to future problem-solving endeavors.

Practice to hone your critical thinking:

Headline Hunt: Grab a newspaper or scroll through news online. Pick a thought-provoking headline. Research the source, identify potential biases, and compare information with credible outlets. Was the headline sensationalized or misleading?
Commercial Critique: Watch an advertisement. Identify the persuasive techniques used (appeals to emotion, testimonials). Would it sway someone who critically examined the claims?
Social Media Scrutiny Don’t just blindly accept what you see on social media! Become a social media fact-checker. Question the source of the information, investigate the poster’s credibility, and consider any potential biases before hitting “share.” Is the information verifiable? Could it be an exaggeration or even fabricated?

Building a Critical Thinking Mindset

Importance of cultivating a mindset conducive to critical thinking.

In this complex information age we are inundated by continuous messages from news outlets and social media to advertisers and politicians.

Most of these messages are aimed to influence masses. Mass thinking is the opposite end of critical thinking, because it is easily influenced by emotions. People are prone to conformity and uncritical acceptance of ideas if they are offered by authority figures. In contrast, critical thinking encourages people to question assumptions , analyze information independently, and form their own reasoned conclusions.

So it is crucial to cultivate a critical thinking mindset under these conditions.

Critical thinking makes us an accurate thinker and helps forming better decisions in all areas of our lives. This mindset is about thinking objectively, separating facts from fiction, gathering evidence and evaluating them without biases.

1) Having a broad vision instead of a narrow vision helps us gather more information to create a more accurate picture. 2) Curiosity: Expand your curiosity and broaden your perspective by seeking knowledge from diverse sources, including books, observations, videos, and engaging with others. Listen to people with views that are others than your own. You can learn something new that may expand your horizon. 3) Healthy skepticism: At the same time be skeptical of the messages presented to you. What is the agenda behind? Are they sincere, transparent and really beneficial for you? Are they using psychological influencing techniques to trigger biases to affect your decisions?

The role of continuous learning and self-reflection

Becoming proficient in critical thinking skills takes time to learn and requires self awareness . By being aware of our thoughts and reflecting on them we can catch inconsistencies, assumptions and biases in our thinking. Through lifelong learning we can expand and update our knowledge to have a more correct understanding of the world we are living.

Common cognitive biases and how to overcome them

Description : Preferring information that agrees with existing beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence.
Example : Sarah, an avid social media user, only follows accounts that share her political views, dismissing opposing perspectives as biased or unreliable.
How to overcome : Seek diverse perspectives and actively question your own beliefs and challenge your assumptions.
Description : Overvaluing information that comes to mind easily, often leading to overestimation of its importance
Example : After watching a news report on a recent house fire, Sarah becomes overly concerned about the risk of fire in her neighborhood, despite fire incidents being rare occurrences..
How to overcome : Take time to gather and evaluate all relevant information before making decisions, and challenge assumptions about its importance.
Description : Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions.
Example : When buying a used car, John accepts the seller’s initial asking price without negotiating further, believing it to be fair based solely on the seller’s first offer.
How to Overcome: Consider multiple sources of information, avoid relying solely on initial impressions, and challenge assumptions about their accuracy.
Description : Overestimating one’s own abilities or the accuracy of judgments.
Example : Despite minimal preparation, Laura confidently enters a chess tournament, convinced of her superior skills, only to lose every match.
How to overcome: Seek feedback from others, remain open to constructive criticism, and challenge assumptions about your own abilities.
Description : Being influenced by the way information is presented, leading to different decisions based on how the same information is framed.
Example : Emma decides to buy a product labeled “90% fat-free” instead of “10% fat,” assuming it’s healthier, despite both labels describing the same product.
How to overcome : Be aware of how information is presented, critically evaluate the framing of messages, and challenge assumptions about their intended effect.

Logical Fallacies

These are mistakes in reasoning that can lead to incorrect conclusions. Being able to identify these errors is crucial for evaluating arguments and making well-informed decisions.

List of Logical Fallacies

Ad Hominem : Criticizing the person presenting the argument rather than addressing the argument itself. Example: “ Don’t believe anything he says; he’s a known liar. “
Appeal to Emotion : Using emotions to persuade instead of relying on logic. Example: “ You should donate to this cause; think of the children who will suffer without your help. “
Appeal to Authority : Reliance on the endorsement of a person or institution without providing substantial evidence. Example: “ This product is endorsed by a famous celebrity, so it must be effective .”
Appeal to Ignorance : Assuming something is true because it hasn’t been proven false. Example: “ There’s no evidence disproving the existence of unicorns, so they must exist .”
Appeal to the People : Using popular opinion to justify a claim. Example: “ Everyone I know hates this movie, so it must be terrible. “
Begging the Question : Assuming the conclusion is true within the premise of the argument. Example: “ We must ban all video games because they are harmful to society. “
Circular Reasoning : Using the conclusion of an argument to support one of its premises. Example: “ I know he’s the most qualified candidate because he’s the best person for the job .”
Equivocation : Using a term with multiple meanings to mislead. Example: “ We should avoid government interference, but we need regulation for businesses to thrive .”
False Analogy : Drawing a comparison between unrelated things. Example: “ Saying someone is good at math is like saying they’re good at sports. “
False Dichotomy : Presenting only two options when more exist. Example: “ You’re either with us or against us .”
Hasty Generalization : Making a broad conclusion based on limited evidence. Example: “ I met one rude lawyer, so all lawyers must be dishonest .”
Straw Man : Misrepresenting an opponent’s argument to make it easier to refute. Example: “ My opponent wants to shut down all businesses, leaving us with no jobs .”
Slippery Slope : Suggesting one action will lead to a series of undesirable events. Example: “ If we allow this law to pass, it’s a slippery slope to losing all our freedoms .”
Tu Quoque : Avoiding criticism by turning it back on the accuser. Example: “ You call me lazy, but you’re always procrastinating .”
Unrepresentative Sample : Drawing a conclusion based on a sample that doesn’t accurately represent the whole. Example: “ All my friends love this band, so they must be the best in the world .”

Importance of mindfulness and metacognition in recognizing cognitive biases

Human mind has two valuable tools to recognize cognitive biases: mindfulness and metacognition.

Metacognition : By thinking about our thinking, analyzing our thoughts and decisions we can catch biases as they form. Metacognition allows us to critically analyze thought patterns and biases. This in turn leads to more accurate and rational decision-making.

Mindfulness : This practice of being in the moment, observing our sensations, thoughts, feelings without judgment also raises our awareness and helps us to find the cognitive biases. The practice of meditation also cultivates this refined awareness.

By incorporating mindfulness and metacognition into daily life, we can develop a deeper understanding of their cognitive biases and take proactive steps to mitigate their influence. This combination helps increase self-awareness, critical thinking, and flexible decision-making.

AI and Critical Thinking

A recent development is the proliferation of AI tools that can mimic the speech and appearance of people.

This has been used in political campaigns by some parties to slander and defame the running candidates. These tools can fabricate “evidence” that is not real, complicating the information’s authenticity.

So we need to be extra vigilant to the information presented to us. We can do that by scrutinizing sources, verifying evidence, and differentiating between genuine content and manipulated or fabricated material. Such alertness is essential for maintaining the integrity of democratic processes and informed decision-making.

Final Thoughts

In this miniature guide to critical thinking tools & concepts we offered a clear roadmap for improving critical thinking skills in daily life. We explained what critical thinking is, its importance, and how to apply it through practical examples and exercises. By curiosity , o pen-mindedness , and mindfulness , you can recognize and overcome biases , leading to better decision-making and problem-solving.

Critical thinking is a valuable skill for success in various areas of life. Embracing these concepts you will be able to navigate challenges confidently and make more informed choices.

Khan Academy

Disclaimer: While researching, the term ‘The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools’ was used as a keyword. It has come to my attention that there is a book with the same title authored by Richard Paul and Linda Elder. Please note that this article is an independent exploration of critical thinking concepts, and any similarity in terminology is coincidental. This article does not contain content directly derived from the book.

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A Miniguide to Critical Thinking (Lau)

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Joe Y.F. Lau
https://philosophy.hku.hk/joelau/

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This miniguide introduces some of the basic concepts and principles of critical thinking.

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OGIC‭ & ‬ARGUMENTATION‭ (‬VOLUME‭ ‬5) The first section deals with different ways,‭ ‬approaches or methods of the doing of philosophy or the methodology of philosophizing or the discourse and socio-cultural practice of the Western tradition of philosophy. I then insert a number of articles and post concerning the fact that Philosophy in the Western World concentrates on the History of the Western Tradition of philosophical ideas,‭ ‬complaints that it is white,‭ ‬male and Euro-centered and that it has become too academic,‭ ‬professional and institutionalized. The subsequent sections deal with the topics of Logic and a number of notions‭ ‬related to‭ ‘‬logic‭’‬.‭ ‬The logic referred to are those that are relevant to philosophy or the doing of philosophizing.‭ ‬Truth,‭ ‬meaning,‭ ‬arguments and argumentation are then dealt with.‭ ‬This leads to another section on logic and finally reasoning is mentioned as the coming together of most of the previous sections. If you wish to think and write about multi-dimensional things like the‭ ‘‬world‭’‬,‭ ‬embodied persons,‭ ‬consciousness,‭ ‬human thinking etc,‭ ‬you should at least think multi-dimensional and many levelled.‭ ‬Attempting to investigate,‭ ‬reflect on and‭ ‬describe the nature and functioning of these multi-dimensional,‭ ‬many-levelled‭ ‬entities in a one-dimensional,‭ ‬verbal,‭ ‬linear manner surely is irrational and do not make sense‭? ‬Visual Argument Mapping is one of these multi-dimensional,‭ ‬many-levelled tools.‭ (‬See Appendix‭)

claudia cuadro

Trudy Govier

To be epistemically and logically adequate, an argument must meet two sorts of conditions: those concerning its premises and those concerning the inferential link between its premises and conclusion. Let us call such an argument COGENT. How should we specify conditions of argument cogency? A survey of pertinent texts and other works reveals at least six different accounts of the matter: CLASSIC DEDUCTIVTSM: An argument is cogent if and only if: (1) its premises are true; and (2) its premises deductively entail its conclusion.

Dr. S. Lourdu nathan

Edwin Brandon