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8 Academic Supports for Autistic Students

August 11, 2021

By: Organization for Autism Research

Categories: Education

Academic supports are never one-size-fits all. Teachers can best support autistic students when they have a range of strategies to choose from. As a general principle, interventions that provide predictability, support, and empowerment, while also reducing anxiety and building on strengths, are effective. When applied in the classroom, such interventions enable autistic students to best demonstrate what they know. These eight strategies put this principle into practice. For teachers who will be working with autistic students this fall, read on to learn more about these approaches and find a handy infographic to use as a guide!

2. Making accommodations and modifications

Many autistic students require assignment accommodations and modifications in order to be successful at school. Modifying assignments can be accomplished easily without drawing undue attention to the student. The particular modifications may differ based on individual students’ strengths and needs , but some examples of modifications include:

• Reformatting assignments to distinguish relevant details from irrelevant details
• Grouping like questions together on quizzes and tests
• Allowing additional time for the student to complete tasks
• Allowing the student to use alternative methods to demonstrate understanding (oral vs. written report, creating a pamphlet or PowerPoint presentation, etc.)
• Shortening tasks or reducing the number of tasks the student is expected to complete
• Outlining precisely what information the student is expected to learn from reading
• Providing graphic organizers and concrete strategies for assignments
• Giving the student a model to follow of what is expected on assignments
• Providing pre-highlighted texts and/or study guides
• Identifying the information that the student will be responsible for on upcoming tests
• Sharing a model of what is expected on assignments or a list of grading criteria

Modifications and accommodations like these do not excuse the autistic student from completing their work or diminish the academic rigor. Rather, they are designed to give the student access to the content and/or skill at the center of the assignments.

3. Visual supports

• Map of school outlining the student’s classes
• List of classes, room numbers, books, and other supplies needed
• List of teacher’s expectations and routines for each class
• Schedule of activities within the class
• Sample models of assignments, with important requirements demarcated
• List of test reminders
• List of schedule changes
• List of homework assignments

4. Home base

5. Handwriting modifications

Fine motor skills, such as handwriting, are a challenge for many autistic people. Teachers must take this into consideration and make appropriate accommodations for autistic students. Examples of accommodations include:

• Asking a student to only write key words in response to a question, rather than complete sentences. (Some autistic students may not respond well to this accommodation, as it breaks grammatical rules.)
• Modifying assignments and tests to incorporate multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, matching, and/or short-answer questions, rather than essay questions
• Letting the student underline or highlight answers to questions within a reading passage, rather than having to write out the answers
• Allowing the student to use a computer or smart device to type information, rather than writing it by hand
• Permitting the student to verbally express information and tape record it, rather than writing it by hand
• Allowing the student to state information to a scribe, such as a peer, aide, etc.
• Supplying the student with a teacher-made outline of main ideas and key points from readings and/or presentations

6. Choice-making

Choice-making is a strategy in which small choices and decisions are embedded into daily routines and activities. This strategy allows autistic students to have some control over events in their life. While this is important for everyone, it can be particularly beneficial for autistic students because it provides predictability and agency. Many opportunities are available throughout the day to give autistic students choices. Choice-making does not mean that a student gets to decide if they want to complete an assignment. Rather, it gives student control over other aspects of the learning process. For example, the student could choose what color pen or pencil to use when completing the assignment. However, when providing choices, it is important to keep the individual student in mind. Sometimes, students who usually have the ability to make choices cannot do so under stressful situations or if the choices are not appealing to them. In these cases, offering choices could inadvertently increase stress instead of benefiting the student.

7. Incorporation of special interests

8. Homework considerations

Homework may present major concerns to autistic students. For example:

• Homework often requires handwriting, which can be cognitively and physically challenging for autistic students.
• Many autistic students have to work hard to remain emotionally composed throughout the school day and, therefore, arrive home exhausted. These students may need their afternoons and evenings to relax and recharge without additional demands.
• Autistic students may have additional activities in the afternoons or evenings, such as attending social skills groups.

As a result, homework should be considered on an individual basis for each student, and any decision should incorporate the student, school team and additional service providers, and parents. Teachers can consider whether homework should be assigned, completed during a designated time during the school day, waived, and/or modified. Teachers should also consider how they can make assignments more accessible for the autistic student.

These strategies are adapted from An Educator’s Guide to ASD (Level 1 Supports) . This guide and other guides for educators may be downloaded for free from our Resources page. Educators may also order up to two physical copies of each guidebook for free from our Store .

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• Academic Supports for College Students with an Autism Spectrum Disorder

Academic Supports for College Students with an Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Overview

By:   Marci Wheeler, MSW

Each year more information about the college experiences of those on the autism spectrum is written by their parents, professionals and these students on the autism spectrum. “Temple Grandin” a biopic movie of Temple’s life premiered last year on HBO, and won several Emmy and other awards. Included in the film, of this very accomplished woman with autism, is a significant look at Temple’s experience at college. This film also reminds us that fellow college students need information to better understand their peers on the autism spectrum and how to include and support them. There is much more to college life than academics. Intellectually these students are often very bright but many may face a variety of “hidden challenges” that can undermine their ability to navigate a typical college campus and perform well in class. This article will discuss some of the challenges and possible academic supports for students on the autism spectrum.

There is a wide range of functioning and abilities seen across individuals diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. Generalities are hard to make except to say that communication and social skills deficits are present. There are also neurological differences that affect everyone on the autism spectrum. However, each person is affected in different ways. The sensory perceptions, motor skills, learning styles and coping strategies are often affected and may cause “hidden” challenges that are not understood by those supporting these students. As a result of these challenges the observable behaviors of students on the autism spectrum may make them appear inattentive, bored, rude, defiant or possibly even on drugs. Ritualistic or repetitive behaviors, an attachment to incongruous objects and additional unusual communication and social skills (especially under stress) can make some of these students seem odd and bring unwanted attention to them.

Some students on the autism spectrum may experience sensory overload and/or be distressed by the social and communication demands of a class. They may have learned “acceptable” strategies to cope and have the ability to stay focused on their intellectual pursuits such that they can navigate through their classes (at least the classes in their chosen major) and pass as “normal”. Some students expend a lot of energy, at all costs, to blend in and not be detected. Unfortunately, for some, this may result in them leaving the university without finishing a degree as the stress is too great. Also, on any college campus be assured that there are students who have not been formally diagnosed or students that are not diagnosed until their college years.

Professors and other instructors need to be aware of possible supports that a student on the autism spectrum might find necessary to participate in class and complete classwork. The following six sections briefly state a common concern for most students and list some possible issues and accommodations. Each student on the autism spectrum has unique needs and should work closely with instructors and other college staff to design an individualized plan of proactive support and response to challenges if they arise.

Communication Skills

By definition (following diagnostic criteria) all students with an autism spectrum disorder have some problems which may interfere with receptive or expressive communication. Some of these differences are very subtle and can lead to misunderstandings that are misinterpreted as volitional acts on the part of the student. Students with an autism spectrum disorder may be very articulate and have a large vocabulary which may “hide” their communication challenges. Those supporting students on the autism spectrum should become aware of each individual students weaknesses in this area. Some of these are listed below along with possible accommodations.

Receptive difficulties often experienced by students on the autism spectrum include processing verbal exchanges more slowly, misunderstanding sarcasm, idioms and jokes, very literal interpretation of words, and misunderstanding gestures and body language.

The expressive difficulties of individuals on the autism spectrum may include problems initiating communication; even for those students who at first glance may seem very articulate and even very talkative. Those on the autism spectrum may have trouble staying on topic, turn taking and following conversational “protocol”. Some may be slower to organize thoughts and speak, and/or their voice tone and volume may be unusual. Idiosyncratic use of words and phrases may be present.

Accommodations for a college student with an autism spectrum disorder might include providing the instructor’s lecture notes or a note taker to help key in on important information, providing study guides for tests, allowing a longer verbal response time from the student and allowing for important exchanges of information to be done in written form. It would also help for instructors to be clear, concise, concrete and logical when communicating as well as asking for clarification; don’t make assumptions about what students truly understand.

Social Skills

Social skills (also included in diagnostic criteria) might not seem important in a class setting, but, in fact social difficulties can and do impact the classwork of many students on the autism spectrum. Many college courses require class participation and group work as part of earning a grade. Just going to class with peers necessitates the use of social skills. Some social difficulties and possible accommodations are discussed below.

The social challenges for a student on the autism spectrum include problems understanding others perspectives, sharing space and making eye contact. Many high functioning individuals with an autism spectrum disorder have extreme social anxiety and have difficulty negotiating with others, and interacting and working in pairs or groups. These students likely will not understand the “unwritten” classroom etiquette and will often misinterpret facial expressions and other non-verbal cues. Possible accommodations for students on the autism spectrum include allowing for short breaks to leave class and/or allowing the student to have a “social buffering” object which might include a computer, book or other object that initially might seem distracting or “out of place”. Honoring the student’s chosen level of eye contact w/o judgment can be helpful. If there is group work assigned for class the instructor might assist in the formation and monitoring of pairs or groups of students to assure the proper inclusion of the student with an autism spectrum diagnosis. Also providing written rules for asking questions and other classroom logistics (as needed) may support students with an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis.

Sensory Differences

When the DSM-5 was released in May 2013, reactivity to sensory input was added as part of the diagnostic criteria for an autism spectrum disorder.  Sensory processing issues seem to affect the majority of these individuals. Some on the autism spectrum have an extreme over sensitivity or under sensitivity to input, from the environment to the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. A significant number of persons experience synesthesia. Synesthesia may affect any of the senses. Synesthesia is phenomena in which the actual information of one sense is accompanied by a perception in another sense. Listed below are some common sensory differences and accommodations that may be important in a class setting.

Common visual and auditory sensory difficulties experienced by students on the autism spectrum include florescent lights that may appear to flicker and certain “bright” colors that may produce “overload”. Someone may see better from a “different” angle or may hear low level frequency sounds emitted by florescent lights. Also certain “typical” classroom sounds may be perceived as “painful” such as the movement and use of desks, people and other objects in the room. Often a person on the autism spectrum may not filter out extraneous sounds and/or may hear sounds in the next room.

Sensory issues related to the sense of touch and/or the sense of smell may occur. For example, certain textures may be “painful” and/or individuals may crave certain textures. Students on the autism spectrum may be disturbed by people accidentally bumping them or the feel of a particular desk or chair. They may wear “unusual” clothing, footwear or accessories because of sensory differences. Also students may be sensitive to certain odors and certain smells may cause “overload”. Some who are very sensitive may be affected by scents from certain perfumes, deodorants and soaps.

Possible accommodations to support a student with sensory differences include allowing hats, sunglasses and tinted lens glasses to be worn and allowing ear plugs or ear phones. Also allowing the student to choose their seat and helping to assure it is always available may be important. If requested by the student, an alternative writing instrument for tests and assignments and/or a computer for in class work, tests and assignments might also be an appropriate accommodation. A student with an autism spectrum diagnosis may find that a small sensory item brings comfort in class. It is likely, if a student uses a sensory item, that it is inconspicuous but this may not always be the case. Be aware that a student may make a last minute request for a seating change and/or to leave abruptly due to sensory overload. Help devise an acceptable plan to address urgent sensory issues for the student.

Motor Skills

Both fine and gross motor skills may be affected in individuals with an autism spectrum disorder. In addition motor planning and poor awareness of body in space are two areas that often affect motor skills for these individuals. Often fine and gross motor skills as well as motor planning skills are very uneven. Listed below are possible problems in these areas along with possible accommodations.

Fine motor challenges for students on the autism spectrum might affect writing, drawing, turning pages, using utensils, playing an instrument, using locks and keys, and manipulating small objects. Gross motor challenges may affect walking (may have “odd” gait), running, sitting and balancing. Motor planning and the awareness of the placement of their body in space can affect the ways in which an individual moves their body and is able to navigate themselves to accomplish all motor tasks.

Possible accommodations for students on the autism spectrum with motor skills difficulties include allowing a computer for in class work, tests and assignments, providing a note taker, allowing work assignments done at a slower pace, providing models and step by step instruction, providing extra time to take tests and providing readers and scribes (or technology that reads and takes notes). Further accommodations might need to be considered for students taking physical education courses in which motor skills differences might provide further complications.

Learning Style

Students with an autism spectrum disorder often have a very uneven learning profile. They often excel creatively in a non-conventional way. Students on the autism spectrum tend to have excellent long term and rote memory abilities. Executive functioning deficits cause these students many problems. Many are thought to be right-brained thinkers. Most need to like and trust an instructor before they can perform in a class. Some common learning challenges, strengths and possible accommodations are listed below.

Executive function challenges experienced by students with an autism spectrum diagnosis include general organization and planning skills, problems with impulsivity and problem solving and the ability to monitor themselves in the completion of a goal.

Along with the executive functioning deficits, common learning barriers include poor sequential learning, easily bored with repetition once something is learned, attention problems, literal thinking, nebulous sense of time and as mentioned previously, perspective taking deficits. Other issues that impacts learning for students on the autism spectrum are the fact that they need to understand why something is important, relevant or meaningful to them and they may not realize they are having academic difficulty until it may be too late or too difficult for them to rectify on their own.

The strengths of students on the autism spectrum can sometimes help them compensate for their weaknesses. These students can do quite well academically, especially in their chosen field, and their strengths should be respected and used whenever possible. For example these students may have extremely good visual and visual-spatial skills. They often learn best from whole to part (complex to simple) and they can be very creative; out of the box thinkers. These students can also show an amazing knowledge on topics of interest which is most often their major field of study at the university.

Possible accommodations for students on the autism spectrum to support their learning style include providing review sheets, work checklists, and “sub” deadlines and/or intermittent “check-ins.” If possible provide hands on learning, models, demonstrations and other visuals. If possible, pair with peer mentors who might help with feedback and provide “proof-read” opportunities and ongoing structure to keeping on target with work assignments. Instructors can help support students on the autism spectrum by providing reinforcement at every opportunity. Other accommodations that might be helpful for some students are allowing advanced negotiation of deadlines, extra time for tests, and/or a separate “quiet” place for tests.

Instructors and other college staff can also encourage the use of calendars (computer, traditional, phone w/alarms). Most likely the student has experience with using an organizational tool or tools, of choice, before coming to college. However, sometimes in a new environment the tools and skills used and learned to compensate for executive function deficits do not transfer easily to a new setting. Because the setting has changed, the student may need time “extra” transition time to begin the use of these tools and to maintain routines in the new environment.

Coping Skills

Individuals with an autism spectrum disorder frequently describe themselves as dealing with a lot of anxiety and stress. Sensory sensitivities, social and communication expectations as well as transitions and unexpected changes often trigger this anxiety and stress. It is during these times when these students may display behavior that can seem bewildering, rude or disruptive. Most often when a student displays these behaviors they are doing what they know to do to cope. In fact, these sometimes “confusing” behaviors are often experienced as calming. Included below are examples of coping behaviors in which students with an autism spectrum disorder may engage and possible accommodations.

When under stress, students on the autism spectrum may engage in stress relieving activities which look odd and may even make others feel uncomfortable. These activities may include body rocking, pacing, waving or flapping hands or fingers repetitively, chewing on their clothing or body, “lecturing” on a topic of interest or they may display the “opposite” emotion for the situation. They also may abruptly leave the situation with no explanation before or afterwards.

A possible accommodation in helping the student cope, in the moment, might be to discretely ask the student if something is overwhelming and/or ask if the student needs help or wants to leave. Do not discourage or interrupt behavior unless truly disruptive and understand that student does not intend to be disrespectful. Allow sensory items and/or other “comfort” objects. A student, who is having a hard time coping, might not realize when s/he is being disruptive and needs to leave. The instructor and student can agree on a cue that the instructor can give to signal to the student that it is okay/time to leave. They can also agree on a signal, to inform the instructor when the student is overwhelmed or confused.

Ideally, preparing young adults with an autism spectrum disorder for the demands of college has started years earlier. With a proper diagnosis, individualized early intervention and careful transition planning, college students with an autism spectrum diagnosis, will be better prepared to advocate for themselves. At the same time college professors and other staff at post-secondary colleges and universities need to be prepared for students on the spectrum who are seeking to be a part of these institutions in greater and greater numbers. These students must be given reasonable accommodations to provide an equal opportunity for pursuing a college education. Many great minds and opportunities for society could be lost if individuals on the autism spectrum are not supported in their post-secondary academic pursuits.

Academic Supports for College Students with An Autism Spectrum Disorder:  Quick Overview

The information in this article is based on Marci Wheeler’s work at the Indiana Resource Center for Autism, Indiana Institute on Disability and Community at Indiana University-Bloomington; including her role as Advisor for the Students on the Spectrum Club at Indiana University – Bloomington.

If you need more information about supporting students on the autism spectrum in a university/college setting, please contact your local autism organization or campus office for students with disabilities to find out who can assist. Indiana residents can contact us here .

With Special Thanks to the members of the Students on the Spectrum Club at Indiana University – Bloomington for sharing their insights as they navigate the college setting.

ASAN:  The Autistic-Self Advocac Network.(2013) Navigating college: A handbook on self advocacy written for autistic students from autistic adults. Washington, D.C.: Autistic Self Advocacy Network. (Also available online at   https://autisticadvocacy.org/ .)

Attwood, T. (2007). The complete guide to Asperger’s Syndrome. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Brown, J.T., Wolf, L.E., King ,L.,Bork, G.R.K.(2012). The parent's guide to college for students on the autism spectrum. Shawnee Mission, KS: AAPC Publishing.

Harpur, J., Lawler, M. & Fitzgerald, M. (2004). Succeeding in college with Asperger Syndrome: A studentguide. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Palmer, A. (2006). Realizing the college dream with autism or Asperger Syndrome: A parent’s guide to student success. Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Prince-Hughes, D. (2002). Aquamarine Blue 5: Personal stories of college students with autism. Athens, : Ohio University Press.

Wolf, L.E., Brown, J.T,. Bork, G. R. K. (2009). Students with Asperger Syndrome: A guide for college personnel. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Company.

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• Front Psychol

Reading and Writing Skills in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder Without Intellectual Disability

Inmaculada baixauli.

1 Occupational Sciences, Speech Language Therapy, Developmental and Educational Psychology Department, Catholic University of Valencia, Campus Capacitas, Valencia, Spain

Belen Rosello

2 Developmental and Educational Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Carmen Berenguer

Montserrat téllez de meneses.

3 Neuropediatrics Section, Hospital la Fe de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Ana Miranda

Associated data.

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The purpose of this study is to extend the knowledge about academic achievement in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To this end, first, we analyzed differences in a wide range of reading and writing skills in adolescents with ASD without intellectual disability (ASD-WID) and adolescents with typical development (TD). Second, these two groups were compared on academic outcomes in core subjects and indicators of successful transition to secondary school. Third, the potential contribution of literacy skills to academic outcomes was examined in the two groups. Participants were 56 adolescents between 12 and 14 years old, 30 with ASD-WID and 26 with TD. Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of reading fluency or literal and inferential comprehension. However, the performance of the group with ASD was significantly lower on reading comprehension processes that assess cognitive flexibility. Regarding their written expression skills, significant differences were observed between the group with ASD and the group with TD on most of the indicators analyzed as: productivity, lexical diversity, and overall coherence (resolution component). In addition, findings showed that the deficits in reading and writing observed in the adolescents with ASD significantly affected their academic achievement, which was lower than that of their peers with TD and below what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity. Moreover, their families’ perceptions of the transition to high school reflected worse adjustment and lower self-esteem, confidence, and motivation.

Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by persistent difficulties in communication and social interactions, along with restricted interests and the presence of repetitive behaviors ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ). A key factor in the development of people with ASD is academic achievement, which undoubtedly contributes to access to employment opportunities and independent living. The inclusion of students with ASD in regular classrooms is a growing reality, and so it is necessary to analyze the factors that influence their educational performance.

Despite the relevance of this topic, research on the academic profile of students with ASD is limited, particularly in the adolescent stage or during the transition to secondary school. This is a complex period when important developmental changes occur, and it is characterized by greater academic and social demands. The inherent characteristics of ASD, such as difficulties in social communication, resistance to change, sensory hypersensitivity, or intolerance to uncertainty, make these students a particularly vulnerable population in this developmental period. In fact, anxiety, social pressure, and bullying have been found to be significant challenges for adolescents with ASD ( Nuske et al., 2018 ), who report negative experiences in this academic transition phase ( Makin et al., 2017 ). Therefore, identifying the variables that influence school performance and contribute to successful transition to secondary school should be a major research objective.

To date, studies that have attempted to analyze the academic performance of students with ASD have generally referred a variable performance, which is consistent with the disorder’s heterogeneity ( Keen et al., 2016 ). To account for this variability, studies have tried to establish different performance profiles in children and adolescents with diverse cognitive abilities. Thus, Wei et al. (2014) identified four distinct profiles based on five measures of academic achievement (word identification, rapid letter naming, passage comprehension, applied problems, and calculation). These profiles were the following: higher-achieving (39%, who have scored around the national average on most of the measures), hyperlexia (9%, who do well on decoding but with poor comprehension), hypercalculia (20%, with scores close to the national average on calculation skills, but significantly below average on the other four dimensions), and lower-achieving (32%, children who scored about two standard deviations below the mean on all five indicators). The higher-achieving and hyperlexia subgroups had significantly better functional cognitive skills and came from higher socioeconomic backgrounds.

Following a similar approach, Chen et al. (2019) , in a sample 7–14 years old participants with ASD with varied intelligence levels, could determine two distinct groups, low-achievement ASD and high-achievement ASD, based on their performance on four measures taken from the WIAT-II ( Weschler, 2001 ): numerical operations, mathematical reasoning, word reading, and reading comprehension. These differences were especially pronounced in the area of mathematics. As in the study by Wei et al. (2014) , the low-achievement subgroup scores were consistent with the intellectual capacity and other cognitive processes, such as working memory.

However, despite the expected relationship between cognitive ability and academic performance, other studies have identified discrepancies in this regard. Jones et al. (2009) found that approximately 70% of adolescents with ASD from 14 to 16 years old with different cognitive levels had a significant divergence between intellectual ability and one or more achievement domains. They described four subgroups in which either word reading (“reading peak” and “reading dip”) or arithmetic (“arithmetic peak” and “arithmetic dip”) was higher or lower than the WASI Full Scale Intelligence Quotient (IQ; Wechsler, 1999 ). Estes et al. (2011) identified these same differences in a sample of 30 children with ASD without intellectual disabilities. In 60% of them, a significantly lower achievement was found than what was predicted by their cognitive ability, in at least one of the domains analyzed (spelling, word reading, or basic number skills).

In conclusion, students with ASD present an irregular performance profile where intelligence plays an important role, although the research is not consistent in this regard. However, it is clear that many children and adolescents with ASD perform below what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the areas of vulnerability and the factors involved in this low performance, in order to plan more appropriate and effective interventions. Certainly, in the school context, reading and writing are crucial instrumental skills and the basis for success in different curricular areas, and they have important implications throughout life, not only academically, but also socially and occupationally.

Reading Difficulties in ASD

Reading is a complex skill involving the orchestration of different components. From an overall perspective, two major processes may be distinguished as: decoding and comprehension. Decoding refers to the transformation of written words (graphemes) into phonological representations. Comprehension processes refer to the extraction of meaning from the written text. Specifically, and according to one of the most known models of reading, the Simple View of Reading Model ( Hoover and Gough, 1990 ), reading comprehension is the product of decoding skills and linguistic comprehension.

Many studies have found that people with ASD without intellectual disabilities (ASD-WID) have strengths in decoding skills, compared to their reading comprehension performance. Thus, in general, students with ASD-WID seem to master mechanisms involved in automatic word recognition, in contrast to their reading comprehension performance ( Jones et al., 2009 ; Norbury and Nation, 2011 ; Solari et al., 2017 ), which is below expectations for their chronological age or reading accuracy level ( Brown et al., 2013 ). To explain this discrepancy, good memory skills have been cited, as well as phonological and visual processing skills, which would contribute to adequate recognition of the written word.

As in the case of academic performance, the variability in reading skills has led studies to identify reading profiles in samples of children and adolescents with ASD. In a longitudinal and retrospective study, Åsberg et al. (2019) were able to determine three subgroups. A first subgroup, with “low reading performance,” which was the most frequent profile (approximately 50% of the participants), had below-average scores on both word reading and text comprehension. A second subgroup, made up of “skilled readers,” performed above average on both reading processes. Finally, the third subgroup was the least common (20%), and it was composed of “hyperlexical/low understanding” participants. Following a similar approach, namely latent profile analysis, McIntyre et al. (2017) found four different profiles in a sample of students with high-functioning autism from 8 to 16 years old: (1) readers with overall disturbance (32.2%), i.e., alterations in the decoding and comprehension processes; (2) readers with severe overall disturbance (14.1%); (3) readers with comprehension problems (20.6%); and (4) average readers (32.1%). In other words, approximately 70% of the participants experienced reading impairments, and of them, the majority had comprehension problems. Other studies using a cluster analysis methodology have also found lower reading comprehension scores than word reading scores, even in high-achieving subgroups of students with ASD ( Chen et al., 2019 ).

To determine the factors moderating reading comprehension performance in students with ASD, Brown et al. (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of 36 studies comparing ASD and control groups. The strongest individual predictors of reading comprehension were semantic knowledge and decoding skills. The study results highlight the contribution of oral language to reading comprehension, as well as the content of the texts, because individuals with ASD were significantly worse at comprehending highly social texts than less social texts.

In sum, decoding skills, language level, and text characteristics and content are variables to take into account when analyzing the reading comprehension difficulties of students with ASD. Other factors to consider are the development of comprehension strategies during reading ( Williamson et al., 2012 ) or the type of comprehension assessed (literal versus inferential) because students with ASD have shown greater difficulty with inferential comprehension processes ( Tirado and Saldaña, 2016 ). In addition to classical predictors, other cognitive factors may help us understand why students with ASD struggle with reading comprehension. Research in typical children has suggested that cognitive flexibility is positively associated with reading ( Yeniad et al., 2013 ). Cognitive flexibility requires the interaction of several mechanisms (attention shifting, conflict monitoring, and perception) that respond to specific environmental demands, such as rule changes, in order to achieve flexible behavior and to solve the problem in a new way ( Ionescu, 2012 ). Precisely, cognitive flexibility is one of the most significant affected executive function in the majority of children and adolescents with high-functioning ASD ( Lai et al., 2017 ). Therefore, it seems logical to expect that they have difficulties in deploying flexible strategies for accomplishing reading tasks.

Writing Difficulties in ASD

Similar to reading ability, good writing skills are crucial to academic and professional success. In addition, with the growing prevalence of online communication and social networks, the written expression has become a common means of daily interaction between people. Writing represents a major challenge for students with ASD. According to data provided by Mayes and Calhoun (2006) , -in a study with children and adolescents with heterogeneous IQ levels-, approximately 60% of students with ASD present some type of specific difficulty in learning to write.

Most of our understanding of the writing process has been based on the recursive and multi-layered model developed by Hayes and Flower (1980) and Hayes (2006) , which is composed of three main processes: (1) the planning process , directed to prepare the content of the text by retrieving ideas from memory and organizing them; (2) the translation process , which includes the grammatical and orthographical encoding, and the motor execution actions involved in handwriting; and (3) the revision process that allows writers to compare the written product with their mental representation of the intended text. Research on writing difficulties in ASD has mainly focused on the planning and translation processes. A meta-analysis found significantly worse performance of ASD students on several components of writing, related to the translation process (length, legibility, size, speed, and spelling) and to some indicators of the planning process, such as text structure ( Finnegan and Accardo, 2018 ). Likewise, a more recent study has demonstrated that children with ASD-WID write personal narrative texts that obtain lower ratings in holistic assessments of coherence, structure, and content, and have less lexical and syntactic complexity, in comparison with children with TD ( Hilvert et al., 2020 ). Moreover, fine motor and visuomotor speed problems ( Kushki et al., 2011 ) may often result in illegible or brief writing ( Fuentes et al., 2009 ).

Written expression difficulties of students with ASD have been found not only in narrative discourse, but also in expository and persuasive texts ( Brown et al., 2014 ; Price et al., 2020 ). In addition, their essays contain more grammatical errors and present less syntactic diversity and complexity, although they can achieve a lexical richness and coherence comparable to their peers with TD ( Hilvert et al., 2019 ).

In summary, variability is the trait that characterizes the academic performance and reading and writing abilities of students with ASD, which is linked to variables, such as intellectual ability, language level, the type of processes involved, and the characteristics of the tasks used to assess reading and writing. In any case, as students progress through the education system, there is a greater emphasis upon reading comprehension and writing expression which gives students access to school curriculum with more autonomy. The transition from primary to secondary school is one important and educational challenge. Research about the experience of young people with autism has identified a number of areas in which they may experience particular concerns compared to their TD peers, including structural/organizational and social demands. Secondary schools tend to be large, with different teachers for different subjects that students need to adapt to Maras and Aveling, (2006) . Furthermore, social complexity about forming relationships with a new peer group increases anxieties as well as academic demands of independence ( Tobin et al., 2012 ; Mandy et al., 2016 ). Our research focuses on the period of adolescence, a stage less studied in the literature, in particular, in the transition from primary to secondary school, an especially demanding challenge for individuals with ASD. Therefore, a measure of transition to secondary education of individuals with ASD without ID was included.

Consequently, the present study seeks to advance the knowledge about the reading and writing performance of students with ASD in several ways. First, there is a paucity of research on studying the relationships between reading and skills and school achievement in individuals with ASD. Second, it is carried out in Spanish, a language with a transparent spelling characterized by a series of phonological and orthographical specificities that can impact psycholinguistic processing. Third, different comprehension processes (literal and inferential) are considered, using, in addition, a reading-specific measure that requires cognitive flexibility. To the best of our knowledge, this measure has not been employed in the previous investigations assessing reading comprehension in ASD. Based on these considerations, the following objectives were addressed as follows:

• to analyze differences in a wide range of reading and writing skills between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD;
• to analyze differences in academic outcomes in core subjects and on indicators of successful transition to secondary school between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD; and
• to explore the potential contribution of reading and writing skills to academic outcomes in both groups, adolescents with ASD-WID and TD.

According to the literature review, it is expected to find similar results in both groups in reading accuracy and fluency. However, significant lower results are hypothesized in participants with ASD-WID regarding indicators of written expression and reading comprehension tasks tapping inferential and cognitive flexibility processes. Likewise, it is predicted that participants with ASD will obtain lower academic outcomes, as well as worse results in indicators of successful transition to secondary education. Given the prominent role that reading and writing play on school outcomes, it is anticipated that both instrumental skills will have a considerable weight in academic performance, both in the group with TD and in the group with ASD-WID.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

The present study included 56 adolescents between 12 and 14 years old, of whom 30 were adolescents with ASD-WID (28 males) and 26 were adolescents with typical development (TD; 17 males). The participants had an intellectual functioning within the limits of normality on the K-BIT ( Kaufman and Kaufman, 2000 ).

The group of adolescents with ASD-WID had received a previous clinical diagnosis of an autism spectrum condition by the Psychiatry and Child Neurology services in hospitals and medical centers in the Valencian community at ages ranging between 2 years and 11 months and 6 years old. According to the protocol for the ASD diagnosis, the criteria for ASD from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fourth edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994 ), the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R; Rutter et al., 2006 ), and/or the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-WPS (ADOS-WPS; Lord et al., 1999 ) were administered by a multidisciplinary team. In order to confirm the ASD diagnosis for the present study, the Social Communication Questionnaire ( Rutter et al., 2003 ) and the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R; Rutter et al., 2006 ) were administered, taking into account the recommended cutoff points. The results appear in Table 1 . These two instruments were administered to the parents by a clinical psychologist from the research team who had been accredited in their application. Likewise, all the adolescents met the strict diagnostic criteria for ASD from the fifth edition of the DSM-5 ( American Psychiatric Association, 2013 ), based on information provided by teachers and parents. Both informants, in interviews with a clinical psychologist, rated the severity of the criteria in the two ASD dimensions on scales ranging from 0 to 3 points (0 represents “almost never,” 1 represents “sometimes,” 2 represents “often,” and 3 represents “many times”).

Socio-demographic characteristics.

Parental education measured as highest level of mother or father (0 = elementary school, 1 = Compulsory secondary school, 2 = Medium level vocational training, 3 = Upper secondary education (High School) or Superior level vocational training, and 4 = University degree). Repeat grade in S (Secondary), ADI-R (Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised), ADI-R A (Qualitative alterations in the reciprocal social interaction), ADI-R B (Qualitative Alterations in Communication), ADI-R C (Restrictive and Stereotyped Behaviors), and SCQ (Social Communication Questionnaire) .

The majority of the adolescents with ASD had educational support at school. Specifically, seven adolescents with ASD (23.33%) were attending school in regular classrooms full time without educational support; nine adolescents (30.00%) attended regular classrooms but received educational support for their specific needs in the high school; and finally, 14 adolescents (46.66%) were placed in the communication and language classroom modality. Furthermore, 11 (36.66%) adolescents with ASD were taking antipsychotic medication (mostly risperidone) for behavioral problems.

The typically developing adolescents had no history of psychopathology or referral to pediatric mental health units (USMI), according to the information found in the school records, and they did not meet DSM-5 criteria for ASD on the screening carried out before beginning the evaluation. None of them were taking any psychoactive medication.

The exclusion criteria for the adolescents who participated in this study were evaluated through an extensive anamnesis carried out with the families. They included neurological or genetic diseases, brain lesions, sensory, auditory, or motor deficits, and an IQ below 80 (see Table 1 ).

The assessment measures were selected based on the objectives of this study. In addition, criteria, such as the psychometric properties of the measures, were taken into account, as well as their translation and adaptation to Spanish.

Reading Skills

The assessment of lexical and semantic reading processes was carried out through two tasks from the PROLEC-SE battery ( Evaluation of Reading Processes for Secondary Education Students ; Ramos and Cuetos, 1999 ). Furthermore, a subtest of the TLC Test ( Leer para Comprender; Reading for understanding ) was also administered ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ).

Lexical Processes Measures

Reading accuracy and reading fluency were assessed through the reading of 40 Spanish words that vary in length, frequency of use, and the complexity of their syllabic structure (i.e., high and low frequency, short and long words). The total accuracy score is obtained by adding up the words read correctly. To obtain the reading speed score, the time spent reading the complete list of 40 words is recorded. In our study reliability index of this measure, Cronbach’s alpha is 0.74.

Reading Comprehension Measures

Semantic processes were assessed using one of the tasks proposed in the semantic block of the PROLEC-SE battery. The task required silently reading two expository texts: “The Eskimos” and “The Australian Papuans.” After each text is read silently, the text is removed, and the participant has to answer 10 questions. Five questions are literal and can be answered from memory and five questions are inferential; that is, they can only be answered if the participant has understood the text and can make the appropriate inferences. Each correct answer receives 1 point. The total score is obtained by adding up the total number of correct answers on each text.

In this research, we use the direct scores. High direct scores on reading accuracy and comprehension and low scores on reading speed indicate better reading performance. The psychometric properties of the PROLEC-SE battery are adequate. For the reliability index, Cronbach’s alpha is 0.84 ( Ramos and Cuetos, 1999 ). In this study, α coefficients for the subscales used were 0.63 (literal comprehension), 0.68 (inferential comprehension), and 0.73 (total comprehension).

Moreover, to assess cognitive flexibility in the reading comprehension process, the “Mental flexibility” subtest from the Read to Understand Test (TLC) was administered ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ). In this subtest, instructions are given that involve different ways to approach the reading of a text, and, subsequently, the reader’s awareness of the strategies used is evaluated. Therefore, part of the evaluation is declarative because the student “tells what s/he does” to solve the task. This test assesses, for example, whether the student knows that, in some cases, a superficial understanding of the text is possible (specifically, on tasks, such as searching for five nouns in a paragraph), whereas in other cases, a deeper understanding is necessary. That is, it is not always necessary to pay attention to the meaning of words, sentences, and paragraphs in order to perform certain activities that focus exclusively on grammatical, syntactic, or stylistic aspects, or when searching for a specific piece of information. This test evaluates this type of metacognitive process, which is related to cognitive flexibility, that is, the ability to focus on the reading comprehension process by selecting appropriate strategies. This aspect of metacognition is defined as the ability to cope with a task by selecting the right strategies and modifying cognitive processes in response to changes: to shift attentional focus, select information to guide and choose necessary responses, form plans, and generate monitoring ( Abusamra et al., 2010 ). The test has psychometric properties, such as concurrent validity and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.79). α coefficient for this test in our sample is 0.66.

Written Expression

To obtain the spontaneous writing sample, the “Birthday” sheet from the Test of Written Language, fourth edition, was used (TOWL-4; Hammill and Larsen, 2009 ). The participants were given a blank sheet of paper and a pen and the following instruction: “Write a story about the events and activities shown in the picture.” They were given as much time as necessary to complete the written compositions, which were then transcribed using the Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT; Miller and Iglesias, 2010 ). All the texts were coded on variables that assessed productivity, syntactic complexity, and overall coherence. An independent research assistant was trained in the measures coding during two sessions in a seminar of 5 h. In these sessions, the variables considered were defined and explained and the analysis was practiced on written samples. The research assistant was blind to the goal of the study and did not know the membership group of the texts (ASD or TD). For the reliability check, after the training sessions, the evaluators analyzed approximately 80% of the writings from each group (40 in all), which were randomly selected.

Productivity

Children’s productivity, or fluency, was measured as the total number of words in the text. Automated SALT analyses provided information about this variable.

Syntactic Complexity

Syntactic complexity was measured as the diversity of complex syntax ( Hilvert et al., 2019 ). This variable was determined by counting the number of different types of complex syntactic devices employed within the text: substantive subordinate clauses, adverbial subordinate clauses, relative subordinate clauses, and coordinated clauses. For the presence of each type of syntactic relationship, 1 point was awarded, with a maximum score of 4. In order to calculate inter-rater reliability, the formula proposed by Sackett (1978) was used (number of agreements divided by the number of agreements plus disagreements, x 100). The agreement was 90% for the substantive subordinate clauses, 100% for the adverbial subordinate clauses, 100% for the relative subordinate clauses, and 100% for the coordinated clauses. All disagreements were resolved by discussion.

Global Coherence

To assess the overall coherence of the compositions, the coding system proposed by Barnes and Baron-Cohen (2012) was followed. This system is specially addressed to capture how the story components are included. In this way, it can be identified if there is a cognitive style focused on details at the expense of globality, as the weak central coherence theory states. Thus, the texts were coded on a scale from 0 to 2 for each of the four different elements of the story: (1) setting (where the story takes place); (2) character (who the story is about); (3) conflict (what the story is about); and (4) resolution (how the story ends).

A score of 0 indicates that no information is provided about the element in question; a score of 1 indicates that the composition provides one or more details about the element, but the overall idea of the scene is not captured; and a score of 2 indicates that the narrative provides a well-founded and fully developed view of the corresponding element. With regard to the characters, a score of 0 is awarded if either of the story’s characters is not mentioned, and 1 point if the characters are mentioned, but without defining their relationship to each other or their role in the scene. For conflict, a score of 0 is assigned if the character’s desires or goals are not identified; a score of 1 if a character is defined as wanting something, but without mentioning an obstacle to that goal; and a score of 2 if both a goal and an obstacle to the character achieving that goal are established. Finally, in relation to the resolution component, 0 points are assigned when what happened at the end of the conflict is not mentioned; 1 point if an action that took place at the end of the scene is mentioned; and 2 points if an ending action is described and that action is linked to the overall theme of the scene.

According to the formula proposed by Sackett (1978) , the inter-rater reliability of these measures was as follows: in the case of the setting, 100% agreement was reached; for character, 100% agreement; for conflict, 97% agreement; and for resolution, 98% agreement. All disagreements were resolved by discussion.

Academic Results

Academic results were reported by parents and/or primary caregivers from the last math, language, and social science evaluation. The numerical range used in the Spanish educational system is from 0 to 10, where 0 is the minimum academic grade and 10 is the maximum.

Transition to Secondary Education

Parents filled out a questionnaire derived from a large scale, national transitions study, the Effective Preschool, Primary, and Secondary Education (EPPSE) transitions substudy ( Evangelou et al., 2008 ), used in Makin et al. (2017) to provide an index of “transition success.” Evangelou et al. (2008) defined “successful transition” as a multidimensional construct composed of five underlying factors: developing friendships and confidence, settling into school life, showing a growing interest in school and work, getting used to new routines, and experiencing curriculum continuity.

Parents had to answer six questions related to three of the five factors. Regarding the “developing friendships and confidence” dimension, parents were asked whether, compared to the last year in primary school, their child has more (3 points), the same number (2 points), or fewer (1 point) school friends, as well as more, the same, or less self-esteem, confidence, and motivation. The same scoring system was used in the “experiencing curriculum continuity” dimension, which was assessed by asking parents whether, compared to the last year in primary school, their child shows more, the same, or less interest in school and schoolwork. Regarding the adaptation to school life, parents were asked how they thought their child had settled in (very well, 4 points; quite well, 3 points; not very well, 2 points; and not well at all, 1 point). They were also asked how satisfied they were with the whole process of their child’s transition to secondary school (from very satisfied, 4 points and to not at all satisfied, 1 point), how they felt when their child first moved on to secondary school, and how they feel now (from not at all concerned, 4 points and to very concerned, 1 point). The index of internal consistency Cronbach’s alpha for this questionnaire in our sample is 0.91.

This research was performed in accordance with the ethical standards of the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Valencia, which is regulated by the Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects (Declaration of Helsinki 1964; World Medical Association General Assembly, 2013 ). Likewise, the authors received authorization from the Board of Education of the Valencian Government to access the schools and locate the participants.

The evaluation was carried out in the high schools where the adolescents were enrolled, in specially prepared spaces that met optimal conditions for psychoeducational assessment. The informed oral and written consent of the parents of all the participants was also obtained after informing them about the research proposal. The different measures were administered to all the adolescents individually by trained examiners. The parents (mostly mothers) provided information about the adolescent’s transition to secondary education, ASD symptoms, and socio-demographic data.

Data Analyses

This paper presents a descriptive cross-sectional study of comparison between a group of adolescents with ASD and a group of adolescents with typical development.

The statistical analyses were performed with the statistical program for the social sciences SPSS v 26.0 (SPSS). Preliminary analyses checked all data for multicollinearity and multivariate outliers. The asymmetry and kurtosis data indicate that most of the variables followed a normal distribution (all values between −1 and 1). Variables that did not show a normal distribution were transformed using square-root transformation (coherence setting and coherence character). To compare the reading/writing skill, academic results, and successful transition to secondary school of ASD-WID and TD, Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used. The data set was examined for violations of essential assumptions associated with the application of MANCOVA. Pearson correlations between all dependent variables pairs and dependent variable-covariate pairs suggested statistically significant linear relationships.

Adolescents’ IQ, vocabulary, and parents’ educational level were included as covariates due to its potential effect on reading and writing abilities and academic outcomes in general. Likewise, the differences between math, language, and social sciences academic outcomes were explored, as well as the differences regarding the transition to secondary education in adolescents with TD and with ASD-WID. Both academic outcomes and parents perceptions about the successful adaptation to secondary education form part of the academic curriculum, which encompasses different interrelated dimensions.

For the ANCOVAs, Bonferroni correction was applied to establish the significance level. The proportion of total variance accounted for by the independent variables was calculated using partial eta squared (according to Cohen (1988) : eta squared, 0.06 = small; 0.06–0.14 = medium; and 0.14 = large). To compare academic results and successful transition to secondary school of ASD-WID and TD, t -student was used. Moreover, two partial correlations, controlling for parents’ educational level and adolescents’ IQ and vocabulary, were conducted to examine the relationships between reading and writing skills and academic outcomes in both groups. Finally, multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to test the effect of reading and writing skills on the transition to secondary school and academic outcomes in adolescents with ASD-WID.

Differences in Reading and Writing Skills Between Adolescents With ASD-WID and Adolescents With TD

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different reading skill scores (accuracy, speed, reading comprehension, and reading comprehension related to mental flexibility), controlling for parents’ educational level, IQ, and vocabulary, was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.70, F 6,46 = 3.21, p = 0.01, η p 2 = 0.30 ]. Likewise, to calculate the additional ANCOVAs, a significance level of p < 0.008 was established, after applying the Bonferroni correction, and the value of η p 2 was calculated to check the strength of the association. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found on the reading comprehension “Mental flexibility” subtest (F 1,51 = 14.6; p < 0.01; η p 2 = 0.22 ). In addition, scores for accuracy (word reading), speed, and reading comprehension did not reach the required level of statistical significance between the group with TD and the group with ASD-ID ( Table 2 ).

Means, standard deviations (SD) of reading and writing skills, and statistically significant differences between ASD and TD adolescents.

P. (PROLEC), P. comprehension (PROLEC reading comprehension), P. Comprehension L. (PROLEC literal comprehension), P. Comprehension I (PROLEC inferential comprehension), RC. Flexibility (Reading Comprehension Mental flexibility), Syntactic C (Syntactic complexity), Coherence S (Setting), Coherence Ch (Character), Coherence C (Conflict), and Coherence R (Resolution) .

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different writing skill scores (productivity, syntactic complexity, and coherence), controlling for parents’ educational level, IQ, and vocabulary, was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.71, F 6,46 = 3.02, p = 0.014, η p 2 = 0.28 ]. Likewise, to calculate the additional ANCOVAs, a significance level of p < 0.008 was established, after applying the Bonferroni correction, and the value of η p 2 was calculated to check the strength of the association. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found in word productivity (F 1,51 = 7.78; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.23 ), Syntactic complexity (F 1,51 = 13.4; p = 0.001; η p 2 = 0.21 ), and Coherence (conflict resolution component; F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ; see Table 2 ).

Differences in Academic Outcomes and Transition to Secondary School Between Adolescents With ASD-WID and Adolescents With TD

The MANCOVA between the ASD-WID and TD groups with the different academic outcome scores (language, math, and social sciences) and the transition to the secondary stage was statistically significant [Wilks’ Lambda (Λ) = 0.71, F 6,46 = 3.02, p = 0.014, η p 2 = 0.28 ]. Statistically significant differences were found in language (F 1,51 = 7.78; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.23 ), mathematics (F 1,51 = 13.4; p = 0.001; η p 2 = 0.21 ), social sciences (F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ), and the index of successful transition to secondary education (F 1,51 = 7.63; p = 0.007; η p 2 = 0.13 ; see Table 3 ).

Means, standard deviations (SD) of academic results and successful transition to secondary, and statistically significant differences between ASD and TD adolescents.

Transition to SE (Transition to secondary education) .

Contribution of Reading and Writing Skills to the Academic Outcomes of Adolescents With ASD-ID and Adolescents With TD

Likewise, two partial correlations were performed, using the covariates of parents’ vocabulary, IQ, and educational level, to analyze the association between the reading and writing variables that showed significant differences between the ASD-WID and TD groups and the learning outcomes in the subjects of the Spanish language, mathematics, and social sciences in the ASD-WID and TD groups.

In the group of children with TD, significant positive correlations were observed between the reading comprehension score related to mental flexibility and the scores on language ( r = 0.45; p = 0.029), mathematics ( r = 0.56; p = 0.006), and social sciences ( r = 0.40; p = 0.050). Similarly, significant positive correlations were observed between the productivity subscale and the scores on language ( r = 0.51; p = 0.013) and mathematics ( r = 0.44; p = 0.035).

In the group of children with ASD-WID, significant positive correlations were observed between the reading comprehension score related to mental flexibility and the scores on language ( r = 0.37; p = 0.050) and mathematics ( r = 0.37; p = 0.050). Likewise, significant positive correlations were observed between the social sciences scores and productivity ( r = 0.46; p = 0.015), syntactic complexity ( r = 0.61; p < 0.001), and coherence ( r = 0.42; p = 0.029; see Table 4 ).

Partial correlations between reading/writing skill and academic outcomes.

RC. Flexibility (Reading Comprehension Cognitive flexibility), Syntactic C (Syntactic complexity), and Coherence R (Coherence resolution). * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01. Controlling for IQ, vocabulary, and parental education .

Finally, multiple regression analyses were carried out in each group in order to evaluate the contribution of reading comprehension related to mental flexibility and writing skills of productivity, syntactic complexity, and coherence to academic outcomes in the core subjects of language, mathematics, and social sciences (see Table 5 ). The regressions carried out with the TD group indicated that the predictors that explained the highest percentage of variance in Spanish language were reading comprehension related to mental flexibility, productivity, and coherence, explaining 51% of the total variance. As for the mathematics outcomes, the results showed that reading comprehension related to mental flexibility and productivity were the significant individual predictors, together explaining 55% of the variance. In social sciences, there were no significant individual or collective predictors.

Multiple regression analysis of reading and writing skills that predict academic outcomes in TD and ASD groups.

RC. Flexibility (Reading Comprehension Mental flexibility), Syntactic C (Syntactic complexity), and Coherence R (Coherence resolution) .

The regressions performed with the ASD-WID group indicated that, on the one hand, reading comprehension related to mental flexibility was the single most significant predictor of language and mathematics outcomes, explaining 31 and 24% of the variance, respectively. On the other hand, the predictors that explained the highest percentage of variance in social sciences were syntactic complexity and coherence, explaining 57% of the total variance.

The purpose of this study was to extend the knowledge about academic achievement in adolescents with ASD by addressing various objectives. First, this study analyzed differences in reading and writing performance between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD. In terms of reading, no significant differences were found between the two groups on measures of reading fluency (accuracy and speed), which is consistent with most of the research on the topic in languages with opaque orthographies, such as English ( Jones et al., 2009 ).

However, contrary to expectations, our study data failed to show significant differences between participants with ASD-WID and their peers with TD on either literal or inferential reading comprehension. These results contrast with what is commonly reported in the literature, which generally indicates lower reading comprehension competence in individuals with ASD (see meta-analysis by Brown et al., 2013 ). This discrepancy in the findings could be explained by different factors. Firstly, both groups were matched according to vocabulary knowledge which following the Simple View of Reading Model ( Hoover and Gough, 1990 ) is a fundamental factor for reading comprehension. Numerous investigations with children with ASD have exemplified the strong association between reading comprehension and language (see the meta-analysis by Brown et al., 2013 ), which emerges even as one of the strongest predictors of the reading comprehension abilities of these students ( Davidson et al., 2018 ). A second important factor is the type of texts employed in our study. We used two expository texts with little social content that do not require the student to display inferential skills related to Theory of Mind, which is clearly affected in ASD ( Bora and Pantelis, 2016 ). In other words, the reader would not have to apply skills that require taking the perspective of the characters, which, in contrast, would be necessary to understand narrative texts ( Dore et al., 2018 ). In fact, studies have shown that individuals with ASD are significantly worse at comprehending highly social texts than less social texts, such as those employed in this study ( Brown et al., 2013 ). Moreover, and in line with our results on inferential comprehension, experimental studies using eye-tracking techniques have shown that adolescents with ASD are capable of developing inferential comprehension skills that are activated automatically ( Saldaña and Frith, 2007 ; Micai et al., 2017 ), although they may have difficulties on tasks that require them to answer questions that rate this same process ( Tirado and Saldaña, 2016 ). Likewise, another explanation for our discordant results could be found in the composition of the sample, which might consist of students with ASD who have shown strengths in reading performance, both in decoding and comprehension. These profiles have been described in the literature as “skilled readers” ( Åsberg et al., 2019 ) or “average readers” ( McIntyre et al., 2017 ).

However, the results of our study allowed us to identify certain deficient reading comprehension processes in adolescents with ASD, specifically those that require the activation of cognitive flexibility skills and, in particular, metacognitive skills, such as explicitly describing the strategies used when summarizing, detecting the main idea, or giving a title to a text. Thus, significantly lower performance was observed on the reading-specific measure used in this study that requires cognitive flexibility. These results are congruent with the alterations in cognitive flexibility described in ASD. These disturbances have been considered one of its neuropsychological manifestations, although with mixed findings ( Leung and Zakzanis, 2014 ). These outcomes also coincide with the difficulties identified in students with ASD in adapting reading strategies to various reading materials and task demands ( Micai et al., 2019 ). A competent reader must be able to change strategies while reading a text and adapt them to the different objectives and/or requirements presented. Adequate mental flexibility ensures the reader’s active participation in the comprehension process, and its proper functioning facilitates independent learning, which has a great impact on academic performance. Thus, we can see the importance of mastering these processes involved in comprehension and the need to consider this specific area when designing reading intervention programs for individuals with ASD.

In terms of writing skills, as it was hypothesized, the data revealed significant differences between the group with ASD-WID and the group with TD on all the indicators analyzed as: productivity, syntactic diversity, and overall coherence (in the latter case, only in the resolution component). Adolescents with ASD wrote shorter texts with less varied syntactic structures, which is consistent with the results of the previous studies and reviews on the topic ( Dockrell et al., 2014 ; Finnegan and Accardo, 2018 ; Hilvert et al., 2019 ). Unexpectedly, both groups performed similarly on most of the variables used to assess overall coherence (setting, character, and conflict). However, significant differences could be identified in the resolution component; that is, the students with ASD failed to mention what happened at the end of the conflict presented in their stories. These difficulties may affect the overall coherence of the written composition, which is consistent with the tenets of the Weak Central Coherence Theory ( Happé and Frith, 2006 ). According to this theory, people with ASD tend to focus on local or marginal aspects of the information and fail to integrate them into meaningful global representations, in this case, by providing an ending related to the conflict narrated. This cognitive style has also been shown in different studies on written expression in ASD, both in children and adolescents ( Brown et al., 2014 ), as well as in the adult population ( Barnes and Baron-Cohen, 2012 ).

The second objective of this study was to analyze the differences in academic outcomes and the transition to secondary school between adolescents with ASD-WID and adolescents with TD. As it was expected, the results showed statistically significant differences in the academic grades reported by parents and teachers in the language arts, mathematics, and social science subjects, and in the families’ perceptions of the transition to high school. These findings reinforce the idea of a significant gap between cognitive ability and school performance, taking into account that the participants in our study did not present intellectual limitations. This means that students with ASD are not displaying their full academic potential, which is being undermined by various factors, including deficits in certain reading comprehension and written performance measures, as discussed below.

Furthermore, according to parents’ perceptions, a less successful transition process to high school and generally worse adaptation were observed in adolescents with ASD compared to their peers with TD. Families report fewer friends and lower self-esteem, confidence, and motivation. They are less satisfied with the transition process and are concerned about it. These results are consistent with the negative experiences described by parents of children with ASD in this period of educational change, referring to social isolation, bullying, and anxiety in their children ( Humphrey and Lewis, 2008 ). Families experience challenges and stress beyond what would typically be expected ( Dillon and Underwood, 2012 ; Mandy et al., 2016 ; Peters and Brooks, 2016 ). Therefore, as parents also point out, it is essential for secondary schools to understand the nature of autism and the impact it can have on the child and implement the assistance or support students need for a successful transition, optimal academic performance, and social adjustment ( Cremin et al., 2017 ; Tso and Strnadová, 2017 ).

Finally, the third objective of this study was to examine the contribution of reading and writing skills to the academic outcomes of adolescents with ASD-WID. As expected, a significant positive relationship was found (in both the ASD-WID and the TD groups) between the two variables being analyzed. Specifically, in the group with ASD-WID, significant positive associations were observed between the reading comprehension measure specifically tapping cognitive flexibility and the grades earned in the language and mathematics subjects. A similar relationship was found between the grades obtained in social sciences and the written expression indicators considered (productivity, syntactic diversity, and coherence). This association highlights the importance of instrumental skills, such as reading and writing, which have a clear influence on school performance. Specifically, on the one hand, our study data indicate that the reading comprehension task involving cognitive flexibility turned out to be the only significant predictor of the grades obtained in language and mathematics. On the other hand, the predictors that explained the highest percentage of social sciences grades were syntactic complexity and coherence.

The difficulties of these students exhibit in certain processes of reading comprehension and written expression have an impact on their academic outcomes, which should lead to designing interventions that fit their profile of strengths and weaknesses. Several research syntheses have supported the use of strategy instruction in the form of question generation, use of graphic organizers, or making predictions ( El Zein et al., 2014 ; Finnegan and Mazin, 2016 ). More recently, Singh et al. (2020) , in a systematic review of case studies, analyzed the effectiveness of a series of instructional procedures that contributed to improving the reading comprehension performance of students with ASD. They highlighted the use of comprehension-enhancing supports in the form of graphic organizers or visual diagrams, metacognitive strategies, collaborative strategies, such as peer tutoring, and computer-assisted instruction. In terms of writing skills, a recent research synthesis carried out by Accardo et al. (2020) identified several effective instructional practices: self-regulated strategy development, sentence frames, video modeling, Handwriting Without Tears®, and analytic task instruction with systematic prompting and graphic organizers. Some of the variables that improved with the application of these techniques were the number of elements in the text structure and the number of words and sentences. It should be noted that, as in the reading comprehension intervention, the studies reviewed were single case studies, and so research using experimental or quasi-experimental group designs is necessary in order to improve the levels of scientific evidence currently available. Apart from these teaching strategies, education professionals may also consider to adjust the assessment criteria or the mode of assessment for adolescents with ASD.

Likewise, parents’ perspectives on the transition process to secondary school suggest the need for tailored assistance at the time of the student’s move to secondary school. In this regard, Peters and Brooks (2016) show that parents describe a more positive transition when both pre-transition support and ongoing support in the learning and social environments of secondary school are implemented. To this end, a better understanding of the difficulties and strengths of students with ASD in this educational stage, their particular style of processing information, and their strengths and weaknesses in reading and writing skills are essential, due to their strong impact on academic performance.

Limitations

Despite the contributions of these findings, our research has several limitations. First, the relatively small sample size may be hiding some possible significant relationships between the study variables and limiting the possibility to detect small effects. One second limitation, which leads the results to be interpreted with caution, is related to the moderate values of reliability coefficients of the administrated tests. Therefore, future studies should increase the number of participants on a randomized sampling basis and include, apart from psychometric tests, other reading comprehension tasks. The information from criterion-referenced measures could help to design more accurate intervention programs for students with ASD-WID. Third, the mid-range cognitive ability and the gender of the participants with ASD, mostly male, are factors that should be considered, as they may influence the results and affect their generalization to girls or to individuals with ASD with other cognitive levels. In addition, the writing skills of adolescents with ASD were only assessed on a narrative text, and it would have been appropriate to expand the information to persuasive and expository genres. Furthermore, the indicator used to reflect the academic results was the qualification marks of the last evaluation, which may not be representative of the whole academic level of achievement. Finally, our study has a cross-sectional design, and future research should analyze developmental variations in the writing and reading profiles of individuals with ASD.

This research provides an overview of the school performance of adolescents with ASD and the factors involved in it. The results show that adolescents with ASD have strengths in reading-decoding mechanisms, but their performance on reading comprehension processes involving aspects of mental flexibility and writing skills continues to be significantly below expectations. Both deficits contribute significantly to their academic achievement, which is also below that of their peers with TD and what would be expected based on their intellectual capacity, at a medium range in this study. In any case, academic difficulties should be taken into account when analyzing the parents’ opinions in the transition period to secondary school because parents of students with ASD-WID report a more difficult adaptation process compared to students with TD. Consequently, education professionals face the challenge of adapting their teaching style and employing evidence-based teaching strategies that address students’ different needs while enhancing their capabilities. This may be a promising avenue for reducing the gap between the potential and current academic performance of students with ASD.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the University of Valencia. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

IB, AM, BR, and CB contributed to the design of the work and wrote the manuscript. CB was responsible for the analysis and interpretation of data for the study. BR was responsible for the literature search and assessment of the participants. All authors participated in data interpretation and draft the manuscript and approved the version to be submitted.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the adolescents, parents, and teachers who participated in this study.

Funding. This research was financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (PSI2016-78109; AEI/FEDER, UE) and by the Generalitat Valenciana (grant no. GV/2020/C/005). The funding body had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing of the report or the decision to submit the paper for publication.

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Essential Accommodations for Students with Autism

Discover essential accommodations for students with autism, ensuring inclusive education for all. Explore effective strategies and support areas.

By Brighter Strides ABA

May 1, 2024

Understanding Accommodations for Students

In order to create an inclusive learning environment for students with autism, it is crucial to understand the unique challenges they face and the accommodations that can support their success.

Challenges Faced by Students with Autism

Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may encounter various challenges in the classroom. Some of these challenges, as outlined by the University of Washington, include:

• Difficulties with social interactions : Students with ASD may struggle with understanding social cues, initiating conversations, and maintaining appropriate eye contact, which can impact their ability to form relationships with peers and teachers.
• Sensory sensitivities : Many students with ASD experience heightened sensitivity to sensory stimuli, such as noise, bright lights, and certain textures. These sensitivities can lead to discomfort and distraction in the classroom.
• Changes in routines : Students with ASD often rely on predictable routines and may become anxious or overwhelmed when faced with unexpected changes. Transitions between activities can be particularly challenging.
• Fine motor skills and organization : Some students with ASD may have difficulty using pencils and paper for writing. They may also struggle with organizational skills , making it hard to keep track of assignments and materials.

Recognizing and understanding these challenges is essential for educators to provide appropriate accommodations and support to students with autism.

Federal Laws and Evidence-Based Practices

Federal laws mandate that educators use evidence-based practices when working with students with autism. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA '04) require educators to implement evidence-based strategies to improve outcomes for students with autism .

To support educators in implementing evidence-based practices, the National Professional Development Center (NPDC) on Autism Spectrum Disorder has identified 27 evidence-based practices. These practices are backed by research and have been shown to be effective in improving outcomes for students with autism.

By adhering to federal laws and utilizing evidence-based practices, educators can ensure that students with autism receive the accommodations and support they need to thrive in the classroom. This includes implementing targeted strategies, collecting baseline data, and including goals in individualized education programs (IEPs) or individualized family service plans (IFSPs).

Implementing Accommodations

To effectively support students with autism, implementing appropriate accommodations is essential. This section will explore the key steps involved in implementing accommodations, including defining the target behavior, collecting baseline data, and ensuring inclusion in individualized plans.

Defining Target Behavior

Before implementing accommodations, educators and practitioners should clearly define the target behavior they want to address in students with autism. This involves describing the behavior in an observable, measurable, and defined manner. By specifying the behavior, educators can focus on addressing specific needs and tailor accommodations accordingly.

For example, if a student with autism struggles with transitions between activities, the target behavior might be defined as "successfully transitioning from one activity to another without exhibiting disruptive or anxious behaviors." This clear definition provides a framework for developing appropriate accommodations.

Collecting Baseline Data

Baseline data collection is an important step in implementing accommodations for students with autism. This involves gathering information on the student's current behavior before introducing any new strategies or interventions. Baseline data serves as a reference point to measure the effectiveness of the accommodations and track progress over time.

Educators can collect baseline data by observing and recording the target behavior during specific time periods or activities. This data helps to establish a baseline level of the behavior and provides a basis for comparison when evaluating the impact of accommodations.

Inclusion in Individualized Plans

Once the target behavior has been defined and baseline data collected, it is crucial to include the accommodations in the student's individualized education program (IEP) or individualized family service plan (IFSP). These plans outline the specialized supports and services required to meet the unique needs of students with autism.

In Maryland, accommodations for students with an IEP are documented in Section III of the IEP under Special Considerations and Accommodations, ensuring that the necessary support is provided for students to receive a free and appropriate public education. Similarly, students eligible for accommodations under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act should receive a 504 Accommodation Plan from their school. By documenting the accommodations in these individualized plans, it ensures that they are recognized and implemented consistently.

By following these steps, educators can effectively implement accommodations for students with autism, providing the necessary supports to foster their academic success and overall well-being. The process of defining the target behavior, collecting baseline data, and including accommodations in individualized plans ensures a systematic approach to meeting the unique needs of students with autism.

Factors Influencing Accommodations

When it comes to providing accommodations for students with autism, various factors play a role in determining the effectiveness and success of these accommodations. Two significant factors that influence the implementation of accommodations are teacher willingness and confidence, as well as institutional support and experience.

Teacher Willingness and Confidence

According to a study cited in ScienceDirect, teachers generally exhibit a high willingness to provide accommodations for students with autism. However, they may have limited confidence in their self-efficacy to effectively teach these students.

It is crucial for teachers to have a positive attitude and willingness to adapt their teaching methods and strategies to meet the diverse needs of students with autism . However, building confidence in providing accommodations requires ongoing professional development, training, and support. This can help teachers gain the necessary knowledge and skills to address the specific challenges faced by students with autism.

Institutional Support and Experience

Institutional support plays a vital role in influencing teachers' self-efficacy and willingness to provide accommodations for students with autism. Teachers who receive higher levels of institutional support tend to have higher self-efficacy and are more willing to accommodate the needs of students with autism.

Moreover, teachers with experience teaching students with autism and being female tend to have higher self-efficacy in teaching students with autism. This suggests that experience and exposure to working with students on the autism spectrum can enhance teachers' confidence in effectively meeting their needs .

To further support teachers, institutions should prioritize professional development programs that focus on autism education and provide resources, guidance, and opportunities for collaboration. By fostering a supportive environment, institutions can empower teachers to better understand and address the unique needs of students with autism.

By addressing the factors of teacher willingness, confidence, institutional support, and experience, educational institutions can create an environment where accommodations for students with autism are effectively implemented. It is crucial to recognize the importance of ongoing professional development and support for teachers to ensure the successful inclusion and education of students with autism.

Effective Strategies for Accommodations

When it comes to providing accommodations for students with autism, there are certain strategies that have been found to be effective in supporting their learning and development. In this section, we will explore two key strategies: online interventions for teachers and the impact of high willingness versus limited confidence.

Online Interventions for Teachers

Online interventions can play a significant role in increasing teachers' knowledge and understanding of students with autism. Specifically, interventions that provide insights into the experiences of individuals with autism have shown promising results in enhancing teachers' self-efficacy to teach students with autism [3].

By immersing teachers in a simulated online experience that reflects the challenges and strengths of individuals with autism, these interventions help to bridge the gap between teachers' prior knowledge and the unique needs of their students. This increased understanding can lead to greater confidence in implementing accommodations and supporting the success of students with autism.

High Willingness vs. Limited Confidence

Research has shown that teachers often demonstrate a high willingness to provide accommodations for students with autism. However, they may also experience limited confidence in their self-efficacy to effectively teach these students. This disconnect between willingness and confidence highlights the importance of targeted support and professional development opportunities for teachers.

Receiving higher institutional support has been identified as a predictor of higher self-efficacy and willingness to provide accommodations for students with autism. This support can come in the form of resources, training programs, and collaboration with specialists or support staff. Additionally, teachers with experience teaching students with autism and being female have shown higher self-efficacy in teaching students with autism.

To bridge the gap between willingness and confidence, it is crucial for educational institutions to provide ongoing professional development opportunities that address the specific needs of students with autism. This can include training on evidence-based practices, strategies for creating inclusive classrooms, and collaboration with special education professionals. By empowering teachers with the knowledge and support they need, they can confidently implement accommodations and create a positive learning environment for students with autism.

Understanding effective strategies, such as online interventions for teachers and the importance of addressing willingness and confidence, can contribute to the successful implementation of accommodations for students with autism. By providing teachers with the necessary tools, resources, and support, we can create an inclusive educational experience that meets the unique needs of every student.

Helpful Accommodations for Students

When it comes to providing accommodations for students with autism, it is important to recognize that individual needs and determination play a crucial role. Accommodations are driven by the unique requirements of each student and are determined by the Individualized Education Program (IEP) team, with input from the student whenever possible.

Individual Needs and Determination

To ensure that accommodations are effective, it is essential to consider the specific needs of each student. This involves gathering information about the student's strengths, challenges, and preferences. By understanding the individual characteristics of the student, educators and support teams can identify accommodations that will best support their learning and overall well-being.

It is also important to involve the student in the accommodation planning process. By seeking their input and listening to their perspectives, educators can gain valuable insights into their needs and preferences. This collaborative approach empowers the student, promotes self-advocacy, and helps create a supportive and inclusive learning environment.

Support Areas and Accommodations

Accommodations for students with autism can encompass various areas of support to address their specific challenges and optimize their learning experience. Some helpful accommodations may include:

• Sensory processing support : Providing a sensory-friendly environment, such as reducing noise levels or providing sensory breaks, can help students with autism manage sensory sensitivities.
• Behavioral interventions : Implementing strategies like visual schedules, social stories, and positive reinforcement systems can assist students in understanding expectations and managing behaviors effectively.
• Comprehension aids : Using visual aids, graphic organizers, and simplified language can aid in enhancing comprehension and promoting understanding of academic material.
• Reading and writing assistance : Offering additional time for reading and writing tasks, providing assistive technology tools, or utilizing alternative formats can support students with autism in their literacy skills.
• Executive functioning support : Teaching organizational and time management skills, breaking tasks into smaller steps, and providing visual reminders can help students with executive functioning difficulties stay organized and focused.
• Social interaction guidance : Implementing social skills instruction, peer mentoring, and structured social opportunities can assist students in developing and maintaining positive social interactions.
• Assistance with emotional regulation : Providing a calm and safe space, teaching coping strategies, and implementing mindfulness techniques can support students in managing their emotions and reducing anxiety.

These accommodations are just a few examples of the support that can be tailored to meet the specific needs of students with autism. The IEP team, which includes educators, parents, and relevant professionals, collaborates to determine the most effective accommodations for each student.

Differentiating accommodations from modifications is essential. While accommodations ensure students with autism have the necessary support to achieve the same level of mastery as their peers without special support, modifications involve changes to what a student is taught or the knowledge they are expected to demonstrate. Documenting accommodations in the IEP is crucial in ensuring that students receive the appropriate support for their education. Accommodations for students with an IEP in Maryland are documented in Section III of the IEP under Special Considerations and Accommodations.

Accommodations vs. Modifications

When it comes to supporting students with autism, it's important to understand the distinction between accommodations and modifications. While both aim to meet the unique needs of students, they differ in their approach and goals.

Differentiating Changes

Modifications involve changes to what a student is taught or the knowledge they are expected to demonstrate. This can impact the ability of the student to master grade-level content. In contrast, accommodations are designed to ensure that students with disabilities achieve the same level of mastery as their peers without special support. Accommodations aim to minimize or eliminate the effects of the student's disability and level the playing field, rather than changing the content itself.

For example, a modification might involve adjusting the curriculum or reducing the academic expectations for a student with autism. This could mean providing simplified assignments or altering the grading criteria. Modifications are typically made when the student requires a different set of learning objectives due to their disability.

On the other hand, accommodations focus on providing support and adjustments that enable students to access the same curriculum as their peers. Accommodations may include changes in timing, formatting, setting, scheduling, response, and presentation of tests and assignments. The goal is to ensure that students with autism can complete the same tasks and assessments as their non-disabled peers.

Documenting Accommodations in IEPs

Accommodations for students with autism are typically documented in an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or a 504 plan. In Maryland, for example, accommodations for students with an IEP are detailed in Section III of the IEP under Special Considerations and Accommodations. This section outlines the necessary support for the student to receive a free and appropriate public education.

When determining the appropriate accommodations, it is crucial to involve the student in the discussion. The student's input and perspective are invaluable in identifying which accommodations would be most helpful for their learning and overall well-being. By taking the student's preferences and needs into consideration, the accommodations can be tailored to address their specific challenges and promote their success in the classroom.

Differentiating accommodations from modifications is essential for ensuring that students with autism receive the appropriate support to thrive academically. By utilizing accommodations, educators can create an inclusive learning environment that allows students with autism to reach their full potential.

• ‍ https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/asd2/cresource/q1/p02/
• ‍ https://xminds.org/accommodations
• ‍ https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0742051X24000209

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Writing Interventions for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 12 December 2019
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Amy Accardo 2 &
• S. Jay Kuder 2  

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Writing is a means to communicate and express ideas, thoughts, feelings, and information. Writing interventions refer to effective and evidence-based instructional practices used to support individuals in developing varied elements of writing including but not limited to letter formation, handwriting, length of writing, sentence structure, and quality of writing. Writing interventions often target specific genres of writing including but not limited to descriptive writing, expository writing, narrative writing, and persuasive writing.

Historical Background

The topic of writing interventions and students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was not widely considered prior to the twenty-first century. Preceding the enactment of legislation in the 1970s, students with disabilities were denied access to general education. In 1973, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act was signed, mandating the inclusion of individuals with disabilities in all programs that receive federal...

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Accardo, A., Kuder, S.J. (2020). Writing Interventions for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: Volkmar, F. (eds) Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102456-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6435-8_102456-1

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What are accommodations?

Accommodations allow disabled students to complete the same tests and assignments as their nondisabled peers, but with changes in timing, formatting, setting, scheduling, response, and/or presentation. Students receiving accommodations are still expected to demonstrate the same level of mastery over the same content as their nondisabled peers. Accommodations are intended to minimize or even eliminate the effects of the student’s disability. In essence, they level the playing field so a disabled student is given equal footing with nondisabled peers.

Who is eligible to receive accommodations?

Accommodations are available to a student who has an Individualized Education Program (IEP) or a 504 plan. Accommodations are driven by the individual needs of a student and are determined by the IEP team. Whenever possible, it is important to ask the student which accommodations would be helpful, and to include them in the discussion. 

What are some accommodations that have been helpful to autistic students?

Sensory processing.

• Provide sensory strategies (to help student maintain appropriate level of arousal) 
• Kinesthetic seating (seating arrangements that allow students to have their movement needs met, such as wobble chairs)
• Opportunities for movement breaks (which could be provided through meaningful tasks such as taking documents/messages, etc. from the classroom to another location in the school, such as the principal’s office)
• Organic opportunities for heavy work (i.e., assign child classroom jobs such as moving the Chromebook charging cart, carrying the basket of classmates’ lunches to the cafeteria at lunch, etc.)
• Provide student with fidgets/chewing gum/other aid to meet sensory needs
• Noise-cancelling headphones
• Access to a calming corner or similar location 

Behavioral Supports

• Visual supports (words, pictures, etc.) to make rules explicit
• Daily visual reinforcement program (such as Zones of Regulation ) for self-monitoring (for example, student colors in sections on their daily schedule/behavior contract with the color of the “zone” they were in during that time period)
• Provide immediate and frequent feedback (in whatever mode of communication works for the student)
• Token board/token economy, in which students earn tokens, such as stickers, bingo chips, or pictures to attach to a board. Once they've earned the required amount of tokens, they can trade them in for a reward. 
• First/Then visual (picture of task student is expected to finish coupled with a picture of preferred activity earned for task completion)
• Menu of coping strategies (visual depicting strategies student can choose to help them cope with a situation)
• Prompt hierarchy (emphasizing visual and gestural prompts rather than verbal), a method of fading prompts along the continuum, either from most-to-least or least-to-most.
• Advance preparation for schedule changes
• Visual timer

Comprehension

• Pictures/visuals paired with reading passages
• Previewing of vocabulary or concepts
• Multisensory instruction, such as providing manipulatives to reinforce math concepts
• Check for understanding

Reading and Written Expression

• Human reader
• Audio materials (such as text-to-speech or audiobooks)
• Word processor (to replace need for handwriting)
• Speech-to-text software
• Word prediction software
• Scribe (someone who writes exactly what the student dictates)
• Graphic organizer
• Opportunities for oral rehearsal (talking through answers before writing them down)
• Editing checklist (list of items to check when editing an assignment to help students revise their work)
• Word bank (list of vocabulary terms that a student can use in a writing assignment)
• Sentence starters

Executive Functioning (Attention, Organization, Work/Study Skills)

• Have student paraphrase directions
• Provide task-analysis for multi-step tasks
• Break down assignments into smaller units
• Provide copies of teacher notes and outlines
• Visual/picture schedule
• Visual supports for daily routines
• Monitor use of agenda book or digital application for tracking assignments (for secondary students)
• Provide structured time for organization of materials
• Preferential seating (near point of instruction/away from distractions/near model peer)
• Provide manipulatives and/or sensory activities to promote listening and focus
• Rubrics or exemplars (to demonstrate assignment expectations)
• Strategies to initiate and sustain attention
• Checklists for task/routine completion
• Monitor independent work (to make sure that student is on task, keeping up with peers, not getting stuck, etc.)
• Extra time on tests and assignments
• Frequent breaks

Social Interaction

• Peer buddy system (match elementary school student with nondisabled peers for portions of unstructured times such as recess, lunch, etc.)
• Social skills instruction (how this is implemented will depend on the student’s particular academic setting. Ideally, social skills instruction should be provided by a special education teacher, but sometimes school counselors and/or psychologists also provide this service. Social skills may be taught individually or in a group setting, depending on the school and the student.)
• Social stories (usually for elementary school students; these are typically written by special education teachers or psychologists, ideally with input from the student)
• Adult facilitation of peer interactions during structured and/or unstructured activities (elementary school, possibly middle school)
• Thoughtful peer grouping for collaborative/group work (elementary and middle school)
• Assigned role in collaborative/group work (elementary and middle school)

Emotional and Self-Regulation

• “Flash pass” or break card to request break (student may initially need instruction in how to use this accommodation)
• Access to a trusted adult for processing of emotions/problem-solving
• Access to a designated quiet/safe space (either in classroom or school building)
• Reduced number of problems for homework/classwork (allow student to demonstrate concept mastery without requiring repetition of the same type of problem)
• Allow access to snacks (if that is something from which your child would benefit)

Where can I find out more about accommodations?

You can find a list of many standard accommodations on pages 19–28 of this sample Maryland IEP .  The examples listed in the Maryland IEP are meant to be representative and not exhaustive. Your child’s IEP team may develop other accommodations to meet the unique needs of your child. For more information on accommodations, see the " Maryland Assessment, Accessibility, & Accommodations Policy Manual.”

Are modifications the same as accommodations?

Modifications are not the same as accommodations. Modifications change what a student is taught or what knowledge a student is expected to demonstrate. In contrast, accommodations are designed simply to level the playing field -- meaning that accommodations enable students receiving special education to achieve the same level of mastery as students without that support. Students receiving special education through an IEP are eligible for accommodations and modifications. A 504 plan offers only accommodations, not modifications.

Some minor modifications  —  such as reducing the number of questions on homework assignments, or breaking assignments into smaller units  —  may not impact a student’s ability to master grade-level content. More significant modifications may alter what a student is expected to learn, which may mean that your child will not receive credit toward a high school diploma. Significant modifications could include modified content, modified grading systems, and modified assessments, such as open-book exams or substituting multiple choice tests for fill-in-the-blank ones. Situations differ, so check with your IEP team about the impact of any modifications.

Where will my child’s accommodations and/or modifications be documented?

Students who are found eligible for accommodations under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act should receive a 504 Accommodation Plan from their school. The 504 plan outlines the accommodations that the student will need in order to receive a “free and appropriate public education." You can learn more about how MCPS implements 504 plans here .

If your child receives special education through an IEP in Maryland , their accommodations and modifications will be documented in Section III of the IEP: Special Considerations and Accommodations.

What are related services?

Students with an IEP may also receive "related services" in addition to accommodations. These services might include counseling services, occupational therapy, physical therapy, and speech/language therapy. For a list of related services, see page 32 of this sample IEP.   A 504 plan  does not offer related services.  Read more about related services on our  Related Services  page.

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Accommodations at School

• By: Yvona Fast, MLS GRASP
• January 1st, 2013
• accommodation , actually autistic , school
• 1812    1

Individuals on the spectrum often need special accommodations at school. There are many lists of possible accommodations for students on the autism spectrum. So much depends on how challenged the […]

Individuals on the spectrum often need special accommodations at school. There are many lists of possible accommodations for students on the autism spectrum. So much depends on how challenged the individual is, and in what areas the challenges present themselves. Ask, what are the barriers to your child’s fulfilling his or her potential? Then work with the school to provide the modification or accommodation that addresses that barrier.

There are lists of accommodations online and many books are available. Both Pam Tanguay’s Nonverbal Learning Disabilities at School: Educating Students with NLD, Asperger Syndrome and Related Conditions and Kathryn Stewart’s Helping a Child with Nonverbal Learning Disorder or Asperger’s Syndrome: A Parent’s Guide have lists of helpful accommodations.

No single child will need all of the accommodations, but as you read through them, you will probably find some that fit your son or daughter. Bring lists of possible accommodations to your child’s IEP Team meeting to discuss with the teachers and professionals who are working with your child at school. Most teachers will appreciate suggestions for what you think might work well for your child.

For all children on the spectrum, one key to success is an accepting, non-competitive, supportive environment.

All teachers should have a written document explaining a little about how the child works best, and outlining agreed upon accommodations.

Parents should obtain a copy of all the school’s policies – usually there is some kind of handbook. Many schools have strict policies on certain things – like making up exams – on which they won’t bend, even for a child receiving accommodations. If you are familiar with the policies you can be proactive.

Preferential Seating – This means sitting in a spot that will reduce distractions. Some students work best in their own cubicle. For others, a good spot is in the front of the room. For others still, the ideal spot might be along the perimeters of the room with an empty seat next to him. This may also apply to taking tests in a smaller, quieter setting.

Social Skills Training – This is a special class in relating to others, often taught by a Speech Language Pathologist trained in pragmatics. This can help students express their thoughts clearly and learn skills like participating in a group discussion or conversation. One problem many spectrum folk have is knowing how to “jump in” to a conversation. They either jump in inappropriately and thus are perceived as rude, or say little and are then seen as being shy and quiet.

Study Skills/Organizational Skills Training – This special class can help individuals with executive function issues learn different ways to study, to be organized, how to keep an agenda up-to-date with assignments, made sure the student understood the assigned homework, etc. It can help the student discover what works organizationally, and will be invaluable for things like term papers and research projects.

Assistive Technology – Use of computers, tablets, and smartphones can be invaluable assets for organization, being able to read one’s notes, etc. Many applications can be co-opted to help students with autism to thrive at school. Even the clock and to-do list functions that come standard with most smart phones can be an invaluable tool. For example, they can be used to help a student remember the steps needed for a project or task. For example, Apple’s iPod Touch can be programmed by an occupational therapist to guide a student through the day, providing specific instructions that can be referenced when he or she forgets what to do or how to do something. It can also help with switching to different tasks for people who tend to perseverate on one thing.

Here are some examples of how assistive technology can be used:

• Smart phone or palm pilot and software to coordinate with a laptop.
• Digital recorder with zoom microphone to record lectures and the software that will allow a computer to transcribe the lectures.
• Talk-to-type voice recognition software.
• Inspiration or a similar program to help with the organization of papers.
• Franklin lexigraphic tool for university/grad level vocabulary

Taking Notes – Keyboarding instead of handwriting can be a simple but important accommodation for individuals on the spectrum with motor coordination issues. Other possibilities are getting notes from another student or getting outlines or notes from the teacher.

Instructions should be direct and explicit, with the information broken down into smaller segments. This is because many spectrum students are very literal and may not follow metaphors and similes. Repeat, rephrase and clarify directions and information to ensure understanding. Encourage the student to restate instructions to check for understanding.

An extra set of textbooks kept at home can be invaluable for students with organizational issues who often forget to bring work home.

Large projects can be daunting for some students. A student who is stuck and unable to start a project may need help in breaking the complex task down into its individual parts. Write these steps down for next time. It helps to have the directions written down and spelled out to refer to. Help students think of one thing to begin a large task. Don’t worry whether it should be the first step, middle step, or last step.

Monitoring – In the lunchroom and at recess, spectrum students need unobtrusive monitoring to make sure they aren’t bullied. Students on the spectrum are often easy targets for bullies, because of differences in perception, odd behavior, taking things too literally, and gullibility.

Many people worry that accommodations in school will not prepare the child for an independent life as an adult. But this should not be a problem if we consider the following when choosing accommodations for the student: Will this skill be important in adult life? Will it adversely affect adult functioning? Is it limited to the educational environment? For example, cursive writing is not really necessary in our computer age, and people with fine motor coordination issues can have problems with this all their lives.

If the skill that is being accommodated is something that will be needed in the future, does the student need special instruction in this area? For example, many individuals on the spectrum need training in social skills, reading body language, or having a conversation – things that neurotypical kids pick up intuitively. If this is a temporary, short-term accommodation while the student masters a more functional strategy, a periodic review is needed to determine whether he still needs the accommodation, or whether it is time to modify or drop it.

Many autistic spectrum kids will eventually develop skills needed to function independently in the adult world. But some children may never be able to live completely independently, and may need to live with family, in a group home or have outside supports. Others will be pretty functional, but still need a family member or other “designated person” to give advice and lend a helping hand from time to time.

Yvona Fast is the author of a career guide for individuals with ASD. Employment for Individuals with Asperger Syndrome or Nonverbal Learning Disability was published by Jessica Kingsley Publishers in 2004. Her website, www.wordsaremyworld.com , has more information. She also works as Support Groups Manager for GRASP (the Global Regional Asperger Syndrome Partnership).

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Understanding Autism and Employment Accommodations

Explore autism and employment accommodations, creating inclusive workspaces for your child's future.

Understanding Autism and Employment

Navigating employment can be challenging for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It's vital to understand the nature of ASD and how it may impact one's work experience to create inclusive workspaces.

Autism Spectrum Disorder Explained

Autism Spectrum Disorder, known commonly as autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by difficulties with social interaction, communication, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests. The "spectrum" refers to the wide range of symptoms, skills, and levels of disability that individuals with ASD may exhibit.

ASD affects people in different ways. Some individuals may require significant support in their daily lives, while others may need less assistance and, in some cases, live entirely independently. Additionally, individuals with autism often have unique abilities and strengths, which may include strong visual skills, long-term memory, ability to understand complex systems, and intense concentration.

Autism in the Workplace

For individuals with autism, the workplace can present specific challenges. These may include difficulties with social communication and interaction, sensitivity to sensory stimuli, and a need for routine and structure. However, with the right supports and accommodations, individuals with autism can thrive in a work environment.

Employment accommodations for autistic employees can take many forms, from modifications to physical workspaces to adjustments in work schedules or supervisory methods. By making these accommodations, employers can create an inclusive environment that enables autistic employees to perform their duties effectively and contribute to the workplace.

Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, Title I), employers are required to make reasonable accommodations for employees with a disability, including autism, as long as the accommodation does not pose an "undue hardship" to the employer. These accommodations may include modifications to work schedules or policies, physical changes to the workspace, the provision of specialized equipment or devices, job restructuring, adjustment of supervisory methods, and job coaching [1].

When seeking accommodations, it's important for the employee to communicate their needs with the employer. This communication can be a collaborative process, with both parties working together to develop effective accommodations. Although this requires some level of disclosure about the disability, the employee does not need to disclose specific disability-related details. The focus should be on the accommodation needed to perform job tasks effectively.

Understanding autism and how it affects employment is the first step in creating inclusive workplaces. By acknowledging the unique strengths and challenges of employees with autism and making appropriate accommodations, employers can foster a diverse and inclusive work environment.

Legal Aspects of Autism and Employment

Understanding the legal aspects of autism and employment is crucial for creating a supportive and inclusive workplace. In this section, we will explore the role of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in employment, and the importance of disclosing autism at work.

The Role of ADA in Employment

Under the employment aspects of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, Title I), employers are legally required to make reasonable accommodations for an employee with a disability, as long as the accommodation does not pose an "undue hardship" to the employer [1]. Factors considered under hardship include maintaining performance standards and essential job functions.

Moreover, the ADA emphasizes the legal obligation to support individuals with disabilities, including Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), in the workplace. Employers are required to provide reasonable accommodations for employees with ASD to perform essential job functions [2].

Providing reasonable accommodations for employees with Autism Spectrum Disorder is not just a legal requirement but also a best practice that can improve the company's culture and the experience for all employees.

Disclosure of Autism at Work

When it comes to autism and employment accommodations, disclosure plays a significant role. An employee can request an accommodation at any time, and if additional arrangements are needed, it is the worker's responsibility to approach the employer [1].

This action requires some level of disclosure concerning disability. While disclosing a diagnosis of autism can be a personal and difficult decision, it allows employees to request and receive the accommodations that can help them perform their job effectively.

In summary, understanding the legal aspects of autism in the workplace is crucial for both employers and employees. The ADA provides protections and requires reasonable accommodations for employees with autism, while disclosure allows these accommodations to be made. Understanding these aspects can help create a more inclusive and supportive workplace.

Necessity of Accommodations for Autistic Employees

When discussing autism and employment accommodations, it's essential to understand the nature and importance of reasonable accommodations in the workplace. These accommodations are adjustments or modifications provided by an employer to enable employees with disabilities to enjoy equal employment opportunities.

What Constitutes a Reasonable Accommodation

Under the employment aspects of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, Title I), employers are required to make reasonable accommodations for an employee with a disability, including Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), as long as the accommodation does not pose an "undue hardship" to the employer.

According to AbsenceSoft , the ADA requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations for employees with ASD to perform essential job functions, emphasizing the legal obligation to support individuals with disabilities in the workplace.

The interactive process called for by the ADA involves collaborative communication between the employee and employer to develop accommodations. This process allows for a wide variety of needs to be met, often at low cost.

Examples of Workplace Accommodations

Accommodations in the workplace can take various forms depending on the specific needs of the individual with ASD. As per the Autism Research Institute , these can include:

• Modification of work schedule or policy
• Physical changes to workspace
• Provision of equipment and assistive devices
• Job restructuring
• Adjustment of supervisory methods
• Job coaching

Importantly, many of these accommodations are extremely affordable and can easily be modified and customized to each individual, promoting inclusivity and support for neurodiverse employees [2].

Understanding and implementing these accommodations is a crucial step towards creating an inclusive and supportive workplace for employees with ASD. By fostering an environment that recognizes and respects neurodiversity, employers can optimize the productivity and well-being of all employees.

Requesting Accommodations in the Workplace

When it comes to autism and employment accommodations, employers are required by the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, Title I) to make reasonable accommodations for an employee with a disability. However, the accommodation should not pose an "undue hardship" to the employer [1].

Process of Requesting Accommodations

An employee can request an accommodation at any time. If additional arrangements are needed, it is the worker's responsibility to approach the employer, which requires some level of disclosure concerning disability [1].

When making an accommodation request, it is recommended to use plain English and provide a reason related to a medical condition. There is no need to disclose specific disability-related details.

The interactive process called for by the ADA involves collaborative communication between the employee and employer to develop accommodations. There are options available to accommodate a wide variety of needs, often at low cost [1].

Navigating a Denied Request

If an accommodation request is denied, employees have several options. They can appeal the decision by providing additional information, suggesting alternatives, filing a grievance with their union, or filing a complaint with the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC) or their state’s enforcing agency.

The EEOC is responsible for enforcing the employment provisions of the ADA. Therefore, if an employer denies a request for an accommodation, the employee has the right to seek assistance from this agency.

In conclusion, requesting accommodations in the workplace is a crucial aspect of autism and employment accommodations. It's an essential step that provides employees with a disability the opportunity to perform their job duties effectively. It's also a legal right protected by the ADA, and employees should not hesitate to make such requests when necessary.

Advantages of Hiring Autistic Employees

The benefits of hiring autistic employees are numerous. They exhibit unique skills and have the potential to significantly contribute to their workplaces. Understanding the value that individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) bring to a workplace is key for creating an inclusive and diverse working environment.

Valuable Traits of Autistic Employees

Autistic employees often possess advantageous traits that are highly sought after in the workplace. For example, individuals with ASD are known for their honesty, directness, and exceptional attention to detail.

In addition, many autistic individuals have an excellent memory, making them more accurate and observant of details that might be overlooked by others. These skills can be particularly useful in fields where precision and attention to detail are paramount.

These unique skills and traits can be leveraged to create a more diverse and effective team. Employers who understand and value these traits can foster an inclusive work environment that benefits all employees.

Productivity of Autistic Employees

Research suggests that autistic employees can be significantly more productive than their neurotypical colleagues. According to AbsenceSoft , autistic employees can be up to 140% more productive. This increased productivity can be attributed to their ability to focus and concentrate for extended periods.

This heightened productivity demonstrates the potential benefits of employing individuals with ASD. By making necessary autism and employment accommodations, employers can create an environment where autistic employees can thrive and contribute significantly to the workforce.

Creating an inclusive workplace that values the unique abilities and productivity of autistic employees goes a long way in promoting diversity and inclusion. Understanding and applying these insights can help employers make the most of the talents and abilities of all their employees, regardless of their neurological status.

Creating an Inclusive Workplace for Autistic Employees

Incorporating a diverse workforce not only brings a variety of perspectives and talents to the table, but it also fosters a culture of inclusivity and respect. This is particularly relevant when discussing autism and employment accommodations. Efforts to create an inclusive workplace for autistic employees primarily involve promoting neurodiversity and making necessary adaptations in the interview and skill testing processes.

Promoting Neurodiversity

Promoting neurodiversity in the workplace involves recognizing and appreciating the unique strengths that neurodiverse employees bring to the table. Corporate hiring practices have evolved towards seeking out, integrating, and supporting neurodiverse talent, especially in the technology and consulting sectors to gain a competitive edge in the market [3].

Companies can promote neurodiversity by providing ongoing training and mentorship in communication and interpersonal skills. Such initiatives can greatly benefit neurodiverse employees with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), helping them navigate interactions effectively, stay engaged, and enhance overall job performance. Furthermore, many accommodations to help employees with ASD in the workplace are extremely affordable and can easily be modified and customized to each individual, promoting inclusivity and support for neurodiverse employees [2].

Interview and Skills Testing Accommodations

The interview and skills testing processes can be particularly challenging for individuals with autism. To create an inclusive hiring process, employers can make reasonable accommodations to help prospective employees with ASD perform to their best ability.

Such accommodations may include:

• Providing clear, written instructions for tasks and expectations
• Allowing extra time for assessments
• Conducting interviews in quiet, low-stimulus environments
• Using a structured interview format with direct, straightforward questions

Following the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) best practices can improve the company's culture and the experience for all employees. It's important to note that employers are required by the ADA to provide reasonable accommodations for employees with ASD to perform essential job functions, emphasizing the legal obligation to support individuals with disabilities in the workplace [2].

By making these changes, companies can create a more inclusive and supportive environment for autistic employees. These considerations and accommodations play a crucial role in fostering a diverse and inclusive workplace, benefiting both the employees and the company as a whole.

Case Studies of Autism and Employment

To further illustrate the importance and benefits of autism and employment accommodations, let's look at two case studies: Google Cloud's Autism Career Program and initiatives to employ the "missing middle" in autism.

Google Cloud's Autism Career Program

In 2021, Google Cloud launched an Autism Career Program, indicating a growing emphasis on accommodating employees with Autism Spectrum Disorder in the workplace. This initiative is a testament to how major corporations are making strides to strengthen and diversify their workforce by harnessing the unique skills and perspectives of autistic individuals.

The Autism Career Program focuses on creating a more inclusive hiring process, offering tailored support and accommodations for autistic employees, and promoting a more understanding and accepting workplace culture. This initiative not only benefits the employees but also contributes to the overall productivity and innovation within the company.

More about the Google Cloud's Autism Career Program can be found here .

Employing the "Missing Middle" in Autism

Another interesting case in the realm of autism and employment accommodations is the focus on the "missing middle." This term refers to a group of autistic individuals who fall between those with minimal support needs and highly specialized technical skills and those who are unable to work due to complex daily care requirements. This group has valuable skills to offer but often lacks the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities.

Efforts to provide employment accommodations for the "missing middle" have shown promising results. By tailoring the recruitment process, adjusting work expectations, and providing necessary support, employers can tap into this underutilized talent pool and foster a more inclusive work environment.

More about the "missing middle" in autism can be found here .

These case studies underscore the importance of employment accommodations for autistic individuals and the benefits that such initiatives can bring to both the employees and the organizations. They serve as examples of how embracing neurodiversity and fostering inclusivity in the workplace can lead to a richer, more diverse, and productive workforce.

[1]: https://autism.org/autism-workplace-accomodations/

‍ [2]: https://absencesoft.com/resources/top-accommodations-for-employees-with-autism/

‍ [3]: https://hbr.org/2024/03/an-employers-guide-to-supporting-workers-with-autism

Steven Zauderer

CEO of CrossRiverTherapy - a national ABA therapy company based in the USA.

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