research on crime scenes

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar

Criminal Justice

IResearchNet

Academic Writing Services

Securing and managing crime scenes.

This article delves into the crucial aspects of securing and managing crime scenes within the context of the United States criminal justice process . Beginning with an exploration of the fundamental definitions and the paramount significance of proper crime scene management, the article examines the initial response phase, emphasizing the collaborative efforts of law enforcement and emergency medical services. Subsequently, it delves into the intricacies of securing the crime scene, highlighting the meticulous establishment of perimeters and the documentation of entry and exit points. The management phase unfolds, elucidating the pivotal role of crime scene investigators in evidence collection , crime scene assessment, and the meticulous identification and preservation of physical evidence. Addressing challenges such as external factors, human considerations, and legal implications, the article scrutinizes the evolving landscape of technology in crime scene management, encompassing advancements in forensic techniques, 3D imaging, and digital forensics. The conclusion underscores the article’s key points and anticipates future trends in crime scene management, showcasing the dynamic nature of this critical component in criminal investigations.

Introduction

Crime scenes constitute the primary arena where the intricate puzzle of criminal investigations begins. Defined as the physical location where a crime has occurred, a crime scene encompasses a complex interplay of evidence, ranging from tangible items to subtle details that may escape the untrained eye. Crucially, the initial moments following the discovery of a crime scene set the stage for the entire investigative process. Proper crime scene management is paramount in preserving the integrity of potential evidence, ensuring accurate reconstructions, and ultimately facilitating the pursuit of justice. This involves a meticulous and systematic approach that begins with the first responders and extends to the specialized expertise of crime scene investigators.

• Definition of a Crime Scene: A crime scene is the physical space, environment, or location where a criminal offense has transpired. It encapsulates the immediate vicinity where the crime occurred, encompassing various elements such as objects, surfaces, and traces that may hold evidentiary value.
• Importance of Proper Crime Scene Management: Effective crime scene management is indispensable in the criminal justice process as it directly influences the quality and reliability of evidence. Mishandling or oversight during the early stages of an investigation can compromise the evidentiary chain, hinder accurate analysis, and impede the pursuit of justice.

This article seeks to illuminate the pivotal role played by securing and managing crime scenes within the intricate web of the United States criminal justice system. The purpose is twofold: firstly, to underscore the critical importance of securing crime scenes as the initial step in preserving evidentiary integrity, and secondly, to delve into the nuanced techniques and methodologies involved in the ongoing management of these scenes. By doing so, the article aims to highlight the broader significance of meticulous crime scene procedures in the context of criminal investigations, emphasizing their impact on the subsequent stages of forensic analysis, legal proceedings, and the quest for truth and justice.

• Highlighting the Role of Securing and Managing Crime Scenes: This article emphasizes the indispensable nature of securing crime scenes, shedding light on the practices and protocols that law enforcement personnel employ to safeguard the integrity of potential evidence. It explores how these initial actions lay the foundation for a thorough and effective investigation.
• Significance in Criminal Investigations: Beyond the immediate containment of a crime scene, this article delves into the enduring significance of proper crime scene management throughout the investigative process. From the initial response to the collection and preservation of evidence, the meticulous management of crime scenes proves to be a linchpin in the criminal justice machinery, influencing the trajectory and success of investigations.

Securing the Crime Scene

Upon the discovery of a crime scene, the immediate actions of initial responders play a pivotal role in shaping the course of the subsequent investigation.

• Role of Law Enforcement: Law enforcement personnel are at the forefront of securing crime scenes. Their primary responsibility is to swiftly assess the situation, ensure the safety of all individuals present, and establish control over the scene. This involves taking decisive actions to prevent unauthorized access, protect potential evidence, and initiate the process of securing the area for further investigation.
• Coordination with Emergency Medical Services (EMS): In situations where injuries are evident or medical attention is required, coordination with Emergency Medical Services (EMS) becomes crucial. Law enforcement must work seamlessly with EMS to prioritize the well-being of individuals while still adhering to the imperatives of preserving the crime scene. This collaboration ensures a balanced response that addresses both immediate medical needs and the preservation of forensic evidence.

The establishment of a well-defined perimeter is a fundamental step in securing a crime scene, serving as a critical barrier to unauthorized access and potential contamination.

• Controlling Access to the Crime Scene: Law enforcement personnel meticulously control access points to the crime scene, allowing entry only to individuals essential to the investigation. This controlled access ensures that the scene remains undisturbed, minimizing the risk of tampering and preserving the evidentiary integrity necessary for a thorough and accurate investigation.
• Preventing Contamination: Beyond restricting entry, preventing contamination is paramount. This involves measures such as wearing protective gear, utilizing designated paths within the crime scene, and employing specialized techniques to avoid inadvertently altering or introducing foreign substances to the environment. Such precautions are essential to maintaining the purity of the crime scene and upholding the reliability of collected evidence.

The meticulous documentation of entry and exit points is a procedural imperative that enhances the overall integrity of the investigation.

• Logistical Importance: Documenting the locations where investigators enter and exit the crime scene is logistically vital. This record not only aids in establishing a timeline of events but also provides insights into the paths taken by individuals within the scene. This information proves invaluable in reconstructing the sequence of events and identifying potential areas of interest for further investigation.
• Recording Potential Evidence: Entry and exit points may serve as critical locations for the identification and collection of potential evidence. The act of documenting these points includes noting any anomalies or noteworthy observations that could aid investigators in piecing together the circumstances surrounding the crime. By cataloging these details, law enforcement contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the crime scene and facilitates subsequent forensic analysis.

Managing the Crime Scene

Central to the effective management of a crime scene are the specialized professionals known as Crime Scene Investigators (CSIs), whose expertise and training are instrumental in the collection and preservation of crucial evidence.

• Training and Expertise: Crime Scene Investigators undergo extensive training to develop the skills necessary for comprehensive scene management. This includes education in forensic techniques, evidence handling, and the application of scientific methodologies. The expertise of CSIs ensures a systematic approach to crime scene analysis, enhancing the reliability and admissibility of evidence in subsequent legal proceedings.
• Responsibilities in Evidence Collection: CSIs bear the responsibility of methodically collecting and documenting all pertinent evidence. This encompasses the identification and retrieval of physical items such as biological samples, trace materials, and other forensic clues. Their meticulous approach not only preserves the evidentiary chain but also allows for a thorough analysis that aids in reconstructing the events surrounding the crime.

The assessment phase of crime scene management involves a comprehensive survey of the scene to discern critical details and delineate primary and secondary scenes.

• Surveying the Scene: CSIs conduct a systematic survey of the entire crime scene, carefully documenting the layout, potential points of interest, and any visible evidence. This survey provides the foundation for subsequent investigative actions and ensures that no crucial detail is overlooked. Photographs, sketches, and notes are commonly employed tools in this initial phase of assessment.
• Identifying Primary and Secondary Scenes: Through a meticulous examination of the crime scene, CSIs distinguish between primary and secondary scenes. The primary scene is where the crime initially occurred, while secondary scenes may involve areas where subsequent events unfolded or where evidence was relocated. Recognizing and differentiating these scenes are critical steps in developing a comprehensive understanding of the sequence of events.

The proper identification and preservation of evidence are cornerstones of crime scene management, requiring a nuanced understanding of various types of physical evidence and the application of specific preservation techniques.

• Types of Physical Evidence: CSIs encounter a diverse range of physical evidence, including biological samples, trace evidence (e.g., fibers, hair), and items that may bear latent prints or DNA. Each type of evidence necessitates unique handling and preservation methods to ensure its integrity throughout the investigative process.
• Techniques for Proper Preservation: CSIs employ a variety of techniques to preserve different types of evidence. This may involve packaging items in sterile containers, using proper labeling and documentation procedures, and employing preservation methods such as refrigeration or specialized storage. These meticulous preservation techniques not only maintain the quality of evidence but also adhere to legal standards, ensuring its admissibility in court.

Challenges and Considerations in Crime Scene Management

Effectively managing a crime scene is not without its challenges, as external factors, human elements, and legal considerations introduce complexities that demand careful navigation by law enforcement and crime scene investigators.

External Factors

• Weather Conditions: External environmental factors, particularly weather conditions, can significantly impact crime scene management. Adverse weather, such as rain, snow, or extreme temperatures, may compromise the integrity of evidence, making it imperative for investigators to employ additional protective measures and expedite the evidence collection process. Proper documentation of the weather conditions at the crime scene becomes essential for contextualizing the collected evidence.
• Public and Media Presence: The presence of the public and media at a crime scene poses challenges for law enforcement personnel. Managing crowds and restricting unauthorized access is crucial to prevent contamination and protect the privacy of those involved. Balancing the need for transparency with the imperative of preserving the crime scene’s integrity becomes a delicate task, requiring effective communication and crowd control strategies.

Human Factors

• Stress and Psychological Impact on Investigators: Crime scene investigators often confront distressing and emotionally charged situations that can lead to stress and psychological strain. The nature of their work exposes them to graphic scenes and intense pressure, requiring resilience and coping mechanisms to maintain mental well-being. Training programs and support systems are integral in addressing the emotional toll that crime scene investigations may exact on investigators.
• Maintaining Professionalism in Challenging Situations: The professionalism of crime scene investigators is paramount, especially in challenging situations. Maintaining composure, objectivity, and attention to detail amid high-stress environments is essential for effective crime scene management. Training and ongoing psychological support contribute to the development of a resilient and professional investigative workforce.

Legal Considerations

• Chain of Custody: Adherence to a secure and unbroken chain of custody is imperative in crime scene management. Establishing and maintaining a documented record of the chronological transfer of evidence ensures its reliability and authenticity in legal proceedings. Any lapse in the chain of custody can jeopardize the admissibility of evidence, emphasizing the need for meticulous record-keeping and strict protocols.
• Admissibility of Evidence in Court: Legal considerations extend beyond the crime scene itself to the courtroom. Ensuring that evidence collected adheres to legal standards is crucial for its admissibility during legal proceedings. Any deviation from established procedures, mishandling of evidence, or failure to meet legal requirements may render the evidence inadmissible, underscoring the significance of precision and adherence to legal protocols throughout the crime scene management process.

Technology in Crime Scene Management

In the ever-evolving landscape of crime scene management, technological advancements have played a transformative role in enhancing the efficiency, accuracy, and comprehensiveness of investigative processes. This section delves into notable advancements in forensic technology and the pivotal role that technology plays in the documentation and management of crime scenes.

Advancements in Forensic Technology

• DNA Analysis: One of the most significant breakthroughs in forensic science is the advent of DNA analysis. This technology has revolutionized crime scene investigations by providing a powerful tool for identifying individuals based on their unique genetic profiles. DNA analysis not only aids in linking suspects to crime scenes but also facilitates the exclusion of innocent parties. Its precision and reliability have become integral components of modern forensic investigations, contributing to the resolution of cold cases and the prevention of wrongful convictions.
• Digital Forensics: The digital era has ushered in a new frontier in crime scene investigation through the field of digital forensics. Investigators now confront crimes involving electronic devices, and digital forensics enables the extraction, analysis, and preservation of electronic evidence. This includes data recovery from computers, mobile devices, and other digital media, shedding light on cybercrime, fraud, and other technologically facilitated offenses. As technology continues to advance, digital forensics remains indispensable in unraveling complex cases.

Role of Technology in Efficient Crime Scene Documentation

• 3D Imaging and Mapping: Traditional crime scene documentation has been significantly enhanced by the introduction of three-dimensional (3D) imaging and mapping technologies. These tools allow investigators to create detailed, spatially accurate representations of crime scenes. Utilizing laser scanning or photogrammetry, 3D imaging captures precise measurements and spatial relationships, providing a virtual reconstruction of the crime scene. This not only aids investigators in analyzing the scene remotely but also serves as a valuable resource for courtroom presentations, enhancing juror comprehension and understanding.
• Surveillance and Security Systems: The integration of surveillance and security systems has bolstered crime scene management by providing real-time monitoring and recording capabilities. Surveillance cameras, both at crime scenes and in public spaces, offer crucial visual evidence. In addition, advanced security systems equipped with sensors and alarms contribute to the immediate detection of unauthorized access or suspicious activities, enhancing the overall security of crime scenes. These technologies not only deter potential offenders but also provide law enforcement with valuable data for investigative purposes.

As technology continues to advance, the integration of these innovations into crime scene management practices remains crucial. Law enforcement agencies are increasingly leveraging these technological tools to expedite investigations, improve accuracy, and ensure the thorough documentation of crime scenes, ultimately contributing to the pursuit of justice in the modern era. The ongoing synergy between technology and crime scene management continues to redefine the capabilities and possibilities within the realm of forensic science.

Crime scene management stands as a critical linchpin in the intricate tapestry of criminal investigations, influencing the trajectory and success of these endeavors. As we reflect on the key points discussed throughout this article, it becomes evident that the meticulous securing and management of crime scenes are foundational to the pursuit of justice within the United States criminal justice system.

Recap of Key Points

• Importance of Securing and Managing Crime Scenes: The initial steps taken in securing a crime scene lay the groundwork for the entire investigative process. By promptly controlling access, preventing contamination, and documenting entry and exit points, law enforcement not only preserves the evidentiary integrity but also establishes the necessary conditions for a thorough and accurate investigation. The significance of these measures cannot be overstated, as they contribute to the reliability and admissibility of evidence in subsequent legal proceedings.
• Impact on Criminal Investigations: The ripple effects of proper crime scene management extend far beyond the initial containment of a crime scene. Crime scene investigators, equipped with specialized training and expertise, play a pivotal role in evidence collection and crime scene assessment. The distinctions between primary and secondary scenes, coupled with meticulous evidence identification and preservation, contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the sequence of events. The seamless integration of technology further enhances the efficiency and accuracy of these processes, reinforcing the foundational role of crime scene management in criminal investigations.

Future Trends in Crime Scene Management

• Evolving Technologies: The future of crime scene management is inextricably linked to technological advancements. As DNA analysis and digital forensics continue to evolve, they will likely become even more precise and accessible tools for investigators. Additionally, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning into crime scene analysis holds the potential to automate certain aspects of evidence processing and analysis, expediting investigations and enhancing accuracy.
• Continuous Training and Professional Development: The landscape of crime scene management is dynamic, necessitating ongoing training and professional development for law enforcement and crime scene investigators. The evolving nature of crime, the emergence of new technologies, and the refinement of investigative techniques demand a commitment to continuous learning. This includes staying abreast of legal updates, technological advancements, and advancements in forensic science to ensure that investigative practices remain at the forefront of innovation.

In conclusion, the securing and managing of crime scenes are not static processes but dynamic endeavors that demand adaptability and foresight. By recognizing the evolving nature of technology, maintaining a commitment to continuous training, and understanding the pivotal role that crime scene management plays in the larger criminal justice process, law enforcement can navigate the challenges of the modern investigative landscape and contribute to the pursuit of justice with increased efficiency and effectiveness.

Bibliography

• Bevel, T., & Gardner, R. M. (2018). Bloodstain Pattern Analysis: With an Introduction to Crime Scene Reconstruction. CRC Press.
• Fisher, B. A. J. (2012). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. CRC Press.
• Fisher, R. P., & Fisher, S. (2012). Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation (8th ed.). CRC Press.
• Houck, M. M., & Budowle, B. (2002). Coroner’s Crime Scene Handbook. CRC Press.
• Houck, M. M., & Siegel, J. A. (Eds.). (2018). Fundamentals of Forensic Science. Academic Press.
• James, S. H., & Nordby, J. J. (2009). Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques. CRC Press.
• Lee, H. C. (2014). Practical Crime Scene Processing and Investigation (2nd ed.). CRC Press.
• Lee, H. C., & Harris, D. H. (2017). Criminal Investigation: An Illustrated Case Study Approach. Routledge.
• Lee, H. C., & Palmbach, T. M. (2001). Henry Lee’s Crime Scene Handbook. Academic Press.
• National Criminal Justice Reference Service. (2008). Crime Scene Investigation: A Reference for Law Enforcement Training. U.S. Department of Justice.
• National Institute of Justice. (2000). Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement. U.S. Department of Justice.
• Nordby, J. J. (2004). Dead Reckoning: The Art of Forensic Detection. CRC Press.
• O’Connor, P., & Clausing, A. (2005). Crime Scene Investigation and Reconstruction. Delmar Cengage Learning.
• Osterburg, J. W., & Ward, R. H. (2013). Criminal Investigation: A Method for Reconstructing the Past. Anderson Publishing.
• Ramsland, K. (2016). Forensic Investigation: Methods from Experts. CRC Press.
• Saferstein, R. (2015). Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science. Pearson.
• Saferstein, R. (2015). Forensic Science: From the Crime Scene to the Crime Lab. Pearson.
• Siegel, J. A., & Mirakovits, K. (2019). Forensic Science: The Basics (4th ed.). Routledge.
• Staggs, S., & French, L. (2016). Crime Scene Investigation. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
• White, R. H., & Laber, W. J. (2012). Crime Scene Processing and Laboratory Workbook. CRC Press.

An official website of the United States government

Here’s how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

https://www.nist.gov/forensic-science/nist-forensics-science-crime-scene

Forensic Science

Nist forensics science -- crime scene.

Crime scene investigation includes everything that happens to document, locate, preserve and collect bits of evidence, whether charred by fire or hidden from sight. NIST scientists are developing tools, techniques and standards to help forensic investigators study arson cases, compare bullets and casings, and assess many other items that may be found at a crime scene.

Research Projects

• Read about an industry collaboration that could lead to improved 3D scanning of crime scenes.
• Experts from NIST and the University of Delaware found a lack of consistency in commercially available rulers often used as reference scales in forensic photography. Read their study . (link opens a pdf)
• NIST studies building disasters and failures including fires that result in a significant number of deaths. See our Fire Forensics website for study reports.
• Preserving biological evidence: NIST and the National Institute of Justice convened a technical working group to recommend best practices for evidence handlers. Their report is available online .

NIST Publications

• Fire Disaster and Failure studies
• Dimensional Review of Scales for Forensic Photography (opens a pdf)
• The Biological Evidence Preservation Handbook: Best Practices for Evidence Handlers
• Latent Print Examination and Human Factors: Improving the Practice through a Systems Approach

Data and Standards

• Find NIST Standard Reference Materials for crime scene investigations on the Standard Reference Materials website .
• Find NIST Standard Reference Materials for fire research on the Standard Reference Materials website .
• Fire on the Web is a collection of resources from the Fire Research Division at NIST. Included are fire related software packages, experimental fire data and mpeg/quick time movies of fire tests.
• NIST Special Database 4: 8-Bit Gray Scale Images of Fingerprint Image Groups
• NIST Special Database 24: Digital Video of Live-Scan Fingerprint Data
• NIST Special Database 30: Dual Resolution Images from Paired Fingerprint Cards
• NIST Special Database 27: Fingerprint Minutiae from Latent and Matching Tenprint Images
• NIST Special Database 9: Mated Fingerprint Card Pairs (Volumes 1-5)
• NIST Special Database 10: Supplemental Fingerprint Card Data for NIST Special Database 9
• NIST Special Database 14: Mated Fingerprint Card Pairs 2
• NIST Special Database 28: National Software Reference Library
• NIST Special Database 29: Plain and Rolled Images from Paired Fingerprint Cards
• Consolidated Model of Fire and Smoke Transport
• Fire Dynamics Simulator and Smokeview
• The National Institute of Justice has funded the development of free or low cost software tools, apps and databases to assist with investigations or research. Find them on the NIJ website .

Scientific Staff Members

• Susan Ballou
• Christopher Blackburn

An official website of the United States government, Department of Justice.

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement

This guide was developed for use by law enforcement to aid in crime scene investigations.

This guide, originally developed by the Technical Group on Crime Scene Investigation in 2000 recently updated, is intended for use by law enforcement to aid in crime scene investigations. The revisions to the guide were done by the National Forensic Science Technology Center. The document contains detailed procedural guides for the complete range of crime scene investigation tasks, from securing the scene to submitting the evidence. The information in the guide is divided into five main sections: 1) Arriving at the Scene: Initial Response/Prioritization of Efforts; 2) Preliminary Documentation and Evaluation of the Scene; 3) Processing the Scene; 4) Completing and Recording the Crime Scene Investigation; and 5) Crime Scene Equipment. For each specific step in the process, the guide provides the principle, policy, and procedure required for the step. Figures, tables, and appendixes

Additional Details

Related topics, similar publications.

• FY 2024 Solicitation Overview: Missing and Unidentified Human Remains (MUHR) Program
• Nuclear DNA from Rootless Hair for Forensic Purposes
• White Paper – Forensic Community Drug Database Conceptualization

Libraries | Research Guides

Crime scene investigation, journals and databases.

• Crime, Law, and Social Change Crime, Law and Social Change publishes peer reviewed, original research articles addressing crime and the political economy of crime, whether at the global, national, regional or local levels, anywhere in the world. The Journal often presents work on financial crime, corruption, organized criminal groups, criminal enterprises and illegal markets, state crime, terrorism and security issues, cybercrime, cross-border crime and environmental crime.
• Crime Science Can systematic reviews and meta-analyses advance our knowledge and synthesis of crime in a broad sense, rather than just assessing the effectiveness of various interventions? This collection includes actual reviews and meta-analyses to this end; comments and thoughts on this question; and empirical manuscripts relevant to the use of systematic reviews as a means to improve knowledge of the environmental aspects of crime as well as its patterns, organization and explanations.
• Forensic Science International Forensic Science International publishes original contributions in the many different scientific disciplines pertaining to the forensic sciences. Fields include forensic pathology and histochemistry, chemistry, biochemistry and toxicology, biology, serology, odontology, psychiatry, anthropology, the physical sciences, firearms, the physical sciences, and document examination.
• NCJRS Abstracts This link opens in a new window Over 150,000 summaries of books & reports, journal articles, program descriptions, and evaluations maintained by the National Institute of Justice's National Criminal Justice Reference Service. Includes U.S. material and selected international publications, in English. Topics include corrections, courts, drugs and crime, law enforcement, juvenile justice, crime statistics, and victims of crime. On October 1, 2014, the NCJRS Virtual Library began to focus primarily on the collection of informational materials and resources produced, funded, and/or sponsored by the bureaus and offices of the U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (OJP).
• Oxford Bibliographies: Criminology This link opens in a new window Oxford Bibliographies in Criminology offers peer-reviewed annotated bibliographies on the study of crime as a social phenomenon. Bibliographies are browseable by subject area and keyword searchable.
• SAGE Knowledge This link opens in a new window An online collection of subject encyclopedias and handbooks covering a wide-variety of subjects in the social sciences. Particularly strong for handbook coverage.

Your Librarian

• Last Updated: May 24, 2022 11:28 AM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/csi

Articles on Crime Scene Investigation

Displaying all articles.

Forensics are different when someone dies in a body of water. First, you need to locate them

Paola A. Magni , Murdoch University ; Edda Guareschi , Murdoch University , and Rossella Paba , James Cook University

Crime won’t stop because of COVID. So how should we protect crime scene investigators?

Paola A. Magni , Murdoch University

How do police forensic scientists investigate a case? A clandestine gravesite recovery expert explains

Brendan Chapman , Murdoch University

Forensic breakthrough helps explain how innocent people’s clothing fibres could end up at crime scenes

Kelly Sheridan , Northumbria University, Newcastle and Matteo Gallidabino , Northumbria University, Newcastle

CSI: current research into the impact of bias on crime scene forensics is limited – but psychologists can help

Lee John Curley , The Open University and James Munro , Edinburgh Napier University

Seeing the unseeable: how viewing crime scene photos can be beneficial

Kate Rossmanith , Macquarie University ; Hugh Dillon , UNSW Sydney , and Jane Mowll , UNSW Sydney

Fingerprinting to solve crimes: not as robust as you think

Jamie Walvisch , Monash University

For sniffing out crime and missing persons, science backs blood-detection dogs

LaTara Rust , University of Technology Sydney and Shari Forbes , University of Technology Sydney

Why CSI: Space will be a far greater challenge than forensic science on Earth

Mehzeb Chowdhury , Durham University

This new fingerprint technique could revolutionise the way we solve gun crime

John W Bond , University of Leicester

Related Topics

• Coronial inquests
• Crime scene
• Fingerprints
• Forensic analysis
• Forensic evidence
• Forensic pathology
• Forensic science

Top contributors

Associate Professor of Forensic Science, Murdoch University

Assistant Professor, Northumbria University, Newcastle

Senior Lecturer in Criminology, University of Leicester

Senior Lecturer in Forensic Science, Murdoch University

Lecturer in Psychology, Glasgow Caledonian University

PhD candidate, University of Technology Sydney

Professor, Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney

Lecturer in Social Work, UNSW Sydney

Associate Professor in Media and Cultural Studies, Macquarie University

Adjunct Professor of Law, UNSW Sydney

Psychology Researcher, Edinburgh Napier University

Associate Professor in Forensic Science, Northumbria University, Newcastle

Assistant Professor in Forensic Chemistry, King's College London

Adjunct Lecturer in Forensic Sciences, Murdoch University

Senior Lecturer, The University of Melbourne

• X (Twitter)
• Unfollow topic Follow topic

Journal of Forensic Investigation

Introduction, forensic evidence and crime scene investigation, henry c. lee 1* and elaine m. pagliaro 2.

• 1 Distinguished Professor, University of New Haven; Founder, Henry C. Lee Institute of Forensic Science, USA
• 2 Henry C. Lee Institute, University of New Haven, USA

Scientific Crime Scene Investigation

Types of Crime Scenes

Physical evidence at the crime scene, utilization of crime scene evidence, features and process in forensic examination.

Crime Scene as a Component of the Forensic System

• Inman K, Rudin N. (2001) p 41 in Principle and Practice of Crimnalistics: the profession of forensic science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
• Joseph L. Peterson, John P. Ryan, Pauline J Houlden , Steven ihajlovic (1986) Forensic Science and the Courts: The Uses and Effects of Scientific Evidence in Criminal Case Processing, NCJRS Reports. U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, DC.
• Gaensslen, RE, Harris H, Lee, HC (2008) Introduction to Forensic Science and Criminalistics. Pp 61-79. McGraw-Hill, New York.
• Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Science Community (2009) Strengthening Forensic Science In The United States: A Path Forward. The National Academies Press, Washington DC.
• Pyrek, KM (2007) Forensic Science under Siege: The Challenge of Forensic Laboratories and the Medico-Legal Investigation System. Elseiver Press, Burlington, MA.
• Moriarty, JC, Saks, MJ (2005) Forensic Science: Grand Goals, Tragic Flaws, and Judicial Gatekeeping. Judges’ Journal 44 : 16-33.
• National Medicolegal Review Panel (2011) Death Investigation: A Guide for the Scene Investigator (Technical Update). US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Washington, DC.
• Hawthorne, M. (1999) First Unit Responder: A Guide to Physical Evidence Collection for Patrol Officers. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
• 9. Lee, HC, Palmbach, TM, Miller, M (2001) Henry Lee’s Crime Scene Handbook. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
• Truman, JL, Planty M. (2012) Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2011. Bureau of Justice Statistics Office of Justice Programs, Washington, DC. .
• Gianelli, P (2007) Wrongful Convictions and Forensic Science: The Need to Regulate Crime Labs. (North Carolina Law Review 86: 163- 187.
• Fisher, B, Fisher, D (2012) Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
• Technical Working Group on Crime Scene Investigation (2000) Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement. US Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs, Washington DC.
• Lee, HC, Harris, H (2011) Physical Evidence in Forensic Science. Lawyers and Judges Publishing Co., Inc, Phoenix, AZ.
• Lee, HC, Palmbach, TM (2006) Crime Scene Management. Pp 577 – 593 in Forensic Science and Law (ed. by Cyril Wecht and John Rago). CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
• Peterson, J (2005) Census of Publicly Funded Forensic Crime Laboratories, 2002. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin (NCJS 207205, 2005). US Department of Justice US Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC.
• Bowen, R,Schnieder J (2007) Forensic Databases: Paint, shoeprints and beyond. NIJ Journal 258 : 34-38.
• Aitken,CGG (2004) Populations and Samples. Pp 51-83 in the Use of Statistics in Forensic Science (ed. by C.G.G. Aitken and David A. Stoney) Taylor & Francis, London, UK.
• Miller, M (2009) Crime Scene Investigation (3rd ed.). Pp 167-188 in Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific and Investigative Techniques (ed. by Stuart James and Jon Nordby) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.

Get Citation

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Diagnostics (Basel)
• PMC10486680

A Virtual, 3D Multimodal Approach to Victim and Crime Scene Reconstruction

Associated data.

Not applicable.

In the last two decades, forensic pathology and crime scene investigations have seen a rapid increase in examination tools due to the implementation of several imaging techniques, e.g., CT and MR scanning, surface scanning and photogrammetry. These tools encompass relatively simple visualization tools to powerful instruments for performing virtual 3D crime scene reconstructions. A multi-modality and multiscale approach to a crime scene, where 3D models of victims and the crime scene are combined, offers several advantages. A permanent documentation of all evidence in a single 3D environment can be used during the investigation phases (e.g., for testing hypotheses) or during the court procedures (e.g., to visualize the scene and the victim in a more intuitive manner). Advanced computational approaches to understand what might have happened during a crime can also be applied by, e.g., performing a virtual animation of the victim in the actual context, which can provide important information about possible dynamics during the event. Here, we present an overview of the different techniques and modalities used in forensic pathology in conjunction with crime scene investigations. Based on our experiences, the advantages and challenges of an image-based multi-modality approach will be discussed, including how their use may introduce new visualization modalities in court, e.g., virtual reality (VR) and 3D printing. Finally, considerations about future directions in research will be mentioned.

1. Introduction

In the past two decades, forensic pathology and crime scene investigations have significantly expanded their examination tools with the introduction of various imaging techniques such as CT and MR scanning, surface scanning and photogrammetry. These techniques, as first highlighted by Thali et al. in their 2005 paper [ 1 ], have opened new horizons.

Three-dimensional imaging techniques allow for the non-invasive and non-destructive permanent documentation of individuals and crime scenes. They capture detailed external and internal features of bodies and crime scene evidence, creating high-resolution and precise 3D models. These models can serve as visualization tools or as a foundation for advanced computational analysis.

Adopting an image-based multi-modality and multiscale approach to forensic investigation offers several benefits. Image data can be digitally stored and accessed at any time, facilitating the review of cold cases and enabling virtual crime scene reconstructions. By incorporating 3D models of victims, perpetrators and the crime scene into a single virtual environment, they can be utilized during investigation phases (e.g., hypothesis testing) and court procedures (e.g., intuitive scene and victim visualization) [ 2 , 3 ].

Here, we provide an overview of the techniques and modalities employed in forensic pathology in conjunction with crime scene investigations. We also draw on our own experiences to examine the advantages and challenges of adopting a multi-modality approach. Furthermore, we explore how the utilization of these techniques may lead to the introduction of novel visualization modalities in court, such as virtual reality (VR) and 3D printing. Finally, we touch upon considerations regarding future research directions.

2. Three-Dimensional Documentation of the Body: PMCT, PMMR, Surface Scanning and Photogrammetry

Postmortem CT (PMCT) scanning was introduced in forensic institutes worldwide two decades ago [ 4 , 5 ]. Some institutes have dedicated equipment in their autopsy facilities, such as those in Switzerland [ 5 ], Denmark [ 4 , 6 ], Australia [ 7 ], Japan, [ 8 ], the USA, [ 9 , 10 , 11 ], Norway [ 12 ] and China [ 13 , 14 ]. Other institutions rely on equipment available at nearby hospitals, such as those in the UK [ 15 ], Italy [ 16 ] and Austria [ 17 ].

PMCT is widely recognized as a complementary tool to traditional autopsy. However, there is still ongoing debate regarding whether PMCT can entirely replace traditional autopsies or if it can be used to enable minimally invasive autopsies [ 18 ]. As Rutty and Morgan stated in 2013, “the field is young and the evidence incomplete” [ 15 ], and this statement still holds true today. While there have been numerous research efforts to validate PMCT scanning, many of the studies involve single cases or small case series [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. More systematic research is needed, including larger cohorts, a comparison with control groups, inter- and intra-observer tests, double-blinded tests conducted by diverse experts and the establishment of standard procedures for result comparison [ 19 , 20 , 21 ].

The utility of PMCT has been extensively demonstrated (please refer to the reviews in [ 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ]). PMCT scanning is accurate in detecting gas, blood and bone fractures. It enables the rapid identification of atherosclerosis, fat deposition in organs, hemorrhages, some tumors and bowel obstructions as well as indicates lung pathologies. Additionally, PMCT provides access to areas that are not routinely dissected, such as the base of the skull, face, hands and feet. It has proven its worth in disaster victim identification (DVI) [ 26 , 27 ].

A significant advantage of CT scanning is the ability to generate 3D models of most anatomical and pathological structures, including foreign objects, dependent on CT resolution. The 3D visualizations derived from CT scanning serves as a valuable complementary tool for visualizing fractures and metal objects like projectiles, metal fragments and gunshot pellets ( Figure 1 ). It also allows for 3D visualizations of bullet paths [ 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Precise measurements can be taken using these 3D models, such as in the case of a stab wound or the measurement of fracture height in the bones of the lower extremities (information used for estimating the height of the vehicle that hit the person). Furthermore, the volumes of organs can be accurately assessed [ 32 ]. Importantly, these 3D models serve as permanent documentation of the body and can be utilized to present medical evidence in a more intuitive manner [ 2 , 3 , 33 ].

Three-dimensional visualizations from PMCT of several cases: ( a ) blunt force trauma to the head; ( b ) gunshot trauma to the abdomen caused by a shotgun—the pellets are visualized in red; ( c ) gunshot trauma to the thorax—the entry wound, the projectile (as indicated by the arrows) and the bullet path are visualized; ( d ) traffic incident with blunt force trauma to the legs—fractures are indicated with arrows. The 3D models were generated using Mimics software, version 24 [ 34 ].

Postmortem Magnetic Resonance (PMMR) is another imaging modality that was introduced in forensic and clinical medicine in the early 2000s [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. This technique is particularly valuable for diagnosing soft tissue lesions, detecting pathology and identifying the presence of air and fluid. However, its use is limited due to cost and time constraints, limited accessibility, technical complexity and challenges associated with postmortem changes which influences image quality [ 35 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Similar to PMCT, 3D models can be created from PMMR scans, and, e.g., organ volume [ 42 ] and bone thickness [ 43 ] can be calculated.

In addition to internal imaging techniques, the accurate and precise documentation of skin injuries is an essential aspect of a comprehensive body documentation. This can be achieved using imaging techniques such as 3D surface scanning and photogrammetry.

Photogrammetry is a technique that allows for the creation of precise and measurable 3D colored models of objects of interest from 2D photographs. It is a versatile tool capable of generating 3D objects, ranging from large crime scenes to fingerprints [ 44 ]. The resolution of a 3D model, i.e., its level of details, depends on factors such as the number of photographs, camera resolution and proximity to the object of interest. Photogrammetry applications employ triangulation principles to derive 3D models from 2D photographs (for comprehensive insights, refer to [ 45 ]).

Surface scanning is another technique for 3D documentation. Two categories of surface scanners exist: laser scanners and structural light scanners. The fundamental concept once again revolves around triangulation. In the case of laser scanning, a laser line (typically red) is projected onto the object, with the camera measuring its reflection. Since the camera and laser are at a known distance, the scanning software can map the surface of the object, record a 3D scan and create a 3D object. Structured light scanners project pattern of light onto the target object for scanning, replacing the laser line. The camera or cameras then assess deviations in the pattern on the object’s surface and create a 3D model of the object. There are many different surface scanners that vary in scanning range, precision and price.

These techniques capture detailed information about the skin, including color (texture), with high precision and accuracy. Surface imaging techniques effectively document abrasions, bruises, imprint marks, teeth marks, lacerations and superficial cuts, which may be challenging to detect on PMCT and PMMR scans ( Figure 2 ). Both surface scanners and photogrammetry produce comparable results, each with its own advantages and disadvantages [ 31 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ]. The choice of technique depends on specific needs, budget, area size and desired level of accuracy. In recent years, photogrammetry has received more attention in research. Tests have been conducted using a single camera [ 47 , 50 , 51 , 52 ], multi-camera systems [ 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 ] or videos [ 58 ]. These techniques have been applied to deceased [ 47 , 51 , 52 , 55 ] and living individuals [ 54 ], documenting single lesions, organs or entire bodies.

Bruises on a left hand: ( a ) photograph; ( b ) point cloud; ( c ) 3D mesh. The scale bar (white line in the figures) is 5 cm. A canon 5Ds-r with a 50 mm primer was used for the photographs and the software 3DF Zephyr, version 6.507 [ 59 ] for creating the 3D models.

Recently, LiDAR sensors have been used as a new tool for body documentation [ 60 ]. LiDAR, i.e., Light Detection and Ranging, uses an infrared light-pulsed laser to measure distances between objects. LiDAR information is often combined with photographic information to capture texture. LiDAR sensors are now integrated into smartphones (e.g., Apple 12, 13, or 14 or Samsung 23) or tablets (e.g., iPad 11 or 12, or Samsung Galaxy Tab S8). The technique offers greater flexibility and ease of use compared to photogrammetry, as it is less reliant on the operator’s photography skills and provides immediate results, allowing for the evaluation of 3D models directly at the autopsy room. An app called Recon-3D [ 61 ], specifically designed for Apple devices, has been successfully tested in forensic contexts [ 62 ].

Combining Imaging Modalities

The acquisition of 3D models of both internal and external body structures involves various modalities, software applications and output formats (e.g., mesh surface and point clouds). Combining these diverse 3D data for interactive visualizations and multiscale imaging navigation is a complex task that requires multimodal registration.

The VIRTOPSY group employs a unique approach that involves simultaneously acquiring images of the “naked and cleaned” body using multiple modalities [ 1 , 53 , 63 , 64 ]. While this method significantly facilitates the combination of diverse 3D models, its widespread adoption in forensic institutes is yet unlikely. The approach requires performing photogrammetry or surface scanning just prior to or after CT/MR scanning, which may not be feasible for all institutes that rely on hospital equipment. Additionally, it presupposes that the body has already been inspected, without clothing; cleaned; and, if necessary, shaved. However, these steps often occur after the CT scanning. Apart from the local infrastructure and available machinery, procedures leading up to CT/MRI are often dependent on legislation and standards regarding handling of bodies, which can put constraints on which methods and machinery can be used.

Villa et al. [ 65 ] proposed a step-by-step procedure for combining 3D data acquired at different times, without reference points on or around the body. An example of combined 3D data from CT and MR scanning can be seen in Figure 3 . They utilized the powerful open-source software CloudCompare version 2.8 [ 66 ], which is widely used in various applications ranging from industry to forensics and archaeology.

Three-dimensional models of the skull and of the brain from different imaging modalities: ( a ) 3D models from PMMR; ( b ) 3D model from PMCT; ( c ) combined 3D models. The 3D models were generated and aligned using Mimics software, version 24 [ 34 ].

Another solution, particularly applicable when data are not acquired simultaneously, was proposed by Abreu de Souza and colleagues [ 67 ]. They used MeshLab software to align 3D data from DICOM and photogrammetry. Then, they employed MeVisLab software [ 68 ] to visualize the inner and outer models along with the DICOM images simultaneously. In recent developments, automatic registration procedures utilizing deep networks have been proposed for aligning 3D point clouds and micro-CT 3D volumes of the same object [ 69 ].

3. Virtual Animation of the Body: Simulation of the Antemortem Postures

The 3D models generated using different imaging modalities are victim-specific models that accurately represent the victim’s proportions and the exact location of injuries. These 3D models can be animated using animation techniques to reconstruct probable postures at the time of the accident. Various types of computer-generated animation have been employed for forensic reconstruction, including humanoid models [ 2 , 70 , 71 , 72 ], biped models [ 1 , 73 , 74 , 75 ] and 3D human anatomy models [ 3 ]. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Humanoid models are quick and easy to create, but they only approximate the victim’s proportions. Software programs like Character Generator [ 76 ], Poser [ 77 ] and Make Human [ 78 ] allow customization of the body proportions of humanoid models, resulting in fully rigged and animated 3D characters. If one wishes to use the actual 3D models of the victim, a biped model can be used. This skeletal model can be easily fitted into the victim’s actual skeleton, but it has a simplified structure with few “joints” and does not account for complex movements. Blender [ 79 ], Autodesk 3Dmax [ 80 ] or Autodesk Maya [ 81 ] can be used for the animation. To achieve accurate simulation of human movement in forensic animation, a large number of joints are required [ 82 ]. However, the joint movements are not constrained, and the animation process is time-consuming. Future developments of the human anatomy 3D model should focus on adding inverse kinematic controls and constraints to the joints. This would simplify the movement process, improve accuracy and enable the creation of motion sequences. Moreover, specific 3D models based on sex, age and physical activity level should be developed, as the range of joint motions can vary greatly among individuals [ 83 , 84 ].

Given the extensive use of computer-generated animation in gaming and movies, collaboration between forensic experts and animation/computer science professionals would be beneficial for forensic reconstruction.

4. Information of the Perpetrator: Heigh Estimation and Gait Analysis

The perpetrator is a crucial figure in a crime, and it is essential to include their information as well. With an increased number of installed cameras, crimes are more frequently captured on video. In forensic contexts, closed-circuit television (CCTV) camera footage or photographs can provide valuable information about a person’s gait and stature. Gait analysis and stature estimation are important factors in personal identification and are used in many countries as a parameter in forensic anthropological analysis [ 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 ].

The height of a person can be estimated from a photograph or video frame based on stereology principles. If a 3D model of the crime scene is available, obtained through photogrammetry or surface scanning, the images can be oriented, calibrated and scaled using photogrammetry techniques [ 94 , 95 , 96 ]. By identifying and cross-matching control points in both the photos or 3D models, measurements from the photos or video frames can be obtained. Biped models have also been used to estimate the height of a suspect [ 91 ]. Similarly, other anthropological features such as body shape, eye height, shoulder height and foot length can be estimated [ 97 ].

The stature of a perpetrator can be significant in understanding the dynamics of an event. For example, was the perpetrator tall enough to cause the stab wound found on the back of the head? Should the perpetrator have been in a higher position to explain the bullet trajectory? These questions can be answered by considering the perpetrator’s stature. Furthermore, such information is important during 3D reconstructions of the chain of the event (see Section 6 ).

Gait analysis involves assessing how a person’s body moves, typically through walking or running [ 98 , 99 ]. The purpose of a gait analysis is to identify any abnormalities in locomotion and potentially recognize an individual. In the context of a crime, gait analysis can provide information about shoeprints left at the scene and the suspect’s walking and running patterns.

5. Three-Dimensional Documentation of the Crime Scene

Accurate documentation of the crime scene is crucial for police investigations. Surface scanners and photogrammetry have been demonstrated to be highly valuable tools for creating a comprehensive 3D documentation of the entire scene, as well as any relevant evidence such as large or small objects, streets, buildings or victims (e.g., [ 44 , 73 , 74 , 100 , 101 ]). These 3D technologies offer high levels of accuracy and enable the creation of a permanent record of the crime scene ( Figure 4 ).

A 3D model (mesh surface) of a bicycle obtained with photogrammetry: ( a ) overview of the bicycle; ( b ) a detailed view of the same bicycle. A canon 5Ds-r with a 24 primer was used for the photographs and the software 3DF Zephyr, version 6.507 [ 59 ] was used for creating the 3D model.

Drones, also referred to as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), have been implemented in numerous police services globally and their benefits in the field of forensic investigations have been demonstrated [ 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 ].

Research has focused on ensuring the verifiable accuracy of the data and optimizing procedures.

Police authorities from different EU countries (e.g., Germany, Sweden, Italy and Greece) have established networks and regular conferences to share experiences and to stay updated on the latest developments. The EU-funded RISEN project [ 105 ] serves as a notable example. RISEN is a consortium composed of research institutions, law enforcement agencies (LEAs) and private companies. Their aim is to develop real-time contactless sensors for optimizing on-site trace detection, visualization, identification and interpretation. The recreated 3D model of a scene incorporates augmented reality techniques to integrate sensor data, collected evidence and identified points of interest. This provides investigators with a realistic and immersive visual environment, facilitating highly detailed investigations.

Annual exercises organized by RISEN allow different LEAs and other partners to test their systems on mock crime scenes, including scenarios such as homicides, clandestine laboratories and terrorist attacks. This approach enables cross-comparison with similar applications and the identification of intersections. The concept was initiated in 1990 by the Police Training Centre in Neuss, Germany, with their “International Police Conference Photogrammetry/Laser Scanning”. The 15th edition of this event took place last year [ 106 ]. Specialists in crime scene, along with experts from forensics, science and forensic medicine, attended the conference. The presentations and lectures covered interesting cases and innovations in software and equipment. Importantly, a practical day was included, featuring a different mock crime scene, such as a high-speed traffic incident, train incident or explosion of a tanker vessel.

6. Three-Dimensional Reconstructions of the Chain of the Event: Opportunities and Challenges

The events or possible scenarios are often simulated using dummies, rendered by artist [ 2 , 107 ] or reacted with people who resemble the victims [ 108 ]. In Denmark, in certain cases, the suspect is asked to reenact the events at the “cleaned” crime scene or a similar setting, together with other persons, e.g., police officers with a similar body stature enacting the victim(s). This process is known as “reconstruction” by the police and is filmed and recorded for use in the judicial process. The defense attorney, prosecutor, police officers and occasionally forensic pathologists observe the reenactment from an adjacent room. During the reconstruction, the suspect shows what occurred during or after the crime, and all observers have the opportunity to ask questions or to request a repeat of the actions. The questioning can lead to changes in the enactment, as the suspect has the freedom to act and respond as they choose, based on their interpretation of how the incidence occurred. This approach encourages dynamic interaction between the participants and may uncover new insights or details about the events under investigation. However, it should be noted that this approach is dependent on the willingness of the parties to actually reenact the scenario and may be biased by the suspect.

By combining 3D models of the victims, perpetrators and the crime scene, a single virtual 3D environment can be created and visualized. This allows for an accurate visualization of the crime scene, where the spatial relationships between different elements are objectively and faithfully reproduced. Such 3D models can be utilized during both investigation phases and court procedures. This multi-modality virtual approach could be useful for explaining the dynamics of events. Some studies have showed its utility in cases involving gunshot injuries [ 3 , 74 ], traffic incidents [ 1 , 73 , 74 ] and explosions [ 100 ]. It offers a clear and intuitive method to communicate the facts of the case, enabling the audience to better comprehend the circumstances surrounding the crime [ 2 , 3 ]. However, it is crucial not to overlook the numerous challenges associated with the 3D reconstruction of hypothetical scenarios. While presenting an objective visualization of the crime scene is one aspect (3D visualization), delving into the exploration and testing of different scenarios is another (3D reconstruction). Three-dimensional reconstruction of hypothetical scenarios, where the dynamics of the event are virtually simulated, possesses significant influence and can impact the interpretation of objective evidence. There is a potential for subconscious biases to come into play, which can potentially sway the verdict of a jury [ 109 ]. It is essential to be aware of these challenges and to take measures to mitigate any potential biases or undue influence during the interpretation of 3D visualizations and simulations in forensic investigations [ 110 ]. The critical situation can ensue when the “objective evaluation” of a crime scene is based upon several findings which each have been interpreted in some way, possibly by different experts. This might hamper the objectivity, and scenarios might be interpreted in favor of one or the other party in a judicial setting. The tested scenarios should be able to depict several “realities” and chain of events as it can be difficult to decide which “reality” is the correct/most plausible one.

Three-dimensional reconstructions involve the interpretation and analysis of the 3D data to reconstruct or understand the events or scenarios that occurred. In this context, several important questions arise which might be answered differently according to national law and judicial practice: Who should generate hypotheses? How many scenarios should be simulated? Should both the prosecutor and defense attorney be given the opportunity to develop reconstructions? Should the process be conducted collaboratively or separately? Should the police provide hypothetical scenarios, while the different parties (prosecutor, defender, forensic experts and forensic pathologists) evaluate them independently? When merging the various 3D information into a single virtual environment, who should be responsible for this task? It is essential to consider that not all crime scene experts are accustomed to working with 3D technologies, and their reports, such as the determination of shooting distances based on standard procedures, may be misinterpreted, e.g., spatially distorted, when incorporated into a 3D environment. Lastly, the animation process presents challenges as individuals move differently, each with their own unique range of motion. How should this variability be considered during the animation process? These are important considerations that need to be addressed in order to ensure accurate and reliable use of 3D technologies in forensic reconstructions and interpretations [ 111 ]. A possible solution could involve virtually “recreating” the scene, where different scenarios are visually simulated based on the statements and instructions of suspects, victims or witnesses. As currently practiced in Denmark, all relevant parties should be present during this 3D reconstruction and allowed to ask questions or request re-simulation of specific scenes. To ensure the integrity of the evidence and the accuracy in depicting body movements, an expert 3D team of game designers or programmers should collaborate with the scientific police and forensic pathologists or anthropologists. This collaboration aims to prevent any manipulation of the 3D models and to maintain the fidelity of the evidence. Each virtually reconstructed scenario should be meticulously recorded for potential use in court proceedings. Ultimately, the decision regarding which scenario is deemed the most plausible should be placed in the judicial system.

By employing this approach of virtual “recreation”, different scenarios can be explored, enhancing the transparency and reliability of the investigative process. The use of technology and scientific expertise can contribute to reaching a more informed and unbiased assessment in criminal investigations and legal proceedings.

7. Visualization Modalities in Court Proceedings

In court proceedings, reports, 2D photographs and sketches are typically employed to communicate medical evidence and crime scene information. However, the introduction of 3D imaging modalities for evidence recording necessitates the exploration of alternative visualization methods to prevent the loss of information that occurs when converting 3D models into 2D representations or words. Alternative solutions such as “interactive 3D PDF,” immersive 3D technologies and 3D printing have been introduced in many countries around the world.

“Interactive 3D PDF” is a standard PDF file created with Adobe Acrobat, allowing users to view and interact with high-quality 3D models. This solution is advantageous because PDF is a widely used format, and Acrobat Reader is readily available on most computers. As demonstrated by Kottner et al. [ 112 ], this approach enables the communication of 3D information while retaining the benefits of a regular 2D PDF. One notable advantage over video is the interactivity of the 3D model.

Urschler and colleagues [ 113 , 114 , 115 ] have proposed another solution—an innovative computer-aided forensic toolbox. This toolbox provides tools for analyzing, documenting, annotating and illustrating forensic cases using various digital data, including CT and MRI images, 3D models of the body and crime scene evidence, photographs and reports.

Immersive 3D technologies, such as augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR) or mixed reality (MR), have been introduced in several countries [ 116 ], including, e.g., China [ 117 ], Sweden [ 118 , 119 ], the UK [ 120 ] and Australia [ 109 ]. The VIRTOPSY group introduced its use over eight years ago [ 121 ]. These technologies enable investigators to virtually navigate through the crime scene, experiencing different perspectives. For instance, one can sit in the victim’s car and see what the victim likely saw. This type of visualization aids the police in understanding potential scenarios and adds a new dimension to evaluating testimonies [ 121 , 122 , 123 ].

Furthermore, 3D printing has been implemented in several countries. Human skull 3D prints have been used as demonstrative aids in court since 2009 [ 124 ], and 3D prints are now commonly employed in various jurisdictions [ 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 ].

8. Future Directions

The introduction of imaging tools for recording, visualizing and reconstructing the dynamics of events is generally considered advantageous. However, further research is needed to accurately evaluate their practical utility. Qualitative studies should be conducted, focusing on various key actors such as juries, judges, experts and testimonies. The results of these studies could be surprising. For instance, a recent study conducted by Henningsen and colleagues revealed a preference for visualizations on a screen of a 3D virtual model of a traumatic skull over a physically printed 3D model [ 124 ]. On the other hand, a study demonstrated that virtual reality (VR) had a positive impact on the verdict decision, as it enabled participants to process spatial information more effectively, resulting in more consistent decision-making [ 109 ].

Three-dimensional models may be used for further advanced computational analyses. Three-dimensional models of bones obtained from CT and MRI can be used for performing biomechanical analyses. Finite Element Analysis (FEA) allows for an objective assessment of the likelihood of proposed traumatic events, presenting a potentially valuable tool for forensic pathologists in evaluating the force or circumstances of an incident. Previous applications of FEA, including for gunshot trauma [ 129 ], traffic incidents [ 130 ] and blunt force head injuries in adults, have been attempted [ 111 , 131 , 132 ]. Furthermore, FEA has been utilized to analyze traumatic events in children [ 133 ]. Nevertheless, further studies and testing are necessary to expand our understanding in this area.

Three-dimensional models have also found applications in crime scene investigations that involve quantitative analysis. For instance, they have been utilized in bloodstain pattern analyses in 3D [ 134 , 135 , 136 ], crash and collision investigations [ 101 , 130 , 137 ] as well as bullet trajectory analysis [ 101 , 137 ]. These applications leverage the capabilities of 3D models to provide enhanced insights and quantitative data for a more comprehensive analysis of the crime scene.

In the current era of rapid artificial intelligence (AI) development, new possibilities for its application in forensic medicine are emerging [ 138 ]. Researchers have conducted numerous studies utilizing AI technology, including sex estimation [ 139 ], facial age estimation [ 140 ], forensic odontology [ 141 ] and gait analysis [ 142 ]. Machine learning approaches can make the segmentation of organs and bones from PM imaging modalities quicker, enabling automated detection of fractures [ 143 ]. AI can also offer novel methods for analyzing PMCT data, assisting forensic experts in their decision-making [ 144 , 145 ]. AI presents new opportunities for the field; however, it is crucial to establish bridges between different disciplines to facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration between forensic medical experts, engineers and data scientists. Furthermore, it is important to thoroughly test, validate and investigate the advantages and disadvantages before incorporating new methods as routine tools.

Lastly, it is important to highlight some of the challenges associated with using forensic data for research purposes following the implementation of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union (EU) in May 2018. The GDPR aims to protect personal data, which includes any information that directly or indirectly identifies an individual within the EU. These rules apply to both living and deceased individuals.

Appropriate security measures must be implemented to safeguard personal data from unauthorized access, loss or disclosure. Encryption, access controls and secure storage are examples of measures that should be considered. Thus, the use of cloud software should be limited or avoided to minimize potential risks. Specific regulations and requirements may vary across jurisdictions and countries. Therefore, consulting legal professionals or relevant authorities who can provide tailored advice based on the specific situation is essential.

9. Conclusions

Forensic pathology and crime scene investigations have witnessed significant advancements in examination tools over the past two decades, with the introduction of various imaging techniques. These techniques have evolved from visualization tools to powerful instruments for performing, e.g., virtual 3D crime scene reconstructions and biomechanical analysis. In addition, new solutions for presenting 3D models in court, including interactive 3D PDF, immersive 3D technologies and 3D printing, have been introduced in many countries.

It is paramount to systematically test, validate and investigate the advantages and disadvantages before incorporating a new method as routine tools to ensure its implementation without compromising the judicial system and introducing bias. Interdisciplinary collaboration between forensic medical experts, engineers and data scientists should be promoted and the involvement of key actors such as juries, judges, defense attorneys, prosecutors and experts, should be encouraged to accurately evaluate the effective and judicially correct utility of the new methods in court.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

All authors have contributed to the writing of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement.

No data were generated.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

• Future Students
• Current Students
• Faculty and Staff
• Corporate Partners
• Request Info
• Quick Links

From the Lab to the Crime Scene: Genetics and Forensic Science

May 7, 2024

Forensic science is a multidisciplinary field encompassing multiple scientific disciplines investigating crimes and legal proceedings. It involves the application of scientific principles, techniques, and technologies to analyze and interpret physical evidence. Forensic science plays a crucial role in the criminal justice system, from analyzing bloodstains and fingerprints to scrutinizing digital data.

Genetics has become a cornerstone of modern forensic science, revolutionizing how law enforcement investigates crimes and identifies perpetrators. By gathering and analyzing genetic material, particularly DNA, forensic experts can provide valuable evidence that links suspects to crime scenes, exonerates the innocent, and helps unravel complex criminal cases. Genetic analysis techniques have significantly transformed forensic investigations, leading to breakthroughs in solving cold cases and bringing closure to victims and their families. 

Forensic science relies on genetic analysis to aid criminal investigations and deliver justice. But how exactly does genetic science work in the context of forensics, and what else can you do with a genetics degree? 

The Role of Genetics in Forensic Science

Advances in genetic analysis techniques enable scientists to extract valuable information from the DNA found at crime scenes. DNA analysis plays a pivotal role in forensic science because of its unique characteristics, like its stability and unique genetic markers for each individual. 

DNA Analysis Forensic Science

By examining DNA samples collected from crime scenes, forensic experts can identify individuals involved, establish relationships between individuals, and even determine physical characteristics like eye color and ancestry. DNA analysis's growing accuracy and reliability have helped convince criminals and exonerate innocent individuals. The ability to extract and analyze DNA from various sources, including blood, semen, saliva, and hair, has expanded the range of evidence, providing critical insights into criminal investigations. 

The Development of Forensic Genetics Techniques

Genetic profiling, commonly known as DNA profiling or fingerprinting, is a fundamental technique in forensic science. This involves analyzing specific regions of an individual’s DNA to create a unique genetic profile or DNA fingerprint. Techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing have significantly enhanced the accuracy and sensitivity of gene profiling. 

These methods allow forensic scientists to create DNA profiles from even minuscule amounts of DNA, maximizing the chances of identifying suspects or establishing connections between individuals and crime scenes. 

Case Studies of the Use of DNA as Forensic Evidence

One notable example of the use of genetics in solving crimes is the case of the “Golden State Killer,” where DNA from an old crime scene was matched to a public genealogy database, leading to the identification and arrest of the perpetrator decades later. Genetic analysis can unravel cold cases that seemed unsolvable before. 

Another example of using genetic information is identifying human remains using DNA analysis. By comparing DNA profiles from unidentified bodies with DNA samples from missing persons or their relatives, forensic scientists can bring closure to families and aid in criminal investigations. 

The Process of Genetic Analysis in Forensic Investigations 

Genetic analysis in forensic investigations involves a series of meticulous steps to collect, preserve, analyze, and interpret DNA evidence. Understanding this process is crucial for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of genetic findings in criminal investigations. 

Collection and Preservation of DNA Evidence 

The collection and preservation of DNA evidence are critical steps in forensic investigations. Forensic experts identify and collect biological samples containing DNA, such as bloodstains, hair follicles, saliva, and skin cells. Proper documentation and handling of the evidence are essential to prevent contamination and ensure the integrity of DNA samples.

Once DNA evidence is collected, scientists must preserve it to prevent degradation. Proper storage conditions, like storing samples in a controlled environment and maintaining a chain of custody, help preserve the integrity of DNA for analysis. Preservation methods may include refrigeration, freezing, or desiccation, depending on the nature of the sample.

Laboratory Techniques for DNA Analysis in Forensic Science

In the laboratory, forensic scientists employ various techniques to analyze DNA evidence extracted from crime scenes. These techniques include:

• DNA extraction: DNA is extracted from biological samples using methods that isolate and purify DNA molecules, like organic extraction or commercially available DNA extraction kits.
• Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): PCR is a widely used technique that amplifies specific DNA regions, making it possible to analyze even small or degraded samples.
• DNA profiling: DNA profiling techniques involve analyzing specific regions of an individual's DNA, such as short tandem repeats (STRs) or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), to create a unique genetic profile.
• Gel Electrophoresis: Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on size, allowing forensic scientists to visualize and analyze DNA profiles.

Integration of Forensic Genetics Into Criminal Investigations 

Once DNA analysis is complete, the genetic findings are integrated into criminal investigations to establish connections between suspects, victims, and crime scenes. Forensic experts collaborate with investigators and legal professionals to interpret DNA evidence, provide expert testimony in court proceedings, and assist in building a solid case based on genetic findings.

Advances in Genetic Technologies and Forensic Investigation

Recent advancements in genetic technology have significantly impacted forensic science, offering new tools and techniques that enhance the capabilities of DNA analysis in criminal investigations. 

A Use of New Genetic Technologies: Next-Generation Sequencing and CRISPR 

• Next-generation sequencing (NGS): NGS technologies have revolutionized DNA analysis by enabling the simultaneous sequencing of multiple DNA samples at an unprecedented speed and cost-effectiveness. NGS allows forensic scientists to generate vast amounts of DNA sequence data from trace amounts of evidence, providing a deeper understanding of genetic information. This technology could enhance the identificatory power of DNA profiling and expand the range of forensic applications.
• CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology: CRISPR has gained attention for its ability to edit genes with exceptional precision. In forensic science, professionals can utilize CRISPR-based techniques to create genetically modified models for studying the impact of specific genetic variants on physical traits or disease susceptibility. This technology presents new possibilities for understanding the genetic basis of human characteristics relevant to forensic investigations.

Ethical Considerations in Genetics and Forensic Science

As genetic technology continues to advance, ethical considerations in the field of forensic science become increasingly important. This section will explore key ethical concerns related to genetic forensic science.

Privacy concerns and the use of DNA databases are at the forefront of ethical concerns regarding genetic data use. Genetic scientists must consider issues related to informed consent, genetic privacy, and civil liberties when using genetic evidence in criminal cases and investigations. 

Genetic forensic analysis must also ensure equitable access and just data use processes. Primary concerns with equitable access include socioeconomic disparities, racial and ethnic disparities, and access to education and training to provide equal competence and expertise in applying genetic technologies across different jurisdictions and communities. 

Another ethical consideration is that while genetic evidence can aid in providing suspects or clearing names, it is not the end-all-be-all of criminal investigations. Just because an individual’s DNA appears at the crime scene does not mean they committed it. DNA can linger for months or years, not to mention the transfer of DNA from person to person, which can sometimes falsely indicate that someone was at a scene. Because of these factors, forensic scientists and law enforcement must consider DNA information and all other evidence before making a final accusation. 

Career Paths in Forensic Science

Forensic science offers diverse career paths for individuals interested in contributing to the investigation and resolution of criminal cases. From the educational requirements to the roles and responsibilities of forensic science technicians, this section provides comprehensive insights into the professional landscape of forensic science careers.

Crime Scene Investigator 

Crime scene investigators, also known as forensic science technicians, are responsible for collecting and analyzing physical evidence found at crime scenes to assist in criminal investigations. They document the crime scene, collect evidence such as fingerprints, DNA samples, and trace materials, and then analyze and process the evidence in a laboratory setting. Their findings and reports are often crucial in identifying suspects and solving crimes.

Forensic Scientist

Forensic scientists are specialized scientists who apply scientific principles and techniques to analyze and interpret physical evidence related to criminal investigations. They work with various evidence, including controlled substances, firearms, biological samples, and trace evidence. They use advanced laboratory equipment and methodologies to process and analyze their findings. They often testify in court as expert witnesses to present their research and help establish the truth in criminal cases.

Toxicologist  

Toxicologists are scientists who study the effects of chemicals and toxins on living organisms, focusing on how these substances may be involved in criminal activities such as poisoning or drug-related crimes. They analyze bodily fluids, tissues, and other samples to detect and identify toxic substances, determine their impact on the human body, and often provide crucial evidence in criminal cases involving poisoning, drug abuse, or environmental contaminants.

What Degree Do You Need to Be a Forensic Scientist? 

Pursuing a career in forensic science typically requires a relevant degree in forensic science, genetics, biology, chemistry, or a related field, accompanied by specialized training in forensic techniques and methodologies. 

Keck Graduate Institute’s Master of Science in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling 

The Master of Science in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling (MSGC) program at Keck Graduate Institute (KGI) in Claremont, CA, is dedicated to educating innovative genetic counselors who will serve the needs of individual patients, the healthcare system, and the bioscience industry. Our program emphasizes interprofessional collaboration, systematic problem solving, the safe, efficient, and ethical use of technology and biotechnology, and personalized patient care.

Graduates of this program can use their degrees in healthcare and patient-focused solutions or pursue careers in forensic science and crime scene investigation. 

The program is 21 months long, with classes conducted in person during the day. The degree includes a summer experience where students start fieldwork during their first year, an emphasis on experiential education, and a capstone project.

To learn more about what you can do with a Master of Science in Human Genetics and Genetic Counseling from Keck Graduate Institute, you can request more information . Or, if you’re ready to apply, you can start your application . 

View All Events

How Does Science Apply to Your Life? - ...

Understanding the role of a variant ....

Connect with us to hear how you can use your passions in STEM to impact patients’ lives & accelerate healthcare innovation. Fill out the form & we’ll be in touch with more information!

Explore our Additional Resources

Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation

• First Online: 03 January 2022

Cite this chapter

• Maha Ghanem 3 &
• Haidy M. Megahed 3  

720 Accesses

Thorough and complete documentation of observations at the crime scene is crucial. Failure of complete documentation of evidence at the crime scene may result in challenges at court and unsuccessful prosecution and may affect the credibility and reputation of the first responders.

Any incident, whether criminal or noncriminal must be documented thoroughly. Even accidental injuries can be open to civil litigation such as those made by insurance companies or equipment manufacturers.

Crime scene documentation may include notes, photography, videos, sketches, measurements, or reports. None of which are a substitute for the other.

During documentation, it is vital to be aware that there may be many other people (attorney’s, attorneys’ investigators, crime lab analysts, etc.) who are involved in the case and were not able to visit and assess the scene of the crime by themselves and observe the placement of physical evidence within it. The aim of documentation is to deliver an enduring record of the scene and provide physical proof. It is the fundamental initial step of the chain-of-custody.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Crime Scene Investigation: An Introduction

The Use of Trace Evidence in Missing Persons Investigations

Chain of Custody: Scaling the Investigation to the Event

Barry AJ (2004) Processing a crime scene. In: Techniques of crime scene investigation, 7th edn. CRC, New York, pp 98–112

Google Scholar  

Bevel T, Gardner R (2002) Bloodstain pattern analysis with an introduction to crime scene reconstruction, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

Doyle A (1930) Methodical approach to processing the crime scene. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Burlington

Fisher B (2003) Techniques of crime scene investigation, 7th edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton

Book   Google Scholar  

Forensic Science Bureau (2019) Crime scene section technical manual. Austin Police Department. https://www.austintexas.gov/sites/default/files/files/Police/Forensics/CS_Technical_Manual.pdf . Accessed 7 June 2020

Hochrein M (2002) Polar coordinate mapping and forensic archaeology within confined spaces. JFI 52(6):733–749

Laboratory and Scientific Section United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2009) Crime scene and physical evidence awareness for non-forensic personnel. https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Crime_scene_awareness__Ebook.pdf . Accessed 7 June 2020

LeMay J (2011) Crime scene documentation. In: CSI for the first responder, A concise guide. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 9–25

Little D (2018) Using 3D laser scanners in crime scenes: understanding advantages and disadvantages. Weber State University. https://apps.weber.edu/wsuimages/BIS/PrimaryResearch/Darwin%20Little%20BIS%20Final%20Paper%202018%20(3).pdf . Accessed 8 June 2020

Miller M (2013) Crime scene investigation. In: James S, Nordby J, Bell S (eds) Forensic science: an introduction to scientific and investigative techniques. CRC Press, New York, pp 121–135

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (2000) Fire and arson scene evidence: a guide for public safety personnel. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/181584.pdf . Accessed 8 June 2020

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs (2013) Preliminary documentation and evaluation of the scene. In: Crime scene investigation: a guide for law reinforcement. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/178280.pdf . Accessed 7 June 2020

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice (2000) Completing and recording the crime scene investigation. In: Crime scene investigation: a guide for law enforcement. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/200160.pdf . Accessed 7 June 2020

Wade C, Trozzi Y (2003) Handbook of forensic services FBI laboratory publication. Federal Bureau of Investigation Quantico, Virginia. https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/PDF/fbi-handbook-of-forensic-services-2003.pdf . Accessed 7 June 2020

Wow Essays (2019) Research paper on photography modern criminal investigation. https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/research-paper-on-photography-in-modern-criminal-investigation/ . Accessed 8 June 2020

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Maha Ghanem & Haidy M. Megahed

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

School of Allied Health Sciences, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India

Jaskaran Singh

School of Bioengineering and Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Neeta Raj Sharma

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Ghanem, M., Megahed, H.M. (2021). Crime Scene Processing: Documentation and Evaluation. In: Singh, J., Sharma, N.R. (eds) Crime Scene Management within Forensic science. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_2

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4091-9_2

Published : 03 January 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-16-4090-2

Online ISBN : 978-981-16-4091-9

eBook Packages : Biomedical and Life Sciences Biomedical and Life Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

A Simplified Guide To

Crime scene investigation, how it’s done, samples that may be collected at a crime scene.

A wide variety of physical evidence can be collected at a scene that is deemed valuable (“probative”) for collection and investigation:

• biological evidence (e.g., blood, body fluids, hair and other tissues)
• latent print evidence (e.g., fingerprints, palm prints, foot prints)
• footwear and tire track evidence
• trace evidence (e.g., fibers, soil, vegetation, glass fragments)
• digital evidence (e.g., cell phone records, Internet logs, email messages)
• tool and tool mark evidence
• drug evidence
• firearm evidence

The type of evidence collected will vary with the type of crime. In the case of a burglary, for example, it would be common to perform tasks in the order listed below. This will help ensure that evidence isn’t inadvertently damaged or destroyed:

• Photograph and document the scene
• Collect trace materials (especially from probable points of entry)
• Collect low-level DNA evidence by swabbing areas of likely contact
• Collect other items that may contain biological evidence
• Locate and collect latent fingerprints

Who Examines Crime Scenes

The number and type of professional(s) responsible for investigating a scene and collecting evidence largely depends on the type of crime and the resources of the law enforcement agency. Larger agencies often have dedicated, highly trained crime scene specialists, while smaller agencies may require that first responders or detectives process the scene in addition to their other duties.

In many instances, a case will be investigated by a detective who is responsible for interviewing persons of interest and victims, pursuing leads and piecing together the information that is developed from the materials collected at the scene. The detective works in tandem with a team of crime scene personnel who search the scene and collect the evidence. The crime scene investigation team may consist of crime scene photographers and evidence collection personnel specializing in gathering specific evidence such as latent prints, DNA, trace evidence and the like.

In the United States, there are no national requirements that must be met to serve as a crime scene investigator; however, investigators can achieve four levels of certification through the International Association for Identification (IAI) that demonstrate their proficiency:

• Certified Crime Scene Investigator
• Certified Crime Scene Analyst
• Certified Crime Scene Reconstructionist
• Certified Senior Crime Scene Analyst

Other certifications commonly achieved include the Evidence Photographer Certification from the Evidence Photographers International Council, Inc. and Board Certified Medicolegal Death Investigator of the American Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators (ABMDI).

How a Crime Scene Investigation is Conducted

The circumstances that investigators encounter at the scene will largely dictate the approach used to process the scene. A homicide will likely require different treatment and processing than a burglary. However, to ensure a thorough process, the seven steps outlined below are often followed. These steps can be conducted in a different order, combined or even skipped altogether to meet the needs of the situation.

5. Document and process the scene - With a plan in place, the crime scene team conducts a thorough, coordinated investigation of the scene, collecting all probative evidence. This entails detailed documentation with digital and video cameras or, if available, a 3-D scanner. For some situations, sketches and diagrams are also created. During the evidence-collection process, it is crucial that the crime scene investigator follow proper procedures for collecting, packaging and preserving the evidence, especially if it is of a biological nature. Biological evidence can be destroyed or damaged by weather conditions, individuals can inadvertently contaminate it, or it can be overlooked entirely if alternate light sources are not used to inspect the scene.

6. Conduct a secondary survey/review - To ensure that the scene has been thoroughly searched, a second survey of the area is conducted as a quality control step.

7. Record and preserve evidence - To make certain that all evidence is accounted for, an inventory log is created. The descriptions recorded into the log must match the photo of the evidence taken at the scene and the description included in the crime scene report. For instance, if a gun is collected, the serial number of the firearm in the evidence log must match the serial number shown in the photo that was taken at the scene. This paper trail establishes the chain of custody that will follow the evidence throughout the lifecycle of the case.

How and Where Tests on the Evidence are Conducted

The most probative evidence will be sent to either a forensic laboratory or, if the laboratory does not have an expert in that forensic discipline, to an outside analyst for examination. To help identify the evidence that is most valuable, the crime scene personnel may conduct initial screening tests, called presumptive tests, at the scene. These tests can be useful in determining the type of substance present—whether it’s a toxin or a drug, a stain that contains body fluids, or even whether a dried red substance found in the kitchen is blood or ketchup.

Presumptive tests allow investigators to narrow the field of possibilities to a certain class of substance, but they are not specific enough to confirm the presence of specific compounds. In addition to helping provide clues to indicate how the crime occurred and who may have been involved, presumptive tests can also help reduce the quantity of evidence that is submitted to the lab to include only the most important items. This helps to expedite processing at the laboratory.

As technology advances and devices become more portable and affordable, additional testing of evidence will likely be conducted at the scene.

Back to top of page ▲

Find Out More

• Introduction
• Applications
• How It’s Done ◀
• Common Terms
• Resources & References

How the Pandemic Reshaped American Gun Violence

By Robert Gebeloff ,  K.K. Rebecca Lai ,  Eli Murray ,  Josh Williams and Rebecca Lieberman

Taking a stroll around the neighborhood is a routine activity for many Americans. Yet for 47 million people — about one in seven — such a walk would pass near the location of a recent gun homicide.

The number of people living this close to fatal violence grew drastically during the pandemic years, a New York Times analysis has found, as a surge in killings not only worsened gun violence in neighborhoods that were already suffering but also spread into new places.

To assess the impact of the pandemic years, The New York Times created a map of every gun homicide in the United States since 2020, using data collected from the police and news media accounts by the nonprofit Gun Violence Archive . For every block where Americans resided, The Times then drew a quarter-mile circle to determine how many people lived in close proximity to the killings.

Often, it was not just one killing, but two or three. In extreme cases, a dozen fatal shootings or more fell within those circles.

Enter your address to see how many fatal shootings took place near you:

Note: Addresses are matched to census blocks. Shootings are counted from the census internal point of each block. Base map data: © Mapbox © OpenStreetMap

“There are a lot more guns on the street and when people get angry and frustrated, instead of getting into a fistfight, they get into a gun fight,” said Dr. Regan Williams, an emergency room director at a Memphis children’s hospital who has seen a spike in young shooting victims.

Though the level of violence has fallen since the worst days of the pandemic, Americans are still shooting and killing one another more frequently than they did in the years before the coronavirus arrived. The long-term impact of the surge in violence is being felt in many corners of the nation, and researchers will undoubtedly study it for years to come.

“We’re taking a few steps back from the cliff,” said Dr. Garen J. Wintemute, an emergency room doctor who directs a violence prevention research program at the University of California, Davis. “But there are some ominous developments. What happens in a society that is increasingly violent, increasingly mistrustful, increasingly polarized, increasingly indulgent in hate rhetoric?”

The rate of fatal shootings per 100,000 residents remains above pre-pandemic levels in many places{potentialBut}

Note: Chart does not show rates for places with a population of fewer than 10,000 residents.

The Times mapped homicides to better understand not only the numbers of direct victims but also the communities most exposed. The analysis revealed that gun deaths spread into new neighborhoods during the pandemic: An additional 8.7 million Americans now live on a block near a gun homicide — a 23 percent increase from the prepandemic years.

But even as the geography of fatal shootings expanded, killings also rose sharply in the nation’s existing centers of violence. These neighborhoods saw the worst of the surge, perpetuating a pattern of concentrated violence that long predated the pandemic. More than half of all gun homicides still occurred in neighborhoods where just 6 percent of Americans live.

“You don’t want people to think that everywhere is so dangerous in a way that it’s not,” said John MacDonald, a criminologist at the University of Pennsylvania who reviewed the Times analysis. “On the other hand, you don’t want people to think that, oh, this is just somebody else’s problem. It’s not happening in my neighborhood.”

Base map data: © Mapbox © OpenStreetMap

One thing the pandemic did not change is the sharp racial disparity in the communities most exposed to fatal shootings. Black people were five times as likely to live near a gun homicide as white people, while Latinos were three times as likely, Asian Americans were twice as likely, and Native Americans were 1.4 times as likely. The violence mostly followed patterns of housing segregation, which often leaves people of color living in poorer neighborhoods where crime rates are often higher.

Gun suicides , which outnumber homicides and were not part of the Times analysis, have been rising steadily for years and reached a record number in 2022. The demography of gun suicides is vastly different, with rates higher for white men and in rural areas.

An Expanding Footprint

Criminologists have offered several explanations for the drastic rise in the number of fatal shootings during the pandemic:

A rise in gun ownership made it more likely for violent disputes to become deadly. An increase in drug use, and drug dealing, made violent conflicts more probable. The disruption of public schools abetted an expansion of youth gang activity. And an upheaval in policing led to reduced enforcement in many cities.

The police say many of these factors contributed to what happened in Senator Henry M. Jackson Park in Everett, Wash., over Thanksgiving weekend last year. Mayor Cassie Franklin was awakened at 2:30 a.m. by the sounds of a gun battle near her home, which the police attributed to a turf war between two street gangs. Police recovered more than 50 shell casings and the body of a 17-year-old boy.

Everett is a city of 110,000 north of Seattle that is a hub for aerospace manufacturing. It is one of many smaller American cities where the number of fatal shootings both increased and spread during the pandemic years.

The share of residents who lived near at least one fatal shooting rose in most communities{potentialBut}

Note: Figures may not sum due to rounding.

“Most people weren’t focused on violent crime because it was only impacting a small demographic, a small portion of our community,” Ms. Franklin said. “Now we’re seeing violent crime throughout different parts of Everett and more of our community is starting to pay attention and care about it.”

City officials are now prioritizing combating gun violence but say they have challenges: The fentanyl epidemic has spun out of control, and the police force is understaffed after state lawmakers tightened regulations on how the police can engage with criminal suspects.

Everett, Wash.

Basemap data: © Mapbox © OpenStreetMap

When George Floyd was murdered by a Minneapolis police officer early in the pandemic, it set off an anti-police protest movement around the nation. In Everett and elsewhere, the result was more difficulty in recruiting police officers to do the kind of work necessary to curb crime, said the chief of the city’s Police Department, John DeRousse.

“We were one of many states where officers became really reluctant to do their jobs,” he said. “Police departments were losing officers at rates higher than they’ve ever seen before.”

Down the West coast, the California city of Vallejo has also confronted a big spike in violence, with policing at the center of the discussion. Local officials say the city has too few officers, which has allowed gang activity to flourish. But community leaders blame long-running mistrust of police as central to the crime problem. In April, the state attorney general reached a settlement with the Vallejo force requiring a broad range of reforms , a situation spurred by years of allegations about police misconduct .

“If you were to compare us to Oakland or San Francisco, we don’t have the level of support or the same level of resources,” said Andrea Sorce, an economics professor who is running for mayor of Vallejo. “So, yeah, when something hits like the pandemic, we do get hit hard.”

Vallejo, Calif.

South Vallejo

Askari Sowonde, a professional event planner and community activist, said residents are concerned with crime but still wary of the police.

“People are angry about both,” she said. “We don’t like the fact that some of these other people are killing each other and we have to talk about that, too. But let’s also deal with these police officers. Let’s not push that away.”

Overall, the footprint of violence spread in four out of five major U.S. cities. In Atlanta, the percentage of residents exposed to nearby gun violence rose to 58 percent during the pandemic years, up from 36 percent in the four prior years. In Columbus, Ohio, the exposure went to 41 percent from 28 percent.

Pockets of Violence

Even as violence spread in cities where it had been relatively low before the pandemic, it also intensified and spread in the places that already had high homicide rates.

Memphis is one example. Fatal shootings hit a new high in 2023, and in November, a former city council member, now a state senator, wrote to the governor and asked for enforcement help, saying the city was “ under siege .”

Binghampton

Dr. Williams runs the trauma unit at Le Bonheur Children’s Hospital and said the number of children and teenagers wounded by gunfire more than doubled during the pandemic, including 96 children 5 and under who suffered gunshot wounds.

“During Covid, we were so worried about the effect that it had on older people,” she said. “But we failed to recognize the effect of our children being out of school, and being out of normal socialization.”

In poorer communities, children rely on public institutions like schools and recreation departments to provide structure, and when that support was cut back during the pandemic, poorer children were more likely to suffer the consequences. Dr. Williams said many young people dropped out of the school system when society shut down, and never rejoined.

“There’s just a lot more children in the community that don’t have any way to stay busy and be occupied, and that’s getting them into trouble,” she said.

Memphis had more than a thousand homicide victims during the pandemic but the impact was even broader, since more than 335,000 people lived on blocks in close proximity to the violence — 83 percent of them Black or Hispanic. Some researchers believe more attention should be paid to these indirect victims.

“Neighborhoods that have persistently elevated levels of violence have lots of trauma across many people,” said Nicole Kravitz-Wirtz, a sociologist on the California, Davis, violence prevention project. “That impacts relationships between neighbors and translates into collective senses of fear.”

People in poor neighborhoods and those with a large Black population were most likely to experience violence.

Population exposed to a shooting.

Black population

Note: Neighborhood data is based on census tracts. Poverty is measured using the C.D.C.’s Social Vulnerability Index.

Most major cities contained both mostly safe areas and pockets of violence. Chicago has a national reputation for high gun violence, but on the ground, nearly a third of the city’s population lived in neighborhoods with very few shootings, while more than a quarter of the residents lived on blocks where the violence was extreme.

New York and Los Angeles, meanwhile, had relatively low homicide rates overall, but those figures masked the presence of some of the nation’s most dangerous neighborhoods.

This geographic disparity was reflected in the large differences in exposure to violence for people of different races. Black people were already far more likely to live near shootings before the pandemic, so when violence spiked, they were most likely to be affected.

In Milwaukee, for example, where shootings are so frequent that more than a third of white residents lived near one, their Black neighbors had it far worse: 83 percent lived near a gun homicide.

The racial demographics are far different in the least and most violent neighborhoods.

“These disparities become especially stark when we start talking about more than one incident of gun violence during the past year,” Ms. Kravitz-Wirtz said.

Debate Over Reforms

While homicide rates are falling in many parts of the country, they are still higher than prepandemic levels, and in some places they are still going up. The policy implications are still playing out in two primary areas: the battle over gun regulations and the debate over the role of policing.

The national gun homicide rate has fallen but remains higher than at any time since the 1990s.

Source: C.D.C. | Note: The rate for 2023 is estimated using data from the Gun Violence Archive.

Congress responded to the crisis by passing bipartisan “Safer Communities” legislation in 2022. It expanded background checks for gun buyers 21 and younger, incentivized states to enact “red flag” laws to temporarily confiscate guns from people deemed to be dangerous to society, and provided hundreds of millions of dollars to community-based, street-level gun violence prevention efforts.

In addition, dozens of states strengthened gun-safety bills, such as laws requiring a permit to purchase new firearms.

“There’s been tremendous progress at the state level,” said Kelly Drane, the research director at the Giffords Law Center, a gun violence prevention group that advocates for stronger regulations. “And there is also at the same time, this competing reality that there are states that are actively weakening their laws right now.”

Many local leaders have sought to confront long-simmering tensions over policing and the way suspects are prosecuted. More than 140 justice reform bills passed in 30 states in 2020 and 2021, measures that are still controversial in some jurisdictions .

“Everything seemed to be getting at making crime less costly to commit or making law enforcement more costly to do,” said Rafael A. Mangual, a fellow at the right-leaning Manhattan Institute who studies criminal justice. “I think people are unwilling to sacrifice the level of safety that was clearly sacrificed during the pandemic years.”

Whatever happens with the law and policing, researchers worry that the pandemic has left the nation more prone to gun violence than before.

“We are, as a society, experiencing long Covid,” said Dr. Wintemute, the University of California epidemiologist. “I don’t mean the physical effects of having the illness. We are only beginning to come to terms with the social damage that this pandemic has done.”

He added: “Many people’s futures, many people’s trajectories were altered by the pandemic, very few of them for the better. We’re going to be dealing with this for a long time.”

Methodology

Except where noted, data for this analysis comes from the Gun Violence Archive, a nonprofit that collects information on nearly every fatal shooting in the United States. The archive also collects data on gun suicides and nonfatal shootings, but this data is less complete and The Times excluded these cases from the analysis. (For more information on the archive’s data, see its methodology page.)

The location of every fatal shooting episode was plotted on a map, and then analyzed using Census Bureau data to determine the spread of violence and the racial disparity in shootings.

Location and incident information were the best available from the archive as of Jan. 11, 2024. Cases for which a precise location could not be determined are not shown on the maps but are included in summary statistics.

For the maps of shootings, every census block is color-coded by the number of shooting episodes within a quarter mile of the center of that block or within the boundaries of the block. In summary statistics, fatal shooting counts may not match other published totals because they are based on cases within city boundaries, which may differ from local police jurisdictions, and on the number of cases, not the number of victims.

Exposure is measured by the share of the population living in blocks where there was at least one fatal shooting within a quarter mile during the pandemic years. Population figures are based on the 2020 census.

The Asian category includes people who are Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders, and the Native American category includes Alaska Natives.

Change-over-time figures compare the pandemic years, 2020 through 2023, with the four preceding years, 2016 through 2019.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Trump Trial Jurors Finish First Day of Deliberations Without a Verdict

Former U.S. President Donald Trump, flanked by attorneys Todd Blanche and Emil Bove, arrives for his criminal trial at the Manhattan Criminal Court in New York, NY on Wednesday, May 29, 2024. Trump was charged with 34 counts of falsifying business records last year, which prosecutors say was an effort to hide a potential sex scandal, both before and after the 2016 presidential election. Trump is the first former U.S. president to face trial on criminal charges. Jabin Botsford/Pool via REUTERS

By Luc Cohen, Jack Queen and Andy Sullivan

NEW YORK (Reuters) -Jurors in Donald Trump's hush money trial finished their first day of closed-door deliberations on Wednesday without reaching a verdict that would decide the fate of the only U.S. president to be charged with a crime.

The 12 jurors and six alternates were due to return to the New York courthouse at 9:30 ET (1330 GMT) on Thursday to weigh evidence and witness testimony they have seen and heard over the five weeks of trial.

It was unclear when they might reach a verdict.

Trump, 77, is charged with falsifying business documents to cover up a $130,000 payment just before the 2016 presidential election to silence porn star Stormy Daniels, who alleged they had a sexual encounter.

Trump has pleaded not guilty and denies a liaison with her. He left the courtroom pumping the air with his fist and ignoring reporters' questions.

Late in the day, jurors asked Justice Juan Merchan for transcripts of testimony by two witnesses: former Trump fixer Michael Cohen, who testified that Trump was aware of the payoff and worked to cover it up, and former National Enquirer tabloid publisher David Pecker, who testified about his efforts to bury stories that might have hurt Trump's candidacy.

They also told Merchan they wanted him to repeat the detailed instructions he had given them earlier in the day to guide their deliberations.

It was unclear whether jurors wanted to hear all of those instructions again or just a portion.

Any verdict requires unanimous agreement by all 12 jurors. The judge will declare a mistrial if they are unable to resolve their differences.

Trump, a Republican, has cast the trial as an attempt to undercut his bid to take back the White House from Democratic President Joe Biden in the Nov. 5 election.

"Mother Teresa could not beat these charges," he told reporters outside the courtroom, referring to the late Nobel Peace Prize laureate. "The whole thing is rigged."

Merchan told jurors to apply extra scrutiny to the testimony of Cohen because he was an accomplice to the payments at the heart of the case. Cohen was Trump's fixer and private lawyer for about a decade until they had a falling out.

Cohen testified that he paid the $130,000 out of his own pocket to prevent Daniels from telling voters about the alleged sexual encounter with Trump that she says took place 10 years before the 2016 election.

Cohen testified that Trump approved the payoff and agreed after the election to a plan to reimburse Cohen through monthly installments disguised as legal fees.

Trump's lawyers have argued that jurors cannot rely on Cohen, a convicted felon with a long track record of lying, to tell the truth.

"He is literally the greatest liar of all time," Trump lawyer Todd Blanche toll jurors on Tuesday.

Prosecutors say voice messages, emails and other evidence back up Cohen's testimony.

Prosecutors from Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg's office face the burden of proving Trump's guilt "beyond a reasonable doubt," the standard under U.S. law.

They say the Daniels payment could have contributed to Trump's 2016 victory over Democrat Hillary Clinton by keeping an unflattering story out of the public eye.

A conviction will not prevent Trump, from trying to take back the White House. Nor will it prevent him from taking office if he wins.

Opinion polls show Trump and Biden locked in a tight race. But Reuters/Ipsos polling has found that a guilty verdict could cost Trump support among independent and some Republican voters.

Trump faces up to four years in prison if found guilty, but those found guilty of the crime he is charged with are more often fined or given probation.

A verdict of not guilty would remove a major legal barrier, freeing Trump from the obligation to juggle court appearances and campaign stops. If convicted, he would be expected to appeal. Trump faces three other criminal prosecutions, but they are not expected to go to trial before the November election.

Biden campaign officials say any verdict will not substantially change the dynamics of the election.

(Reporting by Jack Queen and Luc Cohen in New York and Andy Sullivan in Washington; Editing by Noeleen Walder and Howard Goller)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

Join the Conversation

Tags: United States , crime , New York City , New York

America 2024

Health News Bulletin

Stay informed on the latest news on health and COVID-19 from the editors at U.S. News & World Report.

Sign in to manage your newsletters »

Sign up to receive the latest updates from U.S News & World Report and our trusted partners and sponsors. By clicking submit, you are agreeing to our Terms and Conditions & Privacy Policy .

You May Also Like

The 10 worst presidents.

U.S. News Staff Feb. 23, 2024

Cartoons on President Donald Trump

Feb. 1, 2017, at 1:24 p.m.

Photos: Obama Behind the Scenes

April 8, 2022

Photos: Who Supports Joe Biden?

March 11, 2020

What to Know: Human Cases of Bird Flu

Cecelia Smith-Schoenwalder May 30, 2024

How’s Biden Doing With Young Voters?

Q1 Economic Growth Revised Downward

Tim Smart May 30, 2024

When Will the Israel-Hamas War End?

Cecelia Smith-Schoenwalder May 29, 2024

Biden Tries to Energize Black Voters

Laura Mannweiler May 29, 2024

Report: Global Executions Rose in 2023

Elliott Davis Jr. May 29, 2024

An official website of the United States government, Department of Justice.

Here's how you know

Official websites use .gov A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS A lock ( Lock A locked padlock ) or https:// means you’ve safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

Crime Scene Analysis

This training was presented as a part of the National Center on Forensics conference at George Mason University on August 9th, 2023. In this session, Forensic Scientist Kerry Hogan introduces the basics of crime scene processing. This training covers methodology, types of evidence, documentation, search methods, evidence collection, and much more. From discovery to analysis, this session walks viewers from the beginning of a crime scene to the final handling of evidence.

Read more about

Similar events.

• Discovery, Disclosure and Ethical Considerations