YouTube has a pattern of recommending right-leaning and Christian videos, even to users who haven’t previously interacted with that kind of content, according to a recent study of the platform’s suggestions to users.
The four-part research project, conducted by a London-based nonprofit organization that researches extremism called the Institute for Strategic Dialogue , explored video recommendations served to accounts designed to mimic users interested in four topic areas: gaming, male lifestyle gurus, mommy vloggers and Spanish-language news.
“We wanted to, for the most part, look at topics that don’t generally direct people into extremist worlds or anything along those lines,” said Aoife Gallagher, the project’s lead analyst.
Researchers created accounts and built mock user personas by searching for content, subscribing to channels and watching videos using those accounts. After having built personas for five days, researchers recorded the video recommendations displayed on each account’s homepage for a month.
The study noted that YouTube’s recommendation algorithm “drives 70% of all video views.”
In one investigation, the most frequently recommended news channel for both child and adult accounts interested in “male lifestyle guru” content was Fox News, even though neither account had watched Fox News during the persona-building stage. Instead, the accounts watched Joe Rogan and Jordan Peterson and searched for the term “alpha male.”
“This suggests that YouTube associated male lifestyle videos and creators with conservative topics,” the study said.
In another experiment, researchers created two accounts interested in mommy vloggers — mothers who make video diaries about parenting — that they trained to have different political biases. One of the accounts watched Fox News, and the other watched MSNBC. Despite having watched their respective channels for equal amounts of time, the right-leaning account was later more frequently recommended Fox News than the left-leaning account was recommended MSNBC.
A mommy vlogger account that the left-leaning user had already subscribed to was the most recommended channel.
“These results suggest that right-leaning news content is more frequently recommended than left-leaning,” the study said. Both accounts were also recommended videos by an anti-vaccine influencer.
Jessie Daniels, a professor of sociology at Hunter College, part of the City University of New York, and the author of a 2018 article titled “The Algorithmic Rise of the ‘Alt-Right,’” said the project’s main findings were in line with her previous research. She has examined the rise of the internet in the 1990s and how the far right saw an opening to share its beliefs with larger audiences by bypassing the traditional media gatekeepers.
Daniels said she believes the findings suggest that YouTube has made continued engagement and profits its top priorities rather than concerns around reinforcing existing political biases or echo chambers.
Videos with religious themes — primarily Christianity — were also recommended to all the accounts, even though none of them had watched religious content during the persona-building stage. The accounts interested in mommy vloggers, for example, were shown videos with Bible verses.
The researchers also found that YouTube recommended videos including sexually explicit content to the child account and videos featuring influencer Andrew Tate, who has been charged with human trafficking and rape (allegations that he has denied) in Romania, even though he is banned from the platform.
Heading into this year’s presidential race, concerns about the spread of election misinformation on social media are only growing. In 2022, a study by researchers at New York University found that after the last presidential election, YouTube recommended videos that pushed voter fraud claims to Donald Trump supporters.
“One of the main issues that we’re seeing is polarization across society, and I think that social media is contributing an awful lot to that kind of polarization,” Gallagher said.
This isn’t the first time YouTube has faced scrutiny for its algorithm. Researchers have repeatedly found that YouTube has recommended extremist and conspiracy theory videos to users.
“We welcome research on our recommendation system, but it’s difficult to draw conclusions based on the test accounts created by the researchers, which may not be consistent with the behavior of real people,” YouTube spokesperson Elena Hernandez said in a statement to NBC News. “YouTube’s recommendation system is trained to raise high-quality content on the home page, in search results, and the Watch Next panel for viewers of all ages across the platform. We continue to invest significantly in the policies, products, and practices to protect people from harmful content, especially younger viewers.”
For years, there have also been concerns that social media platforms may create echo chambers where users engage only in content that reinforces their beliefs. However, other recent research has also suggested that users’ own preferences, not the YouTube recommendation system, play the primary role in what they decide to watch and that YouTube may even have a moderating influence.
“This goes back to a lack of transparency and a lack of access that we have to data on YouTube,” Gallagher said. “YouTube is one of the most cloaked of the platforms. It’s very, very difficult to analyze YouTube at scale.”
Victoria Feng is an intern on the NBC News technology desk.
Disclaimer: Early release articles are not considered as final versions. Any changes will be reflected in the online version in the month the article is officially released.
Volume 30, Number 8—August 2024
Persistence of influenza h5n1 and h1n1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces.
Suggested citation for this article
Examining the persistence of highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) from cattle and human influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 pandemic viruses in unpasteurized milk revealed that both remain infectious on milking equipment materials for several hours. Those findings highlight the risk for H5N1 virus transmission to humans from contaminated surfaces during the milking process.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza A(H5N1) virus was detected in US domestic dairy cattle in late March 2024, after which it spread to herds across multiple states and resulted in at least 3 confirmed human infections ( 1 ). Assessment of milk from infected dairy cows indicated that unpasteurized milk contained high levels of infectious influenza virus ( 2 ; L.C. Caserta et al., unpub. data, https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.05.22.595317 ). Exposure of dairy farm workers to contaminated unpasteurized milk during the milking process could lead to increased human H5 virus infections. Such infections could enable H5 viruses to adapt through viral evolution within humans and gain the capability for human-to-human transmission.
Figure 1 . Illustration of milking unit surfaces tested in a study of persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk. Before attaching the milking unit (claw), a dairy worker disinfects...
The milking process is primarily automated and uses vacuum units, commonly referred to as clusters or claws, which are attached to the dairy cow teats to collect milk ( Figure 1 ) ( 3 ). However, several steps in the milking process require human input, including forestripping, whereby workers manually express the first 3–5 streams of milk from each teat by hand. Forestripping stimulates the teats for optimal milk letdown, improves milk quality by removing bacteria, and provides an opportunity to check for abnormal milk. The forestripping process can result in milk splatter on the floor of the milking parlor and surrounding equipment and production of milk aerosols.
After forestripping, each teat is cleaned and dried by hand before the claw is installed. During milking, a flexible rubber inflation liner housed within the stainless-steel shell of the claw opens to enable the flow of milk and closes to exert pressure on the teat to stop the flow of milk ( Figure 1 ). When the flow of milk decreases to a specific level, the claw automatically releases ( 3 ), at which point residual milk in the inflation liner could spray onto dairy workers, equipment, or the surrounding area. Of note, milking often takes place at human eye level; the human workspace is physically lower than the cows, which increases the potential for infectious milk to contact human workers’ mucus membranes. No eye or respiratory protection is currently required for dairy farm workers, but recommendations have been released ( 4 ).
Influenza virus persistence in unpasteurized milk on surfaces is unclear, but information on virus persistence is critical to understanding viral exposure risk to dairy workers during the milking process. Therefore, we analyzed the persistence of infectious influenza viruses in unpasteurized milk on surfaces commonly found in milking units, such as rubber inflation liners and stainless steel ( Figure 1 ).
For infectious strains, we used influenza A(H5N1) strain A/dairy cattle/TX/8749001/2024 or a surrogate influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 pandemic influenza virus strain, A/California/07/2009. We diluted virus 1:10 in raw unpasteurized milk and in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) as a control. As described in prior studies ( 5 – 7 ), we pipetted small droplets of diluted virus in milk or PBS onto either stainless steel or rubber inflation liner coupons inside an environmental chamber. We then collected virus samples immediately (time 0) or after 1, 3, or 5 hours to detect infectious virus by endpoint titration using a 50% tissue culture infectious dose assay ( 7 ). To mimic environmental conditions within open-air milking parlors in the Texas panhandle during March–April 2024, when the virus was detected in dairy herds, we conducted persistence studies using 70% relative humidity.
Figure 2 . Viral titers in a study of persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces. A) Viral titers of bovine A(H5N1) virus diluted 1:10 in...
We observed that the H5N1 cattle virus remained infectious in unpasteurized milk on stainless steel and rubber inflation lining after 1 hour, whereas infectious virus in PBS fell to below the limit of detection after 1 hour ( Figure 2 , panel A). That finding indicates that unpasteurized milk containing H5N1 virus remains infectious on materials within the milking unit. To assess whether a less pathogenic influenza virus could be used as a surrogate to study viral persistence on milking unit materials, we compared viral decay between H5N1 and H1N1 in raw milk over 1 hour on rubber inflation liner and stainless-steel surfaces ( Figure 2 , panel B). The 2 viruses had similar decay rates on both surfaces, suggesting that H1N1 can be used as a surrogate for H5N1 cattle virus in studies of viral persistence in raw milk. Further experiments examining H1N1 infectiousness over longer periods revealed viral persistence in unpasteurized milk on rubber inflation liner for at least 3 hours and on stainless steel for at least 1 hour ( Figure 2 , panel C). Those results indicate that influenza virus is stable in unpasteurized milk and that influenza A virus deposited on milking equipment could remain infectious for >3 hours.
Taken together, our data provide compelling evidence that dairy farm workers are at risk for infection with H5N1 virus from surfaces contaminated during the milking process. To reduce H5N1 virus spillover from dairy cows to humans, farms should implement use of personal protective equipment, such as face shields, masks, and eye protection, for workers during milking. In addition, contaminated rubber inflation liners could be responsible for the cattle-to-cattle spread observed on dairy farms. Sanitizing the liners after milking each cow could reduce influenza virus spread between animals on farms and help curb the current outbreak.
Dr. Le Sage is a research assistant professor at the University of Pittsburgh Center for Vaccine Research, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. Her research interests include elucidating the requirements for influenza virus transmission and assessing the pandemic potential of emerging influenza viruses.
We thank the Lakdawala lab members, Centers of Excellence for Influenza Research and Response (CEIRR) risk assessment pipeline meeting attendees, Rachel Duron, and Linsey Marr for useful feedback.
This project was funded in part with federal funds from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, under contract no. 75N93021C00015 and a National Institutes of Health award (no. UC7AI180311) from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases supporting the operations of the University of Pittsburgh Regional Biocontainment Laboratory in the Center for Vaccine Research. H5N1 studies were performed in accordance with select agent permit no. 20230320-074008 at the University of Pittsburgh.
This article was preprinted at https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.05.22.24307745v1 .
Suggested citation for this article : Le Sage V, Campbell AJ, Reed DS, Duprex WP, Lakdawala SS. Persistence of influenza H5N1 and H1N1 viruses in unpasteurized milk on milking unit surfaces. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024 Aug [ date cited ]. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid3008.240775
DOI: 10.3201/eid3008.240775
Original Publication Date: June 24, 2024
1 These first authors contributed equally to this article.
Table of Contents – Volume 30, Number 8—August 2024
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What is the altmetric attention score.
The Altmetric Attention Score for a research output provides an indicator of the amount of attention that it has received. The score is derived from an automated algorithm, and represents a weighted count of the amount of attention Altmetric picked up for a research output.
Research shows that 78% of leaders report “collaboration drag” — too many meetings, too much peer feedback, and too much time spent getting buy-in from stakeholders.
Gartner research shows 78% of organizational leaders report experiencing “collaboration drag” — too many meetings, too much peer feedback, unclear decision-making authority, and too much time spent getting buy-in from stakeholders. This problem is compounded by the fact that companies are running as many as five types of complex initiatives at the same time — each of which could involve five to eight corporate functions and 20 to 35 team members. The sheer breadth of resource commitments across such a range of initiatives creates a basic, pervasive background complexity. To better equip teams to meet the demands of this complexity, Gartner recommends the following strategies: 1) Extend executive alignment practices down to tactical levels; 2) Develop employee strategic and interpersonal skills; and 3) Look for collaboration drag within functions or teams.
Corporate growth is the ultimate team sport, relying on multiple functions’ data, technology, and expertise. This is especially true as technology innovation and AI introduce new revenue streams and business models, which require significant cross-functional collaboration to get off the ground.
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