term paper about literary analysis

beginner's guide to literary analysis

Understanding literature & how to write literary analysis.

Literary analysis is the foundation of every college and high school English class. Once you can comprehend written work and respond to it, the next step is to learn how to think critically and complexly about a work of literature in order to analyze its elements and establish ideas about its meaning.

If that sounds daunting, it shouldn’t. Literary analysis is really just a way of thinking creatively about what you read. The practice takes you beyond the storyline and into the motives behind it.

While an author might have had a specific intention when they wrote their book, there’s still no right or wrong way to analyze a literary text—just your way. You can use literary theories, which act as “lenses” through which you can view a text. Or you can use your own creativity and critical thinking to identify a literary device or pattern in a text and weave that insight into your own argument about the text’s underlying meaning.

Now, if that sounds fun, it should , because it is. Here, we’ll lay the groundwork for performing literary analysis, including when writing analytical essays, to help you read books like a critic.

What Is Literary Analysis?

As the name suggests, literary analysis is an analysis of a work, whether that’s a novel, play, short story, or poem. Any analysis requires breaking the content into its component parts and then examining how those parts operate independently and as a whole. In literary analysis, those parts can be different devices and elements—such as plot, setting, themes, symbols, etcetera—as well as elements of style, like point of view or tone.

When performing analysis, you consider some of these different elements of the text and then form an argument for why the author chose to use them. You can do so while reading and during class discussion, but it’s particularly important when writing essays.

Literary analysis is notably distinct from summary. When you write a summary , you efficiently describe the work’s main ideas or plot points in order to establish an overview of the work. While you might use elements of summary when writing analysis, you should do so minimally. You can reference a plot line to make a point, but it should be done so quickly so you can focus on why that plot line matters . In summary (see what we did there?), a summary focuses on the “ what ” of a text, while analysis turns attention to the “ how ” and “ why .”

While literary analysis can be broad, covering themes across an entire work, it can also be very specific, and sometimes the best analysis is just that. Literary critics have written thousands of words about the meaning of an author’s single word choice; while you might not want to be quite that particular, there’s a lot to be said for digging deep in literary analysis, rather than wide.

Although you’re forming your own argument about the work, it’s not your opinion . You should avoid passing judgment on the piece and instead objectively consider what the author intended, how they went about executing it, and whether or not they were successful in doing so. Literary criticism is similar to literary analysis, but it is different in that it does pass judgement on the work. Criticism can also consider literature more broadly, without focusing on a singular work.

Once you understand what constitutes (and doesn’t constitute) literary analysis, it’s easy to identify it. Here are some examples of literary analysis and its oft-confused counterparts:

Summary: In “The Fall of the House of Usher,” the narrator visits his friend Roderick Usher and witnesses his sister escape a horrible fate.

Opinion: In “The Fall of the House of Usher,” Poe uses his great Gothic writing to establish a sense of spookiness that is enjoyable to read.

Literary Analysis: “Throughout ‘The Fall of the House of Usher,’ Poe foreshadows the fate of Madeline by creating a sense of claustrophobia for the reader through symbols, such as in the narrator’s inability to leave and the labyrinthine nature of the house.

In summary, literary analysis is:

Breaking a work into its components
Identifying what those components are and how they work in the text
Developing an understanding of how they work together to achieve a goal
Not an opinion, but subjective
Not a summary, though summary can be used in passing
Best when it deeply, rather than broadly, analyzes a literary element

Literary Analysis and Other Works

As discussed above, literary analysis is often performed upon a single work—but it doesn’t have to be. It can also be performed across works to consider the interplay of two or more texts. Regardless of whether or not the works were written about the same thing, or even within the same time period, they can have an influence on one another or a connection that’s worth exploring. And reading two or more texts side by side can help you to develop insights through comparison and contrast.

For example, Paradise Lost is an epic poem written in the 17th century, based largely on biblical narratives written some 700 years before and which later influenced 19th century poet John Keats. The interplay of works can be obvious, as here, or entirely the inspiration of the analyst. As an example of the latter, you could compare and contrast the writing styles of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Edgar Allan Poe who, while contemporaries in terms of time, were vastly different in their content.

Additionally, literary analysis can be performed between a work and its context. Authors are often speaking to the larger context of their times, be that social, political, religious, economic, or artistic. A valid and interesting form is to compare the author’s context to the work, which is done by identifying and analyzing elements that are used to make an argument about the writer’s time or experience.

For example, you could write an essay about how Hemingway’s struggles with mental health and paranoia influenced his later work, or how his involvement in the Spanish Civil War influenced his early work. One approach focuses more on his personal experience, while the other turns to the context of his times—both are valid.

Why Does Literary Analysis Matter?

Sometimes an author wrote a work of literature strictly for entertainment’s sake, but more often than not, they meant something more. Whether that was a missive on world peace, commentary about femininity, or an allusion to their experience as an only child, the author probably wrote their work for a reason, and understanding that reason—or the many reasons—can actually make reading a lot more meaningful.

Performing literary analysis as a form of study unquestionably makes you a better reader. It’s also likely that it will improve other skills, too, like critical thinking, creativity, debate, and reasoning.

At its grandest and most idealistic, literary analysis even has the ability to make the world a better place. By reading and analyzing works of literature, you are able to more fully comprehend the perspectives of others. Cumulatively, you’ll broaden your own perspectives and contribute more effectively to the things that matter to you.

Literary Terms to Know for Literary Analysis

There are hundreds of literary devices you could consider during your literary analysis, but there are some key tools most writers utilize to achieve their purpose—and therefore you need to know in order to understand that purpose. These common devices include:

Characters: The people (or entities) who play roles in the work. The protagonist is the main character in the work.
Conflict: The conflict is the driving force behind the plot, the event that causes action in the narrative, usually on the part of the protagonist
Context : The broader circumstances surrounding the work political and social climate in which it was written or the experience of the author. It can also refer to internal context, and the details presented by the narrator
Diction : The word choice used by the narrator or characters
Genre: A category of literature characterized by agreed upon similarities in the works, such as subject matter and tone
Imagery : The descriptive or figurative language used to paint a picture in the reader’s mind so they can picture the story’s plot, characters, and setting
Metaphor: A figure of speech that uses comparison between two unlike objects for dramatic or poetic effect
Narrator: The person who tells the story. Sometimes they are a character within the story, but sometimes they are omniscient and removed from the plot.
Plot : The storyline of the work
Point of view: The perspective taken by the narrator, which skews the perspective of the reader
Setting : The time and place in which the story takes place. This can include elements like the time period, weather, time of year or day, and social or economic conditions
Symbol : An object, person, or place that represents an abstract idea that is greater than its literal meaning
Syntax : The structure of a sentence, either narration or dialogue, and the tone it implies
Theme : A recurring subject or message within the work, often commentary on larger societal or cultural ideas
Tone : The feeling, attitude, or mood the text presents

How to Perform Literary Analysis

Step 1: read the text thoroughly.

Literary analysis begins with the literature itself, which means performing a close reading of the text. As you read, you should focus on the work. That means putting away distractions (sorry, smartphone) and dedicating a period of time to the task at hand.

It’s also important that you don’t skim or speed read. While those are helpful skills, they don’t apply to literary analysis—or at least not this stage.

Step 2: Take Notes as You Read

As you read the work, take notes about different literary elements and devices that stand out to you. Whether you highlight or underline in text, use sticky note tabs to mark pages and passages, or handwrite your thoughts in a notebook, you should capture your thoughts and the parts of the text to which they correspond. This—the act of noticing things about a literary work—is literary analysis.

Step 3: Notice Patterns

As you read the work, you’ll begin to notice patterns in the way the author deploys language, themes, and symbols to build their plot and characters. As you read and these patterns take shape, begin to consider what they could mean and how they might fit together.

As you identify these patterns, as well as other elements that catch your interest, be sure to record them in your notes or text. Some examples include:

Circle or underline words or terms that you notice the author uses frequently, whether those are nouns (like “eyes” or “road”) or adjectives (like “yellow” or “lush”).
Highlight phrases that give you the same kind of feeling. For example, if the narrator describes an “overcast sky,” a “dreary morning,” and a “dark, quiet room,” the words aren’t the same, but the feeling they impart and setting they develop are similar.
Underline quotes or prose that define a character’s personality or their role in the text.
Use sticky tabs to color code different elements of the text, such as specific settings or a shift in the point of view.

By noting these patterns, comprehensive symbols, metaphors, and ideas will begin to come into focus.

Step 4: Consider the Work as a Whole, and Ask Questions

This is a step that you can do either as you read, or after you finish the text. The point is to begin to identify the aspects of the work that most interest you, and you could therefore analyze in writing or discussion.

Questions you could ask yourself include:

What aspects of the text do I not understand?
What parts of the narrative or writing struck me most?
What patterns did I notice?
What did the author accomplish really well?
What did I find lacking?
Did I notice any contradictions or anything that felt out of place?
What was the purpose of the minor characters?
What tone did the author choose, and why?

The answers to these and more questions will lead you to your arguments about the text.

Step 5: Return to Your Notes and the Text for Evidence

As you identify the argument you want to make (especially if you’re preparing for an essay), return to your notes to see if you already have supporting evidence for your argument. That’s why it’s so important to take notes or mark passages as you read—you’ll thank yourself later!

If you’re preparing to write an essay, you’ll use these passages and ideas to bolster your argument—aka, your thesis. There will likely be multiple different passages you can use to strengthen multiple different aspects of your argument. Just be sure to cite the text correctly!

If you’re preparing for class, your notes will also be invaluable. When your teacher or professor leads the conversation in the direction of your ideas or arguments, you’ll be able to not only proffer that idea but back it up with textual evidence. That’s an A+ in class participation.

Step 6: Connect These Ideas Across the Narrative

Whether you’re in class or writing an essay, literary analysis isn’t complete until you’ve considered the way these ideas interact and contribute to the work as a whole. You can find and present evidence, but you still have to explain how those elements work together and make up your argument.

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay

When conducting literary analysis while reading a text or discussing it in class, you can pivot easily from one argument to another (or even switch sides if a classmate or teacher makes a compelling enough argument).

But when writing literary analysis, your objective is to propose a specific, arguable thesis and convincingly defend it. In order to do so, you need to fortify your argument with evidence from the text (and perhaps secondary sources) and an authoritative tone.

A successful literary analysis essay depends equally on a thoughtful thesis, supportive analysis, and presenting these elements masterfully. We’ll review how to accomplish these objectives below.

Step 1: Read the Text. Maybe Read It Again.

Constructing an astute analytical essay requires a thorough knowledge of the text. As you read, be sure to note any passages, quotes, or ideas that stand out. These could serve as the future foundation of your thesis statement. Noting these sections now will help you when you need to gather evidence.

The more familiar you become with the text, the better (and easier!) your essay will be. Familiarity with the text allows you to speak (or in this case, write) to it confidently. If you only skim the book, your lack of rich understanding will be evident in your essay. Alternatively, if you read the text closely—especially if you read it more than once, or at least carefully revisit important passages—your own writing will be filled with insight that goes beyond a basic understanding of the storyline.

Step 2: Brainstorm Potential Topics

Because you took detailed notes while reading the text, you should have a list of potential topics at the ready. Take time to review your notes, highlighting any ideas or questions you had that feel interesting. You should also return to the text and look for any passages that stand out to you.

When considering potential topics, you should prioritize ideas that you find interesting. It won’t only make the whole process of writing an essay more fun, your enthusiasm for the topic will probably improve the quality of your argument, and maybe even your writing. Just like it’s obvious when a topic interests you in a conversation, it’s obvious when a topic interests the writer of an essay (and even more obvious when it doesn’t).

Your topic ideas should also be specific, unique, and arguable. A good way to think of topics is that they’re the answer to fairly specific questions. As you begin to brainstorm, first think of questions you have about the text. Questions might focus on the plot, such as: Why did the author choose to deviate from the projected storyline? Or why did a character’s role in the narrative shift? Questions might also consider the use of a literary device, such as: Why does the narrator frequently repeat a phrase or comment on a symbol? Or why did the author choose to switch points of view each chapter?

Once you have a thesis question , you can begin brainstorming answers—aka, potential thesis statements . At this point, your answers can be fairly broad. Once you land on a question-statement combination that feels right, you’ll then look for evidence in the text that supports your answer (and helps you define and narrow your thesis statement).

For example, after reading “ The Fall of the House of Usher ,” you might be wondering, Why are Roderick and Madeline twins?, Or even: Why does their relationship feel so creepy?” Maybe you noticed (and noted) that the narrator was surprised to find out they were twins, or perhaps you found that the narrator’s tone tended to shift and become more anxious when discussing the interactions of the twins.

Once you come up with your thesis question, you can identify a broad answer, which will become the basis for your thesis statement. In response to the questions above, your answer might be, “Poe emphasizes the close relationship of Roderick and Madeline to foreshadow that their deaths will be close, too.”

Step 3: Gather Evidence

Once you have your topic (or you’ve narrowed it down to two or three), return to the text (yes, again) to see what evidence you can find to support it. If you’re thinking of writing about the relationship between Roderick and Madeline in “The Fall of the House of Usher,” look for instances where they engaged in the text.

This is when your knowledge of literary devices comes in clutch. Carefully study the language around each event in the text that might be relevant to your topic. How does Poe’s diction or syntax change during the interactions of the siblings? How does the setting reflect or contribute to their relationship? What imagery or symbols appear when Roderick and Madeline are together?

By finding and studying evidence within the text, you’ll strengthen your topic argument—or, just as valuably, discount the topics that aren’t strong enough for analysis.

Step 4: Consider Secondary Sources

In addition to returning to the literary work you’re studying for evidence, you can also consider secondary sources that reference or speak to the work. These can be articles from journals you find on JSTOR, books that consider the work or its context, or articles your teacher shared in class.

While you can use these secondary sources to further support your idea, you should not overuse them. Make sure your topic remains entirely differentiated from that presented in the source.

Step 5: Write a Working Thesis Statement

Once you’ve gathered evidence and narrowed down your topic, you’re ready to refine that topic into a thesis statement. As you continue to outline and write your paper, this thesis statement will likely change slightly, but this initial draft will serve as the foundation of your essay. It’s like your north star: Everything you write in your essay is leading you back to your thesis.

Writing a great thesis statement requires some real finesse. A successful thesis statement is:

Debatable : You shouldn’t simply summarize or make an obvious statement about the work. Instead, your thesis statement should take a stand on an issue or make a claim that is open to argument. You’ll spend your essay debating—and proving—your argument.
Demonstrable : You need to be able to prove, through evidence, that your thesis statement is true. That means you have to have passages from the text and correlative analysis ready to convince the reader that you’re right.
Specific : In most cases, successfully addressing a theme that encompasses a work in its entirety would require a book-length essay. Instead, identify a thesis statement that addresses specific elements of the work, such as a relationship between characters, a repeating symbol, a key setting, or even something really specific like the speaking style of a character.

Example: By depicting the relationship between Roderick and Madeline to be stifling and almost otherworldly in its closeness, Poe foreshadows both Madeline’s fate and Roderick’s inability to choose a different fate for himself.

Step 6: Write an Outline

You have your thesis, you have your evidence—but how do you put them together? A great thesis statement (and therefore a great essay) will have multiple arguments supporting it, presenting different kinds of evidence that all contribute to the singular, main idea presented in your thesis.

Review your evidence and identify these different arguments, then organize the evidence into categories based on the argument they support. These ideas and evidence will become the body paragraphs of your essay.

For example, if you were writing about Roderick and Madeline as in the example above, you would pull evidence from the text, such as the narrator’s realization of their relationship as twins; examples where the narrator’s tone of voice shifts when discussing their relationship; imagery, like the sounds Roderick hears as Madeline tries to escape; and Poe’s tendency to use doubles and twins in his other writings to create the same spooky effect. All of these are separate strains of the same argument, and can be clearly organized into sections of an outline.

Step 7: Write Your Introduction

Your introduction serves a few very important purposes that essentially set the scene for the reader:

Establish context. Sure, your reader has probably read the work. But you still want to remind them of the scene, characters, or elements you’ll be discussing.
Present your thesis statement. Your thesis statement is the backbone of your analytical paper. You need to present it clearly at the outset so that the reader understands what every argument you make is aimed at.
Offer a mini-outline. While you don’t want to show all your cards just yet, you do want to preview some of the evidence you’ll be using to support your thesis so that the reader has a roadmap of where they’re going.

Step 8: Write Your Body Paragraphs

Thanks to steps one through seven, you’ve already set yourself up for success. You have clearly outlined arguments and evidence to support them. Now it’s time to translate those into authoritative and confident prose.

When presenting each idea, begin with a topic sentence that encapsulates the argument you’re about to make (sort of like a mini-thesis statement). Then present your evidence and explanations of that evidence that contribute to that argument. Present enough material to prove your point, but don’t feel like you necessarily have to point out every single instance in the text where this element takes place. For example, if you’re highlighting a symbol that repeats throughout the narrative, choose two or three passages where it is used most effectively, rather than trying to squeeze in all ten times it appears.

While you should have clearly defined arguments, the essay should still move logically and fluidly from one argument to the next. Try to avoid choppy paragraphs that feel disjointed; every idea and argument should feel connected to the last, and, as a group, connected to your thesis. A great way to connect the ideas from one paragraph to the next is with transition words and phrases, such as:

Furthermore
In addition
On the other hand
Conversely

Step 9: Write Your Conclusion

Your conclusion is more than a summary of your essay's parts, but it’s also not a place to present brand new ideas not already discussed in your essay. Instead, your conclusion should return to your thesis (without repeating it verbatim) and point to why this all matters. If writing about the siblings in “The Fall of the House of Usher,” for example, you could point out that the utilization of twins and doubles is a common literary element of Poe’s work that contributes to the definitive eeriness of Gothic literature.

While you might speak to larger ideas in your conclusion, be wary of getting too macro. Your conclusion should still be supported by all of the ideas that preceded it.

Step 10: Revise, Revise, Revise

Of course you should proofread your literary analysis essay before you turn it in. But you should also edit the content to make sure every piece of evidence and every explanation directly supports your thesis as effectively and efficiently as possible.

Sometimes, this might mean actually adapting your thesis a bit to the rest of your essay. At other times, it means removing redundant examples or paraphrasing quotations. Make sure every sentence is valuable, and remove those that aren’t.

Other Resources for Literary Analysis

With these skills and suggestions, you’re well on your way to practicing and writing literary analysis. But if you don’t have a firm grasp on the concepts discussed above—such as literary devices or even the content of the text you’re analyzing—it will still feel difficult to produce insightful analysis.

If you’d like to sharpen the tools in your literature toolbox, there are plenty of other resources to help you do so:

Check out our expansive library of Literary Devices . These could provide you with a deeper understanding of the basic devices discussed above or introduce you to new concepts sure to impress your professors ( anagnorisis , anyone?).
This Academic Citation Resource Guide ensures you properly cite any work you reference in your analytical essay.
Our English Homework Help Guide will point you to dozens of resources that can help you perform analysis, from critical reading strategies to poetry helpers.
This Grammar Education Resource Guide will direct you to plenty of resources to refine your grammar and writing (definitely important for getting an A+ on that paper).

Of course, you should know the text inside and out before you begin writing your analysis. In order to develop a true understanding of the work, read through its corresponding SuperSummary study guide . Doing so will help you truly comprehend the plot, as well as provide some inspirational ideas for your analysis.

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay: An Insightful Guide

Welcome to the fascinating world of writing a literary analysis essay – where words come alive, stories unravel, and your insights take center stage. Have you ever wondered how to decode the deeper meanings of your favorite books or express your thoughts in a way that captivates your reader? Well, you're in the right place. In this article, we're diving headfirst into essays writing, breaking down the complexities, and showing you how to craft an essay that not only impresses your teacher but also makes you appreciate literature in a whole new light.

What Is Literary Analysis Essay

According to a literary analysis essay definition, it is a written examination and interpretation of a literary work, typically dissecting its elements such as plot, characters, themes, and symbolism. Going beyond summarization, this type of essay delves into the intricacies of a text, aiming to uncover deeper meanings, explore the author's intentions, and critically evaluate the literary techniques employed. It requires the writer to engage in thoughtful analysis, supported by evidence from the text, to unveil the layers of significance within the work. Through this process, the essay not only offers a nuanced understanding of the literature but also encourages readers to appreciate the artistry and complexity inherent in written narratives. Those students who are not ready to work on such an assignment can simply say, ‘ write my papers ,’ and our experts will handle the task shortly.

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What Is the Purpose of a Literary Analysis Essay

The purpose of a literary analysis essay is to delve deeply into a literary work, examining its various elements and uncovering layers of meaning beyond the surface narrative. Through critical analysis and interpretation, this type of essay aims to illuminate the themes, characters, settings, and literary devices employed by the author, offering insights into their intentions and the broader significance of the text. By dissecting the nuances of the work, a literary analysis encourages readers to engage with literature on a deeper level, fostering a richer understanding of the human experience, societal issues, and the complexities of language and storytelling. Ultimately, the essay serves as a platform for readers to explore and appreciate the artistry and impact of literature while honing their analytical and critical thinking skills. When you have time, study our guide regarding how to write an analytical essay , which will shed light on more important academic writing aspects.

Literary Analysis Outline

Here's a basic outline for this type of essay:

Introduction

Hook: Engage the reader with a compelling quote, question, or anecdote related to the literary work.
Background Information: Provide relevant information about the author, the title, and the context of the work.
Thesis Statement: Clearly state the main point or argument of your analysis.

Body Paragraph 1: Analysis of the Plot

Provide a brief summary of the plot.
Analyze key events, plot twists, and their significance.
Discuss the structure of the narrative and how it contributes to the overall theme.

Body Paragraph 2: Character Analysis

Introduce and describe the main characters.
Analyze their traits, motivations, and relationships.
Discuss how the characters contribute to the development of the story.

Body Paragraph 3: Theme Exploration

Identify and discuss the major themes in the literary work.
Provide examples and evidence from the text to support your analysis.
Explore the deeper meanings and messages conveyed through the themes.

Body Paragraph 4: Literary Devices and Techniques

Identify and analyze literary devices such as symbolism, imagery, metaphors, and foreshadowing.
Discuss how these elements enhance the overall impact of the work.
Summarize the main points discussed in the body paragraphs.
Restate the thesis in a fresh way.
Offer final insights or reflections on the literary work's significance and enduring relevance.

Optional: Additional Considerations

Discuss the cultural or historical context that may influence the interpretation of the work.
Address any alternative perspectives or counterarguments.
Offer recommendations for further reading or exploration related to the literary work.

We recommend analyzing this article about how to start a reflection paper to gain extra competence in the domain of school and college writing.

Literary Analysis Essay Topics

Before you commence the assignment, it’s important to find a great topic. For your inspiration, our writers shared 20 literary analysis essay ideas that you can develop in a written form within the framework of your current task.

Symbolism in "The Great Gatsby."
Character development in "Hamlet."
Themes in "To Kill a Mockingbird."
The significance of the southern setting in "The Sound and the Fury."
Foreshadowing in "Of Mice and Men."
Point of view in "The Catcher in the Rye."
Irony in "Othello."
Social class in "Pride and Prejudice."
The motif of light and dark in "Romeo and Juliet."
Archetypes in "The Hero’s Journey" in "The Hobbit."
The tragic flaw of Macbeth in "Macbeth."
The use of nature imagery in "Wuthering Heights."
The symbolism of the green light in "The Great Gatsby."
The role of technology in "Fahrenheit 451."
Character motivations in "The Scarlet Letter."
The exploration of identity in "The Invisible Man."
The impact of war on characters in "All Quiet on the Western Front."
The role of dreams in "A Raisin in the Sun."
The representation of women in "Jane Eyre."
The symbolism of the mockingbird in "To Kill a Mockingbird."

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay Step by Step

In this section, we're ditching the jargon and breaking down the process into simple, actionable steps. Whether you're a wordsmith in the making or someone feeling a bit lost in the world of dissecting literature, we've got your back. Think of this as your roadmap, helping you navigate through characters, themes, and all the juicy stuff that makes a story tick. So, grab your metaphorical magnifying glass and let's dive into the art of making sense of written words without the unnecessary fuss!

Step 1: Choose Your Text and Topic

Before actually writing a literary analysis essay, select a literary work that piques your interest or aligns with your academic requirements. Whether it's a novel, play, or poem, opt for a piece that offers rich content for analysis. Once you've chosen your text, narrow down a specific topic or theme within it that you find compelling. This initial step sets the stage for a focused and meaningful exploration. Use our analytical essay writing service to gain the upper hand when tackling this assignment.

Step 2: Create a Strong Thesis Statement

Write a clear and concise literary analysis essay introduction with a thesis statement that outlines the main argument or interpretation you'll be presenting in your essay. This statement should encapsulate your perspective on the chosen topic, providing a roadmap for both you and your readers. A well-defined thesis serves as the backbone of your literary analysis, guiding your analysis and ensuring a cohesive and purposeful essay. In this guide on how to write an essay introduction , you will find more information on this matter.

Step 3: Conduct Textual Analysis

Delve into the chosen literary work and conduct a thorough textual analysis. Pay attention to key elements such as characters, plot, setting, and literary devices employed by the author. Extract relevant quotes and passages that support your thesis, and consider how each element contributes to the overall meaning of the work. By the way, are you working on your capstone or dissertation at the moment? If yes, see our thesis writing service , which is especially helpful for students dealing with long-format scholarly documents.

Step 4: Set the Stage with Context

Establish the context of your literary analysis essay by providing relevant background information on the chosen work. Briefly introduce the author, the time period, and any significant historical or cultural factors that may impact the interpretation of the text. Creating this contextual framework helps orient your readers and prepares them for the nuanced exploration that follows. By offering a snapshot of the broader landscape in which the literary work exists, you set the stage for a more informed and insightful analysis.

Step 5: Construct Analytical Body Paragraphs

Organize your analysis into well-structured body paragraphs. Each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect of your thesis, supported by evidence from the text. Analyze characters, themes, and literary devices individually, connecting each point back to your overarching argument. Use clear and concise language to convey your insights and interpretations effectively.

Step 6: Craft a Thoughtful Conclusion

Summarize your main points, restate your thesis in a new light, and offer final insights in a thoughtful conclusion. Avoid introducing new information in this section but rather emphasize the significance of your analysis and its broader implications. A well-written conclusion leaves a lasting impression and reinforces the value of your literary interpretation. At this point, you have everything you need to become a student who knows how to write a literary analysis essay from A to Z.

Literary Analysis Essay Do’s and Don’ts

Develop a clear thesis statement.
Use evidence from the text to support your analysis.
Organize your essay logically with coherent paragraphs.
Focus on specific elements like characters, themes, and literary devices.
Engage with the text critically, questioning and probing meanings.
Don't summarize the plot extensively; focus on analysis.
Avoid vague or generic statements without supporting evidence.
Don't introduce new ideas in the conclusion. Stick to summarizing.
Avoid excessive quoting; provide brief, relevant excerpts.
Don't rush; take the time to revise and edit for clarity.

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Literary Analysis Essay Writing Tips

Get ready to up your academic writing game! This section is packed with straightforward tips to help you sharpen your skills. Whether you're a senior year student or just a freshman, we've got you covered. From digging into themes to writing insightful interpretations, our tips are here to make your literary analyses shine. Let's dive in and boost your writing skills!

Maintain Consistent Tone and Style

Keep a consistent tone throughout your essay, aligning with the formality or informality required. Ensure that your writing style complements the nature of your analysis, creating a cohesive and engaging reading experience for your audience.

Focus on Analysis, Not Summary

Avoid lengthy plot summaries. Instead, delve into the 'why' and 'how' aspects of the text – analyzing characters, themes, and literary devices to uncover deeper meanings.

Provide Textual Evidence

Support your analysis with concrete examples from the text. This strengthens your argument and demonstrates a close engagement with the literary work.

Organize Coherently

Structure your essay logically with well-organized paragraphs. Each paragraph should explore a specific aspect of your analysis, contributing to the overall understanding of your thesis.

Critical Engagement

Approach the text with a critical mindset. Question the author's choices, explore alternative interpretations, and analyze the implications of various literary elements.

Concise and Clear Language

Express your ideas using clear and concise language. Avoid unnecessary jargon, and ensure that your analysis is easily understandable by a broader audience.

Revise and Edit

Take the time to revise your essay for clarity and coherence. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that each paragraph contributes meaningfully to your overall analysis.

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Literary Analysis Essay Example

Students might find a literary analysis essay example invaluable for several reasons. Firstly, it provides a practical demonstration of the theoretical concepts they learn in class, offering a tangible model of how to analyze and interpret literary elements effectively. Additionally, examples serve as templates, offering insights into the proper structure and organization of an essay. They help students grasp the application of critical thinking skills, showcasing how to dissect a text, identify themes, and support arguments with textual evidence.

Example 1: The Symbolism of Light and Darkness in Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness"

This literary analysis of Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" explores the pervasive symbolism of light and darkness throughout the novel. Examining the journey of the protagonist, Marlow, and the character of Kurtz, the essay delves into the metaphorical implications of light and darkness as they represent moral ambiguity, the corrupting influence of power, and the ironic consequences of European imperialism.

Example 2: The Complex Portrait of Identity in Jhumpa Lahiri's "The Namesake"

This literary analysis of Jhumpa Lahiri's "The Namesake" explores the intricate layers of identity depicted in the novel, focusing on the protagonist Gogol Ganguli's navigation through the complexities of cultural assimilation and the immigrant experience. The essay delves into the symbolic significance of Gogol's name as a representation of the clash between his Bengali heritage and the American environment, examining the tension between tradition and modernity.

Final Thought

To sum it up, getting the hang of how to write a literary analysis essay is an experience that benefits both new and experienced writers. Throughout this guide, we've tried to simplify the process, offering practical insights and tips. Analyzing literature isn't just an academic exercise – it's a way to dive deeper into the richness of written expression. Now armed with these tools, you're not only prepared to analyze literature effectively but also to bring your unique perspectives to the ongoing discussion about the stories we encounter. Happy writing!

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What Is the Purpose of a Literary Analysis Essay?

What is literary analysis essay, how to start a literary analysis essay.

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Introduction

You’ve been assigned a literary analysis paper—what does that even mean? Is it like a book report that you used to write in high school? Well, not really.

A literary analysis essay asks you to make an original argument about a poem, play, or work of fiction and support that argument with research and evidence from your careful reading of the text.

It can take many forms, such as a close reading of a text, critiquing the text through a particular literary theory, comparing one text to another, or criticizing another critic’s interpretation of the text. While there are many ways to structure a literary essay, writing this kind of essay follows generally follows a similar process for everyone

Crafting a good literary analysis essay begins with good close reading of the text, in which you have kept notes and observations as you read. This will help you with the first step, which is selecting a topic to write about—what jumped out as you read, what are you genuinely interested in? The next step is to focus your topic, developing it into an argument—why is this subject or observation important? Why should your reader care about it as much as you do? The third step is to gather evidence to support your argument, for literary analysis, support comes in the form of evidence from the text and from your research on what other literary critics have said about your topic. Only after you have performed these steps, are you ready to begin actually writing your essay.

Writing a Literary Analysis Essay

How to create a topic and conduct research:.

Writing an Analysis of a Poem, Story, or Play

If you are taking a literature course, it is important that you know how to write an analysis—sometimes called an interpretation or a literary analysis or a critical reading or a critical analysis—of a story, a poem, and a play. Your instructor will probably assign such an analysis as part of the course assessment. On your mid-term or final exam, you might have to write an analysis of one or more of the poems and/or stories on your reading list. Or the dreaded “sight poem or story” might appear on an exam, a work that is not on the reading list, that you have not read before, but one your instructor includes on the exam to examine your ability to apply the active reading skills you have learned in class to produce, independently, an effective literary analysis.You might be asked to write instead or, or in addition to an analysis of a literary work, a more sophisticated essay in which you compare and contrast the protagonists of two stories, or the use of form and metaphor in two poems, or the tragic heroes in two plays.

You might learn some literary theory in your course and be asked to apply theory—feminist, Marxist, reader-response, psychoanalytic, new historicist, for example—to one or more of the works on your reading list. But the seminal assignment in a literature course is the analysis of the single poem, story, novel, or play, and, even if you do not have to complete this assignment specifically, it will form the basis of most of the other writing assignments you will be required to undertake in your literature class. There are several ways of structuring a literary analysis, and your instructor might issue specific instructions on how he or she wants this assignment done. The method presented here might not be identical to the one your instructor wants you to follow, but it will be easy enough to modify, if your instructor expects something a bit different, and it is a good default method, if your instructor does not issue more specific guidelines.You want to begin your analysis with a paragraph that provides the context of the work you are analyzing and a brief account of what you believe to be the poem or story or play’s main theme. At a minimum, your account of the work’s context will include the name of the author, the title of the work, its genre, and the date and place of publication. If there is an important biographical or historical context to the work, you should include that, as well.Try to express the work’s theme in one or two sentences. Theme, you will recall, is that insight into human experience the author offers to readers, usually revealed as the content, the drama, the plot of the poem, story, or play unfolds and the characters interact. Assessing theme can be a complex task. Authors usually show the theme; they don’t tell it. They rarely say, at the end of the story, words to this effect: “and the moral of my story is…” They tell their story, develop their characters, provide some kind of conflict—and from all of this theme emerges. Because identifying theme can be challenging and subjective, it is often a good idea to work through the rest of the analysis, then return to the beginning and assess theme in light of your analysis of the work’s other literary elements.Here is a good example of an introductory paragraph from Ben’s analysis of William Butler Yeats’ poem, “Among School Children.”

“Among School Children” was published in Yeats’ 1928 collection of poems The Tower. It was inspired by a visit Yeats made in 1926 to school in Waterford, an official visit in his capacity as a senator of the Irish Free State. In the course of the tour, Yeats reflects upon his own youth and the experiences that shaped the “sixty-year old, smiling public man” (line 8) he has become. Through his reflection, the theme of the poem emerges: a life has meaning when connections among apparently disparate experiences are forged into a unified whole.

In the body of your literature analysis, you want to guide your readers through a tour of the poem, story, or play, pausing along the way to comment on, analyze, interpret, and explain key incidents, descriptions, dialogue, symbols, the writer’s use of figurative language—any of the elements of literature that are relevant to a sound analysis of this particular work. Your main goal is to explain how the elements of literature work to elucidate, augment, and develop the theme. The elements of literature are common across genres: a story, a narrative poem, and a play all have a plot and characters. But certain genres privilege certain literary elements. In a poem, for example, form, imagery and metaphor might be especially important; in a story, setting and point-of-view might be more important than they are in a poem; in a play, dialogue, stage directions, lighting serve functions rarely relevant in the analysis of a story or poem.

The length of the body of an analysis of a literary work will usually depend upon the length of work being analyzed—the longer the work, the longer the analysis—though your instructor will likely establish a word limit for this assignment. Make certain that you do not simply paraphrase the plot of the story or play or the content of the poem. This is a common weakness in student literary analyses, especially when the analysis is of a poem or a play.

Here is a good example of two body paragraphs from Amelia’s analysis of “Araby” by James Joyce.

Within the story’s first few paragraphs occur several religious references which will accumulate as the story progresses. The narrator is a student at the Christian Brothers’ School; the former tenant of his house was a priest; he left behind books called The Abbot and The Devout Communicant. Near the end of the story’s second paragraph the narrator describes a “central apple tree” in the garden, under which is “the late tenant’s rusty bicycle pump.” We may begin to suspect the tree symbolizes the apple tree in the Garden of Eden and the bicycle pump, the snake which corrupted Eve, a stretch, perhaps, until Joyce’s fall-of-innocence theme becomes more apparent.

The narrator must continue to help his aunt with her errands, but, even when he is so occupied, his mind is on Mangan’s sister, as he tries to sort out his feelings for her. Here Joyce provides vivid insight into the mind of an adolescent boy at once elated and bewildered by his first crush. He wants to tell her of his “confused adoration,” but he does not know if he will ever have the chance. Joyce’s description of the pleasant tension consuming the narrator is conveyed in a striking simile, which continues to develop the narrator’s character, while echoing the religious imagery, so important to the story’s theme: “But my body was like a harp, and her words and gestures were like fingers, running along the wires.”

The concluding paragraph of your analysis should realize two goals. First, it should present your own opinion on the quality of the poem or story or play about which you have been writing. And, second, it should comment on the current relevance of the work. You should certainly comment on the enduring social relevance of the work you are explicating. You may comment, though you should never be obliged to do so, on the personal relevance of the work. Here is the concluding paragraph from Dao-Ming’s analysis of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest.

First performed in 1895, The Importance of Being Earnest has been made into a film, as recently as 2002 and is regularly revived by professional and amateur theatre companies. It endures not only because of the comic brilliance of its characters and their dialogue, but also because its satire still resonates with contemporary audiences. I am still amazed that I see in my own Asian mother a shadow of Lady Bracknell, with her obsession with finding for her daughter a husband who will maintain, if not, ideally, increase the family’s social status. We might like to think we are more liberated and socially sophisticated than our Victorian ancestors, but the starlets and eligible bachelors who star in current reality television programs illustrate the extent to which superficial concerns still influence decisions about love and even marriage. Even now, we can turn to Oscar Wilde to help us understand and laugh at those who are earnest in name only.

Dao-Ming’s conclusion is brief, but she does manage to praise the play, reaffirm its main theme, and explain its enduring appeal. And note how her last sentence cleverly establishes that sense of closure that is also a feature of an effective analysis.

You may, of course, modify the template that is presented here. Your instructor might favour a somewhat different approach to literary analysis. Its essence, though, will be your understanding and interpretation of the theme of the poem, story, or play and the skill with which the author shapes the elements of literature—plot, character, form, diction, setting, point of view—to support the theme.

BC Open Textbooks: English Literature Victorians and Moderns: https://opentextbc.ca/englishliterature/back-matter/appendix-5-writing-an-analysis-of-a-poem-story-and-play/

Literary Analysis

The challenges of writing about english literature.

Writing begins with the act of reading . While this statement is true for most college papers, strong English papers tend to be the product of highly attentive reading (and rereading). When your instructors ask you to do a “close reading,” they are asking you to read not only for content, but also for structures and patterns. When you perform a close reading, then, you observe how form and content interact. In some cases, form reinforces content: for example, in John Donne’s Holy Sonnet 14, where the speaker invites God’s “force” “to break, blow, burn and make [him] new.” Here, the stressed monosyllables of the verbs “break,” “blow” and “burn” evoke aurally the force that the speaker invites from God. In other cases, form raises questions about content: for example, a repeated denial of guilt will likely raise questions about the speaker’s professed innocence. When you close read, take an inductive approach. Start by observing particular details in the text, such as a repeated image or word, an unexpected development, or even a contradiction. Often, a detail–such as a repeated image–can help you to identify a question about the text that warrants further examination. So annotate details that strike you as you read. Some of those details will eventually help you to work towards a thesis. And don’t worry if a detail seems trivial. If you can make a case about how an apparently trivial detail reveals something significant about the text, then your paper will have a thought-provoking thesis to argue.

Common Types of English Papers Many assignments will ask you to analyze a single text. Others, however, will ask you to read two or more texts in relation to each other, or to consider a text in light of claims made by other scholars and critics. For most assignments, close reading will be central to your paper. While some assignment guidelines will suggest topics and spell out expectations in detail, others will offer little more than a page limit. Approaching the writing process in the absence of assigned topics can be daunting, but remember that you have resources: in section, you will probably have encountered some examples of close reading; in lecture, you will have encountered some of the course’s central questions and claims. The paper is a chance for you to extend a claim offered in lecture, or to analyze a passage neglected in lecture. In either case, your analysis should do more than recapitulate claims aired in lecture and section. Because different instructors have different goals for an assignment, you should always ask your professor or TF if you have questions. These general guidelines should apply in most cases:

A close reading of a single text: Depending on the length of the text, you will need to be more or less selective about what you choose to consider. In the case of a sonnet, you will probably have enough room to analyze the text more thoroughly than you would in the case of a novel, for example, though even here you will probably not analyze every single detail. By contrast, in the case of a novel, you might analyze a repeated scene, image, or object (for example, scenes of train travel, images of decay, or objects such as or typewriters). Alternately, you might analyze a perplexing scene (such as a novel’s ending, albeit probably in relation to an earlier moment in the novel). But even when analyzing shorter works, you will need to be selective. Although you might notice numerous interesting details as you read, not all of those details will help you to organize a focused argument about the text. For example, if you are focusing on depictions of sensory experience in Keats’ “Ode to a Nightingale,” you probably do not need to analyze the image of a homeless Ruth in stanza 7, unless this image helps you to develop your case about sensory experience in the poem.
A theoretically-informed close reading. In some courses, you will be asked to analyze a poem, a play, or a novel by using a critical theory (psychoanalytic, postcolonial, gender, etc). For example, you might use Kristeva’s theory of abjection to analyze mother-daughter relations in Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved. Critical theories provide focus for your analysis; if “abjection” is the guiding concept for your paper, you should focus on the scenes in the novel that are most relevant to the concept.
A historically-informed close reading. In courses with a historicist orientation, you might use less self-consciously literary documents, such as newspapers or devotional manuals, to develop your analysis of a literary work. For example, to analyze how Robinson Crusoe makes sense of his island experiences, you might use Puritan tracts that narrate events in terms of how God organizes them. The tracts could help you to show not only how Robinson Crusoe draws on Puritan narrative conventions, but also—more significantly—how the novel revises those conventions.
A comparison of two texts When analyzing two texts, you might look for unexpected contrasts between apparently similar texts, or unexpected similarities between apparently dissimilar texts, or for how one text revises or transforms the other. Keep in mind that not all of the similarities, differences, and transformations you identify will be relevant to an argument about the relationship between the two texts. As you work towards a thesis, you will need to decide which of those similarities, differences, or transformations to focus on. Moreover, unless instructed otherwise, you do not need to allot equal space to each text (unless this 50/50 allocation serves your thesis well, of course). Often you will find that one text helps to develop your analysis of another text. For example, you might analyze the transformation of Ariel’s song from The Tempest in T. S. Eliot’s poem, The Waste Land. Insofar as this analysis is interested in the afterlife of Ariel’s song in a later poem, you would likely allot more space to analyzing allusions to Ariel’s song in The Waste Land (after initially establishing the song’s significance in Shakespeare’s play, of course).
A response paper A response paper is a great opportunity to practice your close reading skills without having to develop an entire argument. In most cases, a solid approach is to select a rich passage that rewards analysis (for example, one that depicts an important scene or a recurring image) and close read it. While response papers are a flexible genre, they are not invitations for impressionistic accounts of whether you liked the work or a particular character. Instead, you might use your close reading to raise a question about the text—to open up further investigation, rather than to supply a solution.
A research paper. In most cases, you will receive guidance from the professor on the scope of the research paper. It is likely that you will be expected to consult sources other than the assigned readings. Hollis is your best bet for book titles, and the MLA bibliography (available through e-resources) for articles. When reading articles, make sure that they have been peer reviewed; you might also ask your TF to recommend reputable journals in the field.

Harvard College Writing Program: https://writingproject.fas.harvard.edu/files/hwp/files/bg_writing_english.pdf

In the same way that we talk with our friends about the latest episode of Game of Thrones or newest Marvel movie, scholars communicate their ideas and interpretations of literature through written literary analysis essays. Literary analysis essays make us better readers of literature.

Only through careful reading and well-argued analysis can we reach new understandings and interpretations of texts that are sometimes hundreds of years old. Literary analysis brings new meaning and can shed new light on texts. Building from careful reading and selecting a topic that you are genuinely interested in, your argument supports how you read and understand a text. Using examples from the text you are discussing in the form of textual evidence further supports your reading. Well-researched literary analysis also includes information about what other scholars have written about a specific text or topic.

Literary analysis helps us to refine our ideas, question what we think we know, and often generates new knowledge about literature. Literary analysis essays allow you to discuss your own interpretation of a given text through careful examination of the choices the original author made in the text.

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Literary Analysis Essay

Literary Analysis Essay Writing

Last updated on: May 21, 2023

Literary Analysis Essay - Ultimate Guide By Professionals

By: Cordon J.

Reviewed By: Rylee W.

Published on: Dec 3, 2019

A literary analysis essay specifically examines and evaluates a piece of literature or a literary work. It also understands and explains the links between the small parts to their whole information.

It is important for students to understand the meaning and the true essence of literature to write a literary essay.

One of the most difficult assignments for students is writing a literary analysis essay. It can be hard to come up with an original idea or find enough material to write about. You might think you need years of experience in order to create a good paper, but that's not true.

This blog post will show you how easy it can be when you follow the steps given here.Writing such an essay involves the breakdown of a book into small parts and understanding each part separately. It seems easy, right?

Trust us, it is not as hard as good book reports but it may also not be extremely easy. You will have to take into account different approaches and explain them in relation with the chosen literary work.

It is a common high school and college assignment and you can learn everything in this blog.

Continue reading for some useful tips with an example to write a literary analysis essay that will be on point. You can also explore our detailed article on writing an analytical essay .

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What is a Literary Analysis Essay?

A literary analysis essay is an important kind of essay that focuses on the detailed analysis of the work of literature.

The purpose of a literary analysis essay is to explain why the author has used a specific theme for his work. Or examine the characters, themes, literary devices , figurative language, and settings in the story.

This type of essay encourages students to think about how the book or the short story has been written. And why the author has created this work.

The method used in the literary analysis essay differs from other types of essays. It primarily focuses on the type of work and literature that is being analyzed.

Mostly, you will be going to break down the work into various parts. In order to develop a better understanding of the idea being discussed, each part will be discussed separately.

The essay should explain the choices of the author and point of view along with your answers and personal analysis.

How To Write A Literary Analysis Essay

So how to start a literary analysis essay? The answer to this question is quite simple.

The following sections are required to write an effective literary analysis essay. By following the guidelines given in the following sections, you will be able to craft a winning literary analysis essay.

Introduction

The aim of the introduction is to establish a context for readers. You have to give a brief on the background of the selected topic.

It should contain the name of the author of the literary work along with its title. The introduction should be effective enough to grab the reader’s attention.

In the body section, you have to retell the story that the writer has narrated. It is a good idea to create a summary as it is one of the important tips of literary analysis.

Other than that, you are required to develop ideas and disclose the observed information related to the issue. The ideal length of the body section is around 1000 words.

To write the body section, your observation should be based on evidence and your own style of writing.

It would be great if the body of your essay is divided into three paragraphs. Make a strong argument with facts related to the thesis statement in all of the paragraphs in the body section.

Start writing each paragraph with a topic sentence and use transition words when moving to the next paragraph.

Summarize the important points of your literary analysis essay in this section. It is important to compose a short and strong conclusion to help you make a final impression of your essay.

Pay attention that this section does not contain any new information. It should provide a sense of completion by restating the main idea with a short description of your arguments. End the conclusion with your supporting details.

You have to explain why the book is important. Also, elaborate on the means that the authors used to convey her/his opinion regarding the issue.

For further understanding, here is a downloadable literary analysis essay outline. This outline will help you structure and format your essay properly and earn an A easily.

DOWNLOADABLE LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY OUTLINE (PDF)

Types of Literary Analysis Essay

Close reading - This method involves attentive reading and detailed analysis. No need for a lot of knowledge and inspiration to write an essay that shows your creative skills.
Theoretical - In this type, you will rely on theories related to the selected topic.
Historical - This type of essay concerns the discipline of history. Sometimes historical analysis is required to explain events in detail.
Applied - This type involves analysis of a specific issue from a practical perspective.
Comparative - This type of writing is based on when two or more alternatives are compared

Examples of Literary Analysis Essay

Examples are great to understand any concept, especially if it is related to writing. Below are some great literary analysis essay examples that showcase how this type of essay is written.

A ROSE FOR EMILY LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY

TO KILL A MOCKINGBIRD LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY

THE GREAT GATSBY LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY

THE YELLOW WALLPAPER LITERARY ANALYSIS ESSAY

If you do not have experience in writing essays, this will be a very chaotic process for you. In that case, it is very important for you to conduct good research on the topic before writing.

There are two important points that you should keep in mind when writing a literary analysis essay.

First, remember that it is very important to select a topic in which you are interested. Choose something that really inspires you. This will help you to catch the attention of a reader.

The selected topic should reflect the main idea of writing. In addition to that, it should also express your point of view as well.

Another important thing is to draft a good outline for your literary analysis essay. It will help you to define a central point and division of this into parts for further discussion.

Literary Analysis Essay Topics

Literary analysis essays are mostly based on artistic works like books, movies, paintings, and other forms of art. However, generally, students choose novels and books to write their literary essays.

Some cool, fresh, and good topics and ideas are listed below:

Role of the Three Witches in flaming Macbeth’s ambition.
Analyze the themes of the Play Antigone,
Discuss Ajax as a tragic hero.
The Judgement of Paris: Analyze the Reasons and their Consequences.
Oedipus Rex: A Doomed Son or a Conqueror?
Describe the Oedipus complex and Electra complex in relation to their respective myths.
Betrayal is a common theme of Shakespearean tragedies. Discuss
Identify and analyze the traits of history in T.S Eliot’s ‘Gerontion’.
Analyze the theme of identity crisis in The Great Gatsby.
Analyze the writing style of Emily Dickinson.

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Frequently Asked Questions

What should a literary analysis essay include.

A good literary analysis essay must include a proper and in-depth explanation of your ideas. They must be backed with examples and evidence from the text. Textual evidence includes summaries, paraphrased text, original work details, and direct quotes.

What are the 4 components of literary analysis?

Here are the 4 essential parts of a literary analysis essay;

No literary work is explained properly without discussing and explaining these 4 things.

How do you start a literary analysis essay?

Start your literary analysis essay with the name of the work and the title. Hook your readers by introducing the main ideas that you will discuss in your essay and engage them from the start.

How do you do a literary analysis?

In a literary analysis essay, you study the text closely, understand and interpret its meanings. And try to find out the reasons behind why the author has used certain symbols, themes, and objects in the work.

Why is literary analysis important?

It encourages the students to think beyond their existing knowledge, experiences, and belief and build empathy. This helps in improving the writing skills also.

What is the fundamental characteristic of a literary analysis essay?

Interpretation is the fundamental and important feature of a literary analysis essay. The essay is based on how well the writer explains and interprets the work.

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Cordon. is a published author and writing specialist. He has worked in the publishing industry for many years, providing writing services and digital content. His own writing career began with a focus on literature and linguistics, which he continues to pursue. Cordon is an engaging and professional individual, always looking to help others achieve their goals.

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Interesting Literary Analysis Essay Topics for Students

Write a Perfect Literary Analysis Essay Outline

How to write a literary analysis essay

February 5, 2024

When writing a literary analysis, you need to read closely for the author’s choices and style. You simply imagine yourself as the writer or critique.

Although this type of essay requires a different and close approach, it usually follows a traditional essay structure. Now let’s follow the steps to writing a great literary analysis!

Step 1: Read the literary text closely

Say you’re writing a literary analysis of 1984 by George Orwell; you need to read that book closely. This is the first step.

Remember, you’re not simply reading; you’re reading as a critique. So, you should consider the type of writing, surprising facts and linguistic elements ( word choice , phrasal words , first-person pronouns , etc.), and intriguing points in Orwell’s writing. Your primary target is analyzing the text. So, pay attention not to summarize the text when you’re writing.

During your close reading, there are specific areas to focus on, as shown below.

Consider the imagery of the text. Which words symbolize a particular atmosphere or setting? Does the author repeat the atmosphere with certain words?
Analyze the book from different perspectives such as language, narrative voice, and structure. These are called literary devices.
Consider the tone of the text. Decide whether the story is realistic, fantastical, or tragic, comic, or the topic is funny, sad, etc.
Pay attention if the author uses short or long sentences, transition sentences , transition words , etc.
Notice if the author uses complex, poetic, or simple sentence structure, active or passive voice , etc.
Analyze the word choices of the author. Does the author make use of figurative languages such as similes or metaphors?

Narrative voice

Find out whether the story is told first-person or third-person.
Pay attention to the perspective of the narrator. Decide whether it is an omniscient or unreliable narrator.

The structure of the source text is also important when analyzing different types of literary works. There are quite different type of literary texts as shown below.

Cantos, lines, and stanzas are used in poems.
Scenes and acts comprise plays
Parts and chapters comprise novels.

Poem structure

For the structure, pay attention to why the author divides the text at certain points. What was the motive?

Also ask yourself these questions:

Decide whether the story is chronologically told. Does the author flashes back to the past, or does the story progress chronologically?
Pay attention to the events. Does the novel start in the middle of an event? Does it start from the climax?

Play structure

Step 2: think of your thesis statement.

In every essay, a thesis statement is the center of your argument. Without it, your essay would be a random selection of your ideas. So, it’s quite essential. Your instructor may give you a topic , and you need to write your paper according to the instructions.

Let’s see the following topic and build a thesis statement on it.

Does George Orwell's 1984 include gothic elements?

Thesis statement example

Introduction

....(introduction starts) ....(introduction continues) ....(introduction continues) George Orwell's 1984 is a dystopic novel that includes post-romanticist and gothic elements. Thesis statement, which is usually the last sentence of your introduction

Qualities of a good thesis statement

Surprising
Provable through evidence

The primary target of your thesis statement is to keep you organized as you write. Remember that you can always modify your existing thesis statement when you finish writing.

Literary analysis thesis statement example

....(introduction starts) ....(introduction continues) ....(introduction continues) Although Frankenstein is considered the first example of science fiction, it is also a masterpiece of romanticism as it includes all the characteristics of the genre, such as the glorification of nature, awareness of emotions, artistic creativity, aesthetic beauty, solitude, and supernatural elements in its different chapters. Thesis statement, which is usually the last sentence of your introduction

Step 3: Write an introduction

The title and introduction generally set up your entire essay. This is where you present your topic. You mention what you’ll include in your essay. A well-thought title and introduction are quite necessary to prepare an excellent literary analysis.

Literary analysis essay introduction example

Literary analysis introduction tips.

Your introduction should present the context of your topic . That is, the reader should know what you're discussing. Which book? Which characters?
Your introduction should be able to answer the "so what?" question. Explain why your topic is noteworthy, surprising, or significant.
Present your thesis statement at the end of your introduction . An academic essay without a thesis statement is merely worthless and random.
Signposting: Present the scope of your essay if you're writing a long paper. Informing your reader on the organizational structure of your paper is a sign of care and hard work.

Things to avoid in your introduction

Avoid being vague, be specific: Your literary analysis essay should naturally be exciting and important.
The introduction should be no more than 10% of your whole paper.
Don't just throw random information. Give your necessary points briefly, along with your hook, context, and thesis statement.

Introduction tip

Step 4: continue with body paragraphs.

You’ll present your arguments, evidence, and details in your body paragraphs : simply everything between your introduction and conclusion .

Literary analysis essay body example

Paragraph structure.

A typical literary analysis is 5 paragraphs long: an introduction and conclusion and three body paragraphs. However, if you’re writing a long paper, you’ll have more body paragraphs.

Each paragraph should have no more than one topic sentence . If you’re writing a 5 paragraph essay, try to divide your arguments into three points and mention each in a single paragraph . When writing longer essays or research papers, apply the same principle on a longer scale.

Topic sentences

Topic sentences are like door signs in a big office. You’ll show your reader which topic you’re covering in a specific paragraph. It is the first sentence of a body paragraph where you allow readers what to expect with a topic sentence .

Making use of transition

Remember that transition sentences and transition words are necessary to provide a smooth transition between paragraphs.

In a good literary essay, each paragraph must be strongly and explicitly linked to the whole essay . Your reader needs to find your essay smooth and easy to read.

Transition words example

Presenting textual evidence.

Presenting evidence is essential in body paragraphs. Presenting quotes and relevant evidence in literary analysis essays are extremely significant as they back up your arguments.

You need to inform your reader regarding your textual evidence by introducing and analyzing it. In other words, tell them why you’re using it.

Although you don’t have to use a quote , they’re generally useful in a literary analysis essay, as seen below:

Textual evidence in a paragraph

....(paragraph starts) Orwell highlights that "no one could do anything against Big Brother," stressing the collective pessimism of the zeitgeist. You give evidence from the text to support your claim ....(paragraph continues) ....(paragraph ends)

If you want to refer to a whole chapter, you need to summarize or paraphrase. Don’t just copy, you need to describe it in your own words.

In case you are struggling to write in your own words, then consider getting help from a paraphrasing tool . It will quickly paraphrase your given writing in a totally unique way without changing its original meaning. When it comes to summarization, you can also use a summarizing tool to get the job done quickly and efficiently.

Textual evidence in a paragraph (on chapter)

....(paragraph starts) The last chapter of Orwell's masterpiece reflects a dynamic pursuit between the lovely couple and the brutal companions of Big Brother. While the reader intrinsically expects an optimistic turn in the storyline, the author shocks the reader with the bitter truth of the ongoing dystopia. You highlight the chapter of a source to support your claim ....(paragraph continues) ....(paragraph ends)

Step 5: Write a conclusion

Typically, a conclusion doesn’t include any new information or evidence. It’s simply a closing speech of your literary essay. When writing a conclusion:

Wrap up your paper by summarizing and synthesizing your arguments and highlight their significance.
Avoid unnecessary statements and generalizations.
Restate your thesis statement.

Below, you’ll see a good example of a literary analysis essay conclusion. Feel free to analyze and observe the elements in the final paragraph.

Literary analysis essay conclusion example

5-paragraph literary analysis example.

Game of Thrones: A World of Fantasy and Intrigue

Body paragraphs

Key takeaways for literary analyses.

Start by carefully reading and analyzing the literary text, take notes when necessary
Develop a clear thesis statement that summarizes your analysis and main argument.
Use textual evidence and analysis to support your arguments and interpretations.
Organize your essay with a clear introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.
Revise and edit your essay to ensure clarity, coherence, and proper citation of sources.

Now you’re ready to write a perfect literary analysis.

If you need further information, feel free to have a look at our essay samples or contact us in one of our communication channels.

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1.6 The basics of literary analysis

7 min read • january 25, 2023

ChristineLing

Introduction

Today, we’ll be looking at literary analysis . Now that you’ve learned “how to read” (see guide 1.5 if you haven’t already), you can learn how to write analytically about what you’ve read. You’ve most likely done this already in English classes of the past, so feel free to view this guide as a refresher on literary analysis writing. If the idea of literary analysis is new to you though, then this is a great time to learn!

What is Literary Analysis?

Literary analysis is a method of close reading that involves identifying and interpreting various elements of a text in order to better understand and evaluate the work as a whole. This includes analyzing the text's themes , characters , symbols , and structure , as well as the author's use of language and literary devices .

In literary analysis , the goal is to identify details that, when put together, support a claim about an aspect of the text, and then to use this evidence to defend that claim in an argument. This process allows readers to gain a deeper understanding of the text and to make connections between the work and the broader literary tradition or cultural context in which it was written.

In addition to having to do it in English classes for assignments and essays, literary analysis helps in developing critical thinking skills. By analyzing and interpreting a text, readers learn to evaluate arguments, identify biases, and understand different perspectives. You don’t have to limit it to classroom use; you can analyze books you read for leisure too! It can help you develop a personal interpretation of the text and appreciate the beauty of literature.

How to Write Literary Analysis Arguments

Now, let’s look at what makes up a literary analysis . We’ll break it down into two main parts: claim and evidence .

Part 1: Claim

A claim is a defensible/arguable* statement . It asserts something to be true or false about a text. A claim should be specific, clear, and supported by evidence from the text.

In literary analysis , a claim can be made about any aspect of the text. Here’s a list of potential aspects:

Historical context

Author's purpose

After identifying the aspect of the text that you want to focus on, you should state your position on that aspect in a clear and specific statement. For example, "The main character in the novel is struggling with feelings of isolation and loneliness," or "The author uses the structure of the novel to convey the theme of the fragility of memory."

It's important to note that a claim should not be a summary of the text or a general observation, but rather a specific, arguable statement that can be supported by evidence . Additionally, a claim should be written in a way that is open to discussion and debate, not as a statement of fact or truth.

Here are some more examples of claims:

The main character's internal conflict in the novel is a representation of the societal pressure to conform.

The use of imagery in the poem is used to convey the theme of death and loss.

The symbolism of the river in the novel represents the passage of time and the inevitability of change.

The novel's structure is used to convey the theme of the complexity of human relationships.

The Additional Notes section of the AP Lit Exam scoring guidelines provides a solid checklist for you to think about as you craft a claim . See below.

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*Note: defensible means it does not describe the obvious (“The sky is blue”) nor does it describe the impossible (“Everyone’s favorite color is red”). Stating something that is obvious/too general or impossible to defend will not earn you the thesis point on the AP exam. In addition, it will be difficult to earn Evidence and Commentary points. How would you provide sound evidence and rationale for an obvious/impossible statement?

Part 2: Evidence

Textual evidence refers to specific details from the text that are used to support a claim made in literary analysis . It is the evidence or proof that supports the claim and helps to make it convincing. To present textual evidence , it is important to quote or paraphrase the relevant passage from the text and to provide context for the quote, explaining how it supports the claim .

For example, if a claim is made that the main character in a novel is struggling with feelings of isolation and loneliness, textual evidence to support this claim might include a passage in which the character says, "I've never felt so alone in my life." This quote provides concrete evidence that the character is experiencing feelings of isolation and loneliness. Additionally, one could also provide the context of the quote, explaining how it relates to the claim , such as "The character's statement highlights their feelings of isolation and loneliness, which is a central theme throughout the novel."

Another example, if the claim is that the novel's structure is used to convey the theme of the fragility of memory, the evidence could be a passage that describes the use of non-linear narrative , such as "The novel jumps between different time periods, highlighting how memories can be fragmented and unreliable." The evidence supports the claim , because the non-linear narrative structure emphasizes the theme of memory's fragility.

Lastly, if the claim is that the symbolism in the novel represents the struggle between tradition and modernity, evidence could be a passage that describes the use of a traditional house as a symbol, such as "The old house in the novel symbolizes the protagonist's struggle to hold on to tradition while facing the pressures of modernity." This passage provides evidence that the house is being used as a symbol to represent the struggle between tradition and modernity.

It's important to note that textual evidence should be carefully selected and used to support the claim , rather than being used to impose an interpretation on the text. Also, it is important to provide more than one piece of textual evidencen (if possible) to strengthen the claim and to avoid overgeneralization.

Tips on Writing Them

To see examples of good claims, I encourage you to look at the scoring guidelines of past AP Lit exams. See all past exam questions here . In the published scoring guidelines, there are a few example theses provided that can give an idea of what is expected. For example, here’s a thesis that earned the thesis point on the 2021 AP Lit Exam

"Winston uses first-person narration , vivid descriptions , and humor to convey the narrator’s greater sense of connection to his friend Loon and his embarrassment on behalf of the woman who feels powerless in the situation.”

Notice the level of detail in the claim . It’s not just “Winston conveys the narrator’s greater sense of connection.” The student provided three reasons right off the bat (“ first-person narration , vivid descriptions , and humor ”), giving the grader a good idea of where the essay is going.

Here’s a list of some other tips to keep in mind:

Read the text closely and critically: Before writing a literary analysis , it is important to read the text multiple times, paying close attention to the author's use of literary devices and techniques, as well as the text's themes , characters , symbols , and structure . Of course, on an exam with limited time, you have to be aware of how much time you spend reading. Make sure you read just enough to get an idea of what your claim will be. You can return to specific parts of the text later to look for textual evidence

Consider the literary and cultural context: The text should be analyzed in the context of the literary tradition and cultural context in which it was written. This will help to deepen the understanding and appreciation of the text, and it will help the writer to make connections between the text and the broader literary and cultural context.

Analyze the text, not the author: A literary analysis should focus on the text itself, rather than on the author's personal life or beliefs. Avoid making assumptions about the author's intentions or beliefs, and instead focus on the text's themes , characters , symbols , and structure .

Literary analysis is a way of closely reading a text to understand and evaluate it. It involves identifying and interpreting elements of the text like themes , characters , symbols , and structure , as well as the author's use of language and literary devices . Your eventual goal is to make a claim about an aspect of the text and use evidence from the text to support that claim . To write a good literary analysis , you should read the text closely, consider the literary and cultural context, and focus on the text, not the author.

That’s everything I’ve got for you for Unit 1! Hope you’ve learned a lot, and I wish you luck on your next Fiveable study guide adventure.

Key Terms to Review ( 15 )

Author's Use of Language

Close Reading

First-Person Narration

Literary Analysis

Literary Devices

Non-linear Narrative

Textual Evidence

Vivid Descriptions

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12.14: Sample Student Literary Analysis Essays

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Page ID 40514

Heather Ringo & Athena Kashyap
City College of San Francisco via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative

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The following examples are essays where student writers focused on close-reading a literary work.

While reading these examples, ask yourself the following questions:

What is the essay's thesis statement, and how do you know it is the thesis statement?
What is the main idea or topic sentence of each body paragraph, and how does it relate back to the thesis statement?
Where and how does each essay use evidence (quotes or paraphrase from the literature)?
What are some of the literary devices or structures the essays analyze or discuss?
How does each author structure their conclusion, and how does their conclusion differ from their introduction?

Example 1: Poetry

Victoria Morillo

Instructor Heather Ringo

3 August 2022

How Nguyen’s Structure Solidifies the Impact of Sexual Violence in “The Study”

Stripped of innocence, your body taken from you. No matter how much you try to block out the instance in which these two things occurred, memories surface and come back to haunt you. How does a person, a young boy , cope with an event that forever changes his life? Hieu Minh Nguyen deconstructs this very way in which an act of sexual violence affects a survivor. In his poem, “The Study,” the poem's speaker recounts the year in which his molestation took place, describing how his memory filters in and out. Throughout the poem, Nguyen writes in free verse, permitting a structural liberation to become the foundation for his message to shine through. While he moves the readers with this poignant narrative, Nguyen effectively conveys the resulting internal struggles of feeling alone and unseen.

The speaker recalls his experience with such painful memory through the use of specific punctuation choices. Just by looking at the poem, we see that the first period doesn’t appear until line 14. It finally comes after the speaker reveals to his readers the possible, central purpose for writing this poem: the speaker's molestation. In the first half, the poem makes use of commas, em dashes, and colons, which lends itself to the idea of the speaker stringing along all of these details to make sense of this time in his life. If reading the poem following the conventions of punctuation, a sense of urgency is present here, as well. This is exemplified by the lack of periods to finalize a thought; and instead, Nguyen uses other punctuation marks to connect them. Serving as another connector of thoughts, the two em dashes give emphasis to the role memory plays when the speaker discusses how “no one [had] a face” during that time (Nguyen 9-11). He speaks in this urgent manner until the 14th line, and when he finally gets it off his chest, the pace of the poem changes, as does the more frequent use of the period. This stream-of-consciousness-like section when juxtaposed with the latter half of the poem, causes readers to slow down and pay attention to the details. It also splits the poem in two: a section that talks of the fogginess of memory then transitions into one that remembers it all.

In tandem with the fluctuating nature of memory, the utilization of line breaks and word choice help reflect the damage the molestation has had. Within the first couple of lines of the poem, the poem demands the readers’ attention when the line breaks from “floating” to “dead” as the speaker describes his memory of Little Billy (Nguyen 1-4). This line break averts the readers’ expectation of the direction of the narrative and immediately shifts the tone of the poem. The break also speaks to the effect his trauma has ingrained in him and how “[f]or the longest time,” his only memory of that year revolves around an image of a boy’s death. In a way, the speaker sees himself in Little Billy; or perhaps, he’s representative of the tragic death of his boyhood, how the speaker felt so “dead” after enduring such a traumatic experience, even referring to himself as a “ghost” that he tries to evict from his conscience (Nguyen 24). The feeling that a part of him has died is solidified at the very end of the poem when the speaker describes himself as a nine-year-old boy who’s been “fossilized,” forever changed by this act (Nguyen 29). By choosing words associated with permanence and death, the speaker tries to recreate the atmosphere (for which he felt trapped in) in order for readers to understand the loneliness that came as a result of his trauma. With the assistance of line breaks, more attention is drawn to the speaker's words, intensifying their importance, and demanding to be felt by the readers.

Most importantly, the speaker expresses eloquently, and so heartbreakingly, about the effect sexual violence has on a person. Perhaps what seems to be the most frustrating are the people who fail to believe survivors of these types of crimes. This is evident when he describes “how angry” the tenants were when they filled the pool with cement (Nguyen 4). They seem to represent how people in the speaker's life were dismissive of his assault and who viewed his tragedy as a nuisance of some sorts. This sentiment is bookended when he says, “They say, give us details , so I give them my body. / They say, give us proof , so I give them my body,” (Nguyen 25-26). The repetition of these two lines reinforces the feeling many feel in these scenarios, as they’re often left to deal with trying to make people believe them, or to even see them.

It’s important to recognize how the structure of this poem gives the speaker space to express the pain he’s had to carry for so long. As a characteristic of free verse, the poem doesn’t follow any structured rhyme scheme or meter; which in turn, allows him to not have any constraints in telling his story the way he wants to. The speaker has the freedom to display his experience in a way that evades predictability and engenders authenticity of a story very personal to him. As readers, we abandon anticipating the next rhyme, and instead focus our attention to the other ways, like his punctuation or word choice, in which he effectively tells his story. The speaker recognizes that some part of him no longer belongs to himself, but by writing “The Study,” he shows other survivors that they’re not alone and encourages hope that eventually, they will be freed from the shackles of sexual violence.

Works Cited

Nguyen, Hieu Minh. “The Study” Poets.Org. Academy of American Poets, Coffee House Press, 2018, https://poets.org/poem/study-0 .

Example 2: Fiction

Todd Goodwin

Professor Stan Matyshak

Advanced Expository Writing

Sept. 17, 20—

Poe’s “Usher”: A Mirror of the Fall of the House of Humanity

Right from the outset of the grim story, “The Fall of the House of Usher,” Edgar Allan Poe enmeshes us in a dark, gloomy, hopeless world, alienating his characters and the reader from any sort of physical or psychological norm where such values as hope and happiness could possibly exist. He fatalistically tells the story of how a man (the narrator) comes from the outside world of hope, religion, and everyday society and tries to bring some kind of redeeming happiness to his boyhood friend, Roderick Usher, who not only has physically and psychologically wasted away but is entrapped in a dilapidated house of ever-looming terror with an emaciated and deranged twin sister. Roderick Usher embodies the wasting away of what once was vibrant and alive, and his house of “insufferable gloom” (273), which contains his morbid sister, seems to mirror or reflect this fear of death and annihilation that he most horribly endures. A close reading of the story reveals that Poe uses mirror images, or reflections, to contribute to the fatalistic theme of “Usher”: each reflection serves to intensify an already prevalent tone of hopelessness, darkness, and fatalism.

It could be argued that the house of Roderick Usher is a “house of mirrors,” whose unpleasant and grim reflections create a dark and hopeless setting. For example, the narrator first approaches “the melancholy house of Usher on a dark and soundless day,” and finds a building which causes him a “sense of insufferable gloom,” which “pervades his spirit and causes an iciness, a sinking, a sickening of the heart, an undiscerned dreariness of thought” (273). The narrator then optimistically states: “I reflected that a mere different arrangement of the scene, of the details of the picture, would be sufficient to modify, or perhaps annihilate its capacity for sorrowful impression” (274). But the narrator then sees the reflection of the house in the tarn and experiences a “shudder even more thrilling than before” (274). Thus the reader begins to realize that the narrator cannot change or stop the impending doom that will befall the house of Usher, and maybe humanity. The story cleverly plays with the word reflection : the narrator sees a physical reflection that leads him to a mental reflection about Usher’s surroundings.

The narrator’s disillusionment by such grim reflection continues in the story. For example, he describes Roderick Usher’s face as distinct with signs of old strength but lost vigor: the remains of what used to be. He describes the house as a once happy and vibrant place, which, like Roderick, lost its vitality. Also, the narrator describes Usher’s hair as growing wild on his rather obtrusive head, which directly mirrors the eerie moss and straw covering the outside of the house. The narrator continually longs to see these bleak reflections as a dream, for he states: “Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I scanned more narrowly the real aspect of the building” (276). He does not want to face the reality that Usher and his home are doomed to fall, regardless of what he does.

Although there are almost countless examples of these mirror images, two others stand out as important. First, Roderick and his sister, Madeline, are twins. The narrator aptly states just as he and Roderick are entombing Madeline that there is “a striking similitude between brother and sister” (288). Indeed, they are mirror images of each other. Madeline is fading away psychologically and physically, and Roderick is not too far behind! The reflection of “doom” that these two share helps intensify and symbolize the hopelessness of the entire situation; thus, they further develop the fatalistic theme. Second, in the climactic scene where Madeline has been mistakenly entombed alive, there is a pairing of images and sounds as the narrator tries to calm Roderick by reading him a romance story. Events in the story simultaneously unfold with events of the sister escaping her tomb. In the story, the hero breaks out of the coffin. Then, in the story, the dragon’s shriek as he is slain parallels Madeline’s shriek. Finally, the story tells of the clangor of a shield, matched by the sister’s clanging along a metal passageway. As the suspense reaches its climax, Roderick shrieks his last words to his “friend,” the narrator: “Madman! I tell you that she now stands without the door” (296).

Roderick, who slowly falls into insanity, ironically calls the narrator the “Madman.” We are left to reflect on what Poe means by this ironic twist. Poe’s bleak and dark imagery, and his use of mirror reflections, seem only to intensify the hopelessness of “Usher.” We can plausibly conclude that, indeed, the narrator is the “Madman,” for he comes from everyday society, which is a place where hope and faith exist. Poe would probably argue that such a place is opposite to the world of Usher because a world where death is inevitable could not possibly hold such positive values. Therefore, just as Roderick mirrors his sister, the reflection in the tarn mirrors the dilapidation of the house, and the story mirrors the final actions before the death of Usher. “The Fall of the House of Usher” reflects Poe’s view that humanity is hopelessly doomed.

Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Fall of the House of Usher.” 1839. Electronic Text Center, University of Virginia Library . 1995. Web. 1 July 2012. < http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PoeFall.html >.

Example 3: Poetry

Amy Chisnell

Professor Laura Neary

Writing and Literature

April 17, 20—

Don’t Listen to the Egg!: A Close Reading of Lewis Carroll’s “Jabberwocky”

“You seem very clever at explaining words, Sir,” said Alice. “Would you kindly tell me the meaning of the poem called ‘Jabberwocky’?”

“Let’s hear it,” said Humpty Dumpty. “I can explain all the poems that ever were invented—and a good many that haven’t been invented just yet.” (Carroll 164)

In Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass , Humpty Dumpty confidently translates (to a not so confident Alice) the complicated language of the poem “Jabberwocky.” The words of the poem, though nonsense, aptly tell the story of the slaying of the Jabberwock. Upon finding “Jabberwocky” on a table in the looking-glass room, Alice is confused by the strange words. She is quite certain that “ somebody killed something ,” but she does not understand much more than that. When later she encounters Humpty Dumpty, she seizes the opportunity at having the knowledgeable egg interpret—or translate—the poem. Since Humpty Dumpty professes to be able to “make a word work” for him, he is quick to agree. Thus he acts like a New Critic who interprets the poem by performing a close reading of it. Through Humpty’s interpretation of the first stanza, however, we see the poem’s deeper comment concerning the practice of interpreting poetry and literature in general—that strict analytical translation destroys the beauty of a poem. In fact, Humpty Dumpty commits the “heresy of paraphrase,” for he fails to understand that meaning cannot be separated from the form or structure of the literary work.

Of the 71 words found in “Jabberwocky,” 43 have no known meaning. They are simply nonsense. Yet through this nonsensical language, the poem manages not only to tell a story but also gives the reader a sense of setting and characterization. One feels, rather than concretely knows, that the setting is dark, wooded, and frightening. The characters, such as the Jubjub bird, the Bandersnatch, and the doomed Jabberwock, also appear in the reader’s head, even though they will not be found in the local zoo. Even though most of the words are not real, the reader is able to understand what goes on because he or she is given free license to imagine what the words denote and connote. Simply, the poem’s nonsense words are the meaning.

Therefore, when Humpty interprets “Jabberwocky” for Alice, he is not doing her any favors, for he actually misreads the poem. Although the poem in its original is constructed from nonsense words, by the time Humpty is done interpreting it, it truly does not make any sense. The first stanza of the original poem is as follows:

’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;

All mimsy were the borogroves,

An the mome raths outgrabe. (Carroll 164)

If we replace, however, the nonsense words of “Jabberwocky” with Humpty’s translated words, the effect would be something like this:

’Twas four o’clock in the afternoon, and the lithe and slimy badger-lizard-corkscrew creatures

Did go round and round and make holes in the grass-plot round the sun-dial:

All flimsy and miserable were the shabby-looking birds

with mop feathers,

And the lost green pigs bellowed-sneezed-whistled.

By translating the poem in such a way, Humpty removes the charm or essence—and the beauty, grace, and rhythm—from the poem. The poetry is sacrificed for meaning. Humpty Dumpty commits the heresy of paraphrase. As Cleanth Brooks argues, “The structure of a poem resembles that of a ballet or musical composition. It is a pattern of resolutions and balances and harmonizations” (203). When the poem is left as nonsense, the reader can easily imagine what a “slithy tove” might be, but when Humpty tells us what it is, he takes that imaginative license away from the reader. The beauty (if that is the proper word) of “Jabberwocky” is in not knowing what the words mean, and yet understanding. By translating the poem, Humpty takes that privilege from the reader. In addition, Humpty fails to recognize that meaning cannot be separated from the structure itself: the nonsense poem reflects this literally—it means “nothing” and achieves this meaning by using “nonsense” words.

Furthermore, the nonsense words Carroll chooses to use in “Jabberwocky” have a magical effect upon the reader; the shadowy sound of the words create the atmosphere, which may be described as a trance-like mood. When Alice first reads the poem, she says it seems to fill her head “with ideas.” The strange-sounding words in the original poem do give one ideas. Why is this? Even though the reader has never heard these words before, he or she is instantly aware of the murky, mysterious mood they set. In other words, diction operates not on the denotative level (the dictionary meaning) but on the connotative level (the emotion(s) they evoke). Thus “Jabberwocky” creates a shadowy mood, and the nonsense words are instrumental in creating this mood. Carroll could not have simply used any nonsense words.

For example, let us change the “dark,” “ominous” words of the first stanza to “lighter,” more “comic” words:

’Twas mearly, and the churly pells

Did bimble and ringle in the tink;

All timpy were the brimbledimps,

And the bip plips outlink.

Shifting the sounds of the words from dark to light merely takes a shift in thought. To create a specific mood using nonsense words, one must create new words from old words that convey the desired mood. In “Jabberwocky,” Carroll mixes “slimy,” a grim idea, “lithe,” a pliable image, to get a new adjective: “slithy” (a portmanteau word). In this translation, brighter words were used to get a lighter effect. “Mearly” is a combination of “morning” and “early,” and “ringle” is a blend of “ring” and "dingle.” The point is that “Jabberwocky’s” nonsense words are created specifically to convey this shadowy or mysterious mood and are integral to the “meaning.”

Consequently, Humpty’s rendering of the poem leaves the reader with a completely different feeling than does the original poem, which provided us with a sense of ethereal mystery, of a dark and foreign land with exotic creatures and fantastic settings. The mysteriousness is destroyed by Humpty’s literal paraphrase of the creatures and the setting; by doing so, he has taken the beauty away from the poem in his attempt to understand it. He has committed the heresy of paraphrase: “If we allow ourselves to be misled by it [this heresy], we distort the relation of the poem to its ‘truth’… we split the poem between its ‘form’ and its ‘content’” (Brooks 201). Humpty Dumpty’s ultimate demise might be seen to symbolize the heretical split between form and content: as a literary creation, Humpty Dumpty is an egg, a well-wrought urn of nonsense. His fall from the wall cracks him and separates the contents from the container, and not even all the King’s men can put the scrambled egg back together again!

Through the odd characters of a little girl and a foolish egg, “Jabberwocky” suggests a bit of sage advice about reading poetry, advice that the New Critics built their theories on. The importance lies not solely within strict analytical translation or interpretation, but in the overall effect of the imagery and word choice that evokes a meaning inseparable from those literary devices. As Archibald MacLeish so aptly writes: “A poem should not mean / But be.” Sometimes it takes a little nonsense to show us the sense in something.

Brooks, Cleanth. The Well-Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry . 1942. San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1956. Print.

Carroll, Lewis. Through the Looking-Glass. Alice in Wonderland . 2nd ed. Ed. Donald J. Gray. New York: Norton, 1992. Print.

MacLeish, Archibald. “Ars Poetica.” The Oxford Book of American Poetry . Ed. David Lehman. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006. 385–86. Print.

Attribution

Sample Essay 1 received permission from Victoria Morillo to publish, licensed Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International ( CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 )
Sample Essays 2 and 3 adapted from Cordell, Ryan and John Pennington. "2.5: Student Sample Papers" from Creating Literary Analysis. 2012. Licensed Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported ( CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 )

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litreary Analysis – Definition & Step-by-Step Guide

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litreary analysis involves the process of closely examining, interpreting, and critiquing various aspects of a litreary work. It delves into themes, symbols, characters, settings, plot structures, and stylistic devices, among other elements, to reveal the deeper meanings and implications conveyed by the author. Furthermore, litreary analysis enables us to bridge the gap between personal interpretation and a broader, shared understanding of litreature’s richness and diversity.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1 litreary Analysis – In a Nutshell
2 Definition: litreary analysis
3 How to write a litreary analysis step-by-step
4 litreary analysis: Example

litreary Analysis – In a Nutshell

A litreary analysis evaluates and interprets litreature to express the writer’s perspective.
To create a litreary analysis, the writer needs to read the text, develop a working thesis, make, and interpret an extended list of evidence, and interpret the evidence to write an academic essay .
Avoid writing a plot summary and instead, use litreary analysis.

Definition: litreary analysis

litreary analysis, sometimes referred to as litreary criticism , is the argumentative analysis of academic writing is a method of critical examination where various elements of a litreary work are closely studied and interpreted. Although a summary is needed within the argument, the objective is not to write a report on the text, but to discuss the writer’s examination of it. Ultimately, the aim of litreary analysis is to illuminate the work’s intrinsic value, convey its societal and philosophical implications, and foster a profound understanding of the author’s intentions and the broader cultural or historical context.

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How to write a litreary analysis step-by-step

Below is an in-depth guide on how to write a litreary analysis.

Step 1: Reading the text

The first step in conducting a litreary analysis is to read the text carefully and take initial notes. As you read, focus on the ideas being presented.

Pay attention to the author’s writing technique, the character’s development , and the litreary devices used.

Some of the litreary devices a writer should consider when reading through the text for a litreary analysis include:

Step 2: Creating a thesis

A litreary analysis thesis is what substantiates the writer’s view and allows it to be debated.

While a thesis states the writer’s opinion, it should also allow any readers to come to their conclusions .

Pride and prejudice is a story about the efforts of Elizabeth Bennet in overcoming her pride and her bias towards Mr. Darcy, and how her family is affected by their preconceptions of the surrounding society.

Step 3: Title and introduction

The opening statements of the litreary analysis should expose the reader to the intentions and context of the critique . A common structure for the introduction is to start with a general statement about the text and the author, and then finish with a brief indication of what’s coming in the main body.

The title of a litreary analysis usually contains the name of the text and the author you are analysing. It should be as engageing as possible and clearly indicate what the analysis will focus on. A common method in coming up with a title is using a relevant quote from the text , then a colon followed by the rest of the title.

Approaching “the edge of knowing”: Anne Caston’s “Anatomy.”

Step 4: Body of the essay

Everything between the introduction and the conclusion in litreary analysis is the body . Its main goal is to answer the writer’s questions about the work and the supporting textual evidence.

To keep your points focused, start each paragraph with a topic sentence that allows the reader to see what the paragraph is about quickly. A topic sentence can introduce a new argument or contrast it with the argument in the previous paragraph.

A main part of the body is giving textual evidence that backs up your arguments. You can do this using quotes from the text. If you use quotes, ensure you contextualize and explain why you are using them instead of treating them as self-explanatory.

Step 5: Conclusion

The conclusion of the litreary analysis is about wrapping up the essay and should not introduce any new arguments or quotations. A good structure for the analysis would be to summarize the primary arguments, emphasize the conclusion they’ve led you to, and highlight the new perspective.

litreary analysis: Example

Below is an example of a litreary analysis of Ernest Hemingway’s novella, “The Old Man and the Sea”

Literary-analysis-example-title-and-introduction

The introduction starts with basic facts about the author and transitions into a concise and debatable thesis statement.

Literary-analysis-example-first-body-paragraph-and-example

The writer transitions to the first paragraph in the body by introducing the first element of style that contributes to the discussion of the theme.

The conclusion emphasizes the thesis statement and summarizes the arguments.

Why is litreary analysis important?

Examining and analysing litreature gives writers the opportunity to think critically about a text.

Not only does this help demonstrate the author’s intentions, but it also enhances critical thinking skills that are useful in other disciplines.

What is a litreary analysis thesis statement?

A litreary analysis thesis statement summarizes the analytical argument the writer intends to make and prove in the paper.

What are the key features of litreary analysis?

The analysed elements of litreary analysis include:

Narrative voice

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Literary Devices & Terms

An acrostic is a piece of writing in which a particular set of letters—typically the first letter of each line, word, or paragraph—spells out a word or phrase with special significance to the text. Acrostics... (read full acrostic explanation with examples) An acrostic is a piece of writing in which a particular set of letters—typically the first letter of each line,... (read more)

An allegory is a work that conveys a hidden meaning—usually moral, spiritual, or political—through the use of symbolic characters and events. The story of "The Tortoise and The Hare" is a well-known allegory with a... (read full allegory explanation with examples) An allegory is a work that conveys a hidden meaning—usually moral, spiritual, or political—through the use of symbolic characters and... (read more)

Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the “b” sound in: “Bob brought the box of bricks to the basement.” The repeating sound... (read full alliteration explanation with examples) Alliteration is a figure of speech in which the same sound repeats in a group of words, such as the... (read more)

In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to other literary works, famous individuals, historical events, or philosophical ideas, and they do so in... (read full allusion explanation with examples) In literature, an allusion is an unexplained reference to someone or something outside of the text. Writers commonly allude to... (read more)

An anachronism is a person or a thing placed in the wrong time period. For instance, if a novel set in Medieval England featured a trip to a movie-theater, that would be an anachronism. Although... (read full anachronism explanation with examples) An anachronism is a person or a thing placed in the wrong time period. For instance, if a novel set... (read more)

Anadiplosis is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words located at the end of one clause or sentence is repeated at or near the beginning of the following clause or... (read full anadiplosis explanation with examples) Anadiplosis is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words located at the end of one... (read more)

An analogy is a comparison that aims to explain a thing or idea by likening it to something else. For example, a career coach might say, "Being the successful boss or CEO of a company... (read full analogy explanation with examples) An analogy is a comparison that aims to explain a thing or idea by likening it to something else. For... (read more)

An anapest is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed syllable. The word "understand" is an anapest, with the unstressed syllables of "un" and "der" followed... (read full anapest explanation with examples) An anapest is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed syllable.... (read more)

Anaphora is a figure of speech in which words repeat at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. For example, Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech contains anaphora: "So let freedom... (read full anaphora explanation with examples) Anaphora is a figure of speech in which words repeat at the beginning of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences. For... (read more)

An antagonist is usually a character who opposes the protagonist (or main character) of a story, but the antagonist can also be a group of characters, institution, or force against which the protagonist must contend.... (read full antagonist explanation with examples) An antagonist is usually a character who opposes the protagonist (or main character) of a story, but the antagonist can... (read more)

Antanaclasis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but the word or phrase means something different each time it appears. A famous example of antanaclasis is... (read full antanaclasis explanation with examples) Antanaclasis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but the word... (read more)

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, and behaviors to animals or other non-human things (including objects, plants, and supernatural beings). Some famous examples of anthropomorphism include Winnie the Pooh, the Little Engine that Could, and Simba from... (read full anthropomorphism explanation with examples) Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, and behaviors to animals or other non-human things (including objects, plants, and supernatural beings). Some famous... (read more)

Antimetabole is a figure of speech in which a phrase is repeated, but with the order of words reversed. John F. Kennedy's words, "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you... (read full antimetabole explanation with examples) Antimetabole is a figure of speech in which a phrase is repeated, but with the order of words reversed. John... (read more)

Antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting or opposing ideas, usually within parallel grammatical structures. For instance, Neil Armstrong used antithesis when he stepped onto the surface of the moon in 1969... (read full antithesis explanation with examples) Antithesis is a figure of speech that juxtaposes two contrasting or opposing ideas, usually within parallel grammatical structures. For instance,... (read more)

An aphorism is a saying that concisely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world, presenting it as a general or universal truth. The Rolling Stones are responsible for penning one of the... (read full aphorism explanation with examples) An aphorism is a saying that concisely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world, presenting it as... (read more)

Aphorismus is a type of figure of speech that calls into question the way a word is used. Aphorismus is used not to question the meaning of a word, but whether it is actually appropriate... (read full aphorismus explanation with examples) Aphorismus is a type of figure of speech that calls into question the way a word is used. Aphorismus is... (read more)

Aporia is a rhetorical device in which a speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt—often pretended uncertainty or doubt—about something, usually as a way of proving a point. An example of aporia is the famous Elizabeth Barrett... (read full aporia explanation with examples) Aporia is a rhetorical device in which a speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt—often pretended uncertainty or doubt—about something, usually as... (read more)

Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone (or something) that is not present or cannot respond in reality. The entity being addressed can be an absent, dead, or imaginary... (read full apostrophe explanation with examples) Apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone (or something) that is not present or... (read more)

Assonance is a figure of speech in which the same vowel sound repeats within a group of words. An example of assonance is: "Who gave Newt and Scooter the blue tuna? It was too soon!" (read full assonance explanation with examples) Assonance is a figure of speech in which the same vowel sound repeats within a group of words. An example... (read more)

An asyndeton (sometimes called asyndetism) is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and", "or", and "but" that join other words or clauses in a sentence into relationships of equal importance—are omitted.... (read full asyndeton explanation with examples) An asyndeton (sometimes called asyndetism) is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and", "or", and "but"... (read more)

A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story and was traditionally set to music. English language ballads are typically composed of four-line stanzas that follow an ABCB rhyme scheme. (read full ballad explanation with examples) A ballad is a type of poem that tells a story and was traditionally set to music. English language ballads... (read more)

A ballade is a form of lyric poetry that originated in medieval France. Ballades follow a strict rhyme scheme ("ababbcbc"), and typically have three eight-line stanzas followed by a shorter four-line stanza called an envoi.... (read full ballade explanation with examples) A ballade is a form of lyric poetry that originated in medieval France. Ballades follow a strict rhyme scheme ("ababbcbc"),... (read more)

Bildungsroman is a genre of novel that shows a young protagonist's journey from childhood to adulthood (or immaturity to maturity), with a focus on the trials and misfortunes that affect the character's growth. (read full bildungsroman explanation with examples) Bildungsroman is a genre of novel that shows a young protagonist's journey from childhood to adulthood (or immaturity to maturity),... (read more)

Blank verse is the name given to poetry that lacks rhymes but does follow a specific meter—a meter that is almost always iambic pentameter. Blank verse was particularly popular in English poetry written between the... (read full blank verse explanation with examples) Blank verse is the name given to poetry that lacks rhymes but does follow a specific meter—a meter that is... (read more)

A cacophony is a combination of words that sound harsh or unpleasant together, usually because they pack a lot of percussive or "explosive" consonants (like T, P, or K) into relatively little space. For instance, the... (read full cacophony explanation with examples) A cacophony is a combination of words that sound harsh or unpleasant together, usually because they pack a lot of... (read more)

A caesura is a pause that occurs within a line of poetry, usually marked by some form of punctuation such as a period, comma, ellipsis, or dash. A caesura doesn't have to be placed in... (read full caesura explanation with examples) A caesura is a pause that occurs within a line of poetry, usually marked by some form of punctuation such... (read more)

Catharsis is the process of releasing strong or pent-up emotions through art. Aristotle coined the term catharsis—which comes from the Greek kathairein meaning "to cleanse or purge"—to describe the release of emotional tension that he... (read full catharsis explanation with examples) Catharsis is the process of releasing strong or pent-up emotions through art. Aristotle coined the term catharsis—which comes from the... (read more)

Characterization is the representation of the traits, motives, and psychology of a character in a narrative. Characterization may occur through direct description, in which the character's qualities are described by a narrator, another character, or... (read full characterization explanation with examples) Characterization is the representation of the traits, motives, and psychology of a character in a narrative. Characterization may occur through... (read more)

Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which the grammar of one phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such that two key concepts from the original phrase reappear in the second phrase in inverted... (read full chiasmus explanation with examples) Chiasmus is a figure of speech in which the grammar of one phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such... (read more)

The word cinquain can refer to two different things. Historically, it referred to any stanza of five lines written in any type of verse. More recently, cinquain has come to refer to particular types of... (read full cinquain explanation with examples) The word cinquain can refer to two different things. Historically, it referred to any stanza of five lines written in... (read more)

A cliché is a phrase that, due to overuse, is seen as lacking in substance or originality. For example, telling a heartbroken friend that there are "Plenty of fish in the sea" is such a... (read full cliché explanation with examples) A cliché is a phrase that, due to overuse, is seen as lacking in substance or originality. For example, telling... (read more)

Climax is a figure of speech in which successive words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are arranged in ascending order of importance, as in "Look! Up in the sky! It's a bird! It's a plane! It's... (read full climax (figure of speech) explanation with examples) Climax is a figure of speech in which successive words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are arranged in ascending order of... (read more)

The climax of a plot is the story's central turning point—the moment of peak tension or conflict—which all the preceding plot developments have been leading up to. In a traditional "good vs. evil" story (like many superhero movies)... (read full climax (plot) explanation with examples) The climax of a plot is the story's central turning point—the moment of peak tension or conflict—which all the preceding plot... (read more)

Colloquialism is the use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech. Colloquialisms are usually defined in geographical terms, meaning that they are often defined by their use within a dialect, a regionally-defined variant... (read full colloquialism explanation with examples) Colloquialism is the use of informal words or phrases in writing or speech. Colloquialisms are usually defined in geographical terms,... (read more)

Common meter is a specific type of meter that is often used in lyric poetry. Common meter has two key traits: it alternates between lines of eight syllables and lines of six syllables, and it... (read full common meter explanation with examples) Common meter is a specific type of meter that is often used in lyric poetry. Common meter has two key... (read more)

A conceit is a fanciful metaphor, especially a highly elaborate or extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far-fetched, or strained comparison is made between two things. A famous example comes from John Donne's poem, "A... (read full conceit explanation with examples) A conceit is a fanciful metaphor, especially a highly elaborate or extended metaphor in which an unlikely, far-fetched, or strained... (read more)

Connotation is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary definition. Most words carry meanings, impressions, or associations apart from or beyond their literal meaning. For example, the... (read full connotation explanation with examples) Connotation is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary definition. Most words... (read more)

Consonance is a figure of speech in which the same consonant sound repeats within a group of words. An example of consonance is: "Traffic figures, on July Fourth, to be tough." (read full consonance explanation with examples) Consonance is a figure of speech in which the same consonant sound repeats within a group of words. An example... (read more)

A couplet is a unit of two lines of poetry, especially lines that use the same or similar meter, form a rhyme, or are separated from other lines by a double line break. (read full couplet explanation with examples) A couplet is a unit of two lines of poetry, especially lines that use the same or similar meter, form... (read more)

A dactyl is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables. The word “poetry” itself is a great example of a dactyl, with the stressed syllable... (read full dactyl explanation with examples) A dactyl is a three-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables.... (read more)

Denotation is the literal meaning, or "dictionary definition," of a word. Denotation is defined in contrast to connotation, which is the array of emotions and ideas suggested by a word in addition to its dictionary... (read full denotation explanation with examples) Denotation is the literal meaning, or "dictionary definition," of a word. Denotation is defined in contrast to connotation, which is... (read more)

The dénouement is the final section of a story's plot, in which loose ends are tied up, lingering questions are answered, and a sense of resolution is achieved. The shortest and most well known dénouement, it could be... (read full dénouement explanation with examples) The dénouement is the final section of a story's plot, in which loose ends are tied up, lingering questions are answered, and... (read more)

A deus ex machina is a plot device whereby an unsolvable conflict or point of tension is suddenly resolved by the unexpected appearance of an implausible character, object, action, ability, or event. For example, if... (read full deus ex machina explanation with examples) A deus ex machina is a plot device whereby an unsolvable conflict or point of tension is suddenly resolved by... (read more)

Diacope is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated with a small number of intervening words. The first line of Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, "Happy families are all alike;... (read full diacope explanation with examples) Diacope is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated with a small number of intervening... (read more)

Dialogue is the exchange of spoken words between two or more characters in a book, play, or other written work. In prose writing, lines of dialogue are typically identified by the use of quotation marks... (read full dialogue explanation with examples) Dialogue is the exchange of spoken words between two or more characters in a book, play, or other written work.... (read more)

Diction is a writer's unique style of expression, especially his or her choice and arrangement of words. A writer's vocabulary, use of language to produce a specific tone or atmosphere, and ability to communicate clearly... (read full diction explanation with examples) Diction is a writer's unique style of expression, especially his or her choice and arrangement of words. A writer's vocabulary,... (read more)

Dramatic irony is a plot device often used in theater, literature, film, and television to highlight the difference between a character's understanding of a given situation, and that of the audience. More specifically, in dramatic... (read full dramatic irony explanation with examples) Dramatic irony is a plot device often used in theater, literature, film, and television to highlight the difference between a... (read more)

A dynamic character undergoes substantial internal changes as a result of one or more plot developments. The dynamic character's change can be extreme or subtle, as long as his or her development is important to... (read full dynamic character explanation with examples) A dynamic character undergoes substantial internal changes as a result of one or more plot developments. The dynamic character's change... (read more)

An elegy is a poem of serious reflection, especially one mourning the loss of someone who died. Elegies are defined by their subject matter, and don't have to follow any specific form in terms of... (read full elegy explanation with examples) An elegy is a poem of serious reflection, especially one mourning the loss of someone who died. Elegies are defined... (read more)

End rhyme refers to rhymes that occur in the final words of lines of poetry. For instance, these lines from Dorothy Parker's poem "Interview" use end rhyme: "The ladies men admire, I’ve heard, / Would shudder... (read full end rhyme explanation with examples) End rhyme refers to rhymes that occur in the final words of lines of poetry. For instance, these lines from... (read more)

An end-stopped line is a line of poetry in which a sentence or phrase comes to a conclusion at the end of the line. For example, the poet C.P. Cavafy uses end-stopped lines in his... (read full end-stopped line explanation with examples) An end-stopped line is a line of poetry in which a sentence or phrase comes to a conclusion at the... (read more)

Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause across a line break. For example, the poet John Donne uses enjambment in his poem "The Good-Morrow" when he continues the opening sentence across the line... (read full enjambment explanation with examples) Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence or clause across a line break. For example, the poet John Donne uses... (read more)

An envoi is a brief concluding stanza at the end of a poem that can either summarize the preceding poem or serve as its dedication. The envoi tends to follow the same meter and rhyme... (read full envoi explanation with examples) An envoi is a brief concluding stanza at the end of a poem that can either summarize the preceding poem... (read more)

Epanalepsis is a figure of speech in which the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end of that same clause or sentence, with words intervening. The sentence "The king is dead,... (read full epanalepsis explanation with examples) Epanalepsis is a figure of speech in which the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end... (read more)

An epigram is a short and witty statement, usually written in verse, that conveys a single thought or observation. Epigrams typically end with a punchline or a satirical twist. (read full epigram explanation with examples) An epigram is a short and witty statement, usually written in verse, that conveys a single thought or observation. Epigrams... (read more)

An epigraph is a short quotation, phrase, or poem that is placed at the beginning of another piece of writing to encapsulate that work's main themes and to set the tone. For instance, the epigraph of Mary... (read full epigraph explanation with examples) An epigraph is a short quotation, phrase, or poem that is placed at the beginning of another piece of writing to... (read more)

Epistrophe is a figure of speech in which one or more words repeat at the end of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences. In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urged the American people to ensure that,... (read full epistrophe explanation with examples) Epistrophe is a figure of speech in which one or more words repeat at the end of successive phrases, clauses,... (read more)

Epizeuxis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated in immediate succession, with no intervening words. In the play Hamlet, when Hamlet responds to a question about what he's reading... (read full epizeuxis explanation with examples) Epizeuxis is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is repeated in immediate succession, with no intervening... (read more)

Ethos, along with logos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Ethos is an argument that appeals to the audience by emphasizing the... (read full ethos explanation with examples) Ethos, along with logos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

Euphony is the combining of words that sound pleasant together or are easy to pronounce, usually because they contain lots of consonants with soft or muffled sounds (like L, M, N, and R) instead of consonants with harsh, percussive sounds (like... (read full euphony explanation with examples) Euphony is the combining of words that sound pleasant together or are easy to pronounce, usually because they contain lots of consonants with soft... (read more)

Exposition is the description or explanation of background information within a work of literature. Exposition can cover characters and their relationship to one another, the setting or time and place of events, as well as... (read full exposition explanation with examples) Exposition is the description or explanation of background information within a work of literature. Exposition can cover characters and their... (read more)

An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines or even paragraphs of a text, making use of multiple interrelated metaphors within an overarching one. So while "life is a highway" is a... (read full extended metaphor explanation with examples) An extended metaphor is a metaphor that unfolds across multiple lines or even paragraphs of a text, making use of... (read more)

An external conflict is a problem, antagonism, or struggle that takes place between a character and an outside force. External conflict drives the action of a plot forward. (read full external conflict explanation with examples) An external conflict is a problem, antagonism, or struggle that takes place between a character and an outside force. External conflict... (read more)

The falling action of a story is the section of the plot following the climax, in which the tension stemming from the story's central conflict decreases and the story moves toward its conclusion. For instance, the traditional "good... (read full falling action explanation with examples) The falling action of a story is the section of the plot following the climax, in which the tension stemming from... (read more)

Figurative language is language that contains or uses figures of speech. When people use the term "figurative language," however, they often do so in a slightly narrower way. In this narrower definition, figurative language refers... (read full figurative language explanation with examples) Figurative language is language that contains or uses figures of speech. When people use the term "figurative language," however, they... (read more)

A figure of speech is a literary device in which language is used in an unusual—or "figured"—way in order to produce a stylistic effect. Figures of speech can be broken into two main groups: figures... (read full figure of speech explanation with examples) A figure of speech is a literary device in which language is used in an unusual—or "figured"—way in order to... (read more)

A character is said to be "flat" if it is one-dimensional or lacking in complexity. Typically, flat characters can be easily and accurately described using a single word (like "bully") or one short sentence (like "A naive... (read full flat character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "flat" if it is one-dimensional or lacking in complexity. Typically, flat characters can be easily... (read more)

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which authors hint at plot developments that don't actually occur until later in the story. Foreshadowing can be achieved directly or indirectly, by making explicit statements or leaving subtle... (read full foreshadowing explanation with examples) Foreshadowing is a literary device in which authors hint at plot developments that don't actually occur until later in the... (read more)

Formal verse is the name given to rhymed poetry that uses a strict meter (a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables). This two-line poem by Emily Dickinson is formal verse because it rhymes and... (read full formal verse explanation with examples) Formal verse is the name given to rhymed poetry that uses a strict meter (a regular pattern of stressed and... (read more)

Free verse is the name given to poetry that doesn’t use any strict meter or rhyme scheme. Because it has no set meter, poems written in free verse can have lines of any length, from... (read full free verse explanation with examples) Free verse is the name given to poetry that doesn’t use any strict meter or rhyme scheme. Because it has... (read more)

Hamartia is a literary term that refers to a tragic flaw or error that leads to a character's downfall. In the novel Frankenstein, Victor Frankenstein's arrogant conviction that he can usurp the roles of God... (read full hamartia explanation with examples) Hamartia is a literary term that refers to a tragic flaw or error that leads to a character's downfall. In... (read more)

Hubris refers to excessive pride or overconfidence, which drives a person to overstep limits in a way that leads to their downfall. In Greek mythology, the legend of Icarus involves an iconic case of hubris:... (read full hubris explanation with examples) Hubris refers to excessive pride or overconfidence, which drives a person to overstep limits in a way that leads to... (read more)

Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker exaggerates for the sake of emphasis. Hyperbolic statements are usually quite obvious exaggerations intended to emphasize a point, rather than be taken literally.... (read full hyperbole explanation with examples) Hyperbole is a figure of speech in which a writer or speaker exaggerates for the sake of emphasis. Hyperbolic statements... (read more)

An iamb is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which one unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable. The word "define" is an iamb, with the unstressed syllable of "de" followed by the... (read full iamb explanation with examples) An iamb is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which one unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed syllable.... (read more)

An idiom is a phrase that conveys a figurative meaning that is difficult or impossible to understand based solely on a literal interpretation of the words in the phrase. For example, saying that something is... (read full idiom explanation with examples) An idiom is a phrase that conveys a figurative meaning that is difficult or impossible to understand based solely on... (read more)

Imagery, in any sort of writing, refers to descriptive language that engages the human senses. For instance, the following lines from Robert Frost's poem "After Apple-Picking" contain imagery that engages the senses of touch, movement,... (read full imagery explanation with examples) Imagery, in any sort of writing, refers to descriptive language that engages the human senses. For instance, the following lines... (read more)

Internal rhyme is rhyme that occurs in the middle of lines of poetry, instead of at the ends of lines. A single line of poetry can contain internal rhyme (with multiple words in the same... (read full internal rhyme explanation with examples) Internal rhyme is rhyme that occurs in the middle of lines of poetry, instead of at the ends of lines.... (read more)

Irony is a literary device or event in which how things seem to be is in fact very different from how they actually are. If this seems like a loose definition, don't worry—it is. Irony is a... (read full irony explanation with examples) Irony is a literary device or event in which how things seem to be is in fact very different from how... (read more)

Juxtaposition occurs when an author places two things side by side as a way of highlighting their differences. Ideas, images, characters, and actions are all things that can be juxtaposed with one another. For example,... (read full juxtaposition explanation with examples) Juxtaposition occurs when an author places two things side by side as a way of highlighting their differences. Ideas, images,... (read more)

A kenning is a figure of speech in which two words are combined in order to form a poetic expression that refers to a person or a thing. For example, "whale-road" is a kenning for... (read full kenning explanation with examples) A kenning is a figure of speech in which two words are combined in order to form a poetic expression... (read more)

A line break is the termination of one line of poetry, and the beginning of a new line. (read full line break explanation with examples) A line break is the termination of one line of poetry, and the beginning of a new line. (read more)

Litotes is a figure of speech and a form of understatement in which a sentiment is expressed ironically by negating its contrary. For example, saying "It's not the best weather today" during a hurricane would... (read full litotes explanation with examples) Litotes is a figure of speech and a form of understatement in which a sentiment is expressed ironically by negating... (read more)

Logos, along with ethos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Logos is an argument that appeals to an audience's sense of logic... (read full logos explanation with examples) Logos, along with ethos and pathos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things by saying that one thing is the other. The comparison in a metaphor can be stated explicitly, as in the sentence "Love is... (read full metaphor explanation with examples) A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things by saying that one thing is the other.... (read more)

Meter is a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that defines the rhythm of some poetry. These stress patterns are defined in groupings, called feet, of two or three syllables. A pattern of unstressed-stressed,... (read full meter explanation with examples) Meter is a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that defines the rhythm of some poetry. These stress patterns... (read more)

Metonymy is a type of figurative language in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own name, but instead by the name of something closely associated with it. For example, in... (read full metonymy explanation with examples) Metonymy is a type of figurative language in which an object or concept is referred to not by its own... (read more)

The mood of a piece of writing is its general atmosphere or emotional complexion—in short, the array of feelings the work evokes in the reader. Every aspect of a piece of writing can influence its mood, from the... (read full mood explanation with examples) The mood of a piece of writing is its general atmosphere or emotional complexion—in short, the array of feelings the work evokes... (read more)

A motif is an element or idea that recurs throughout a work of literature. Motifs, which are often collections of related symbols, help develop the central themes of a book or play. For example, one... (read full motif explanation with examples) A motif is an element or idea that recurs throughout a work of literature. Motifs, which are often collections of... (read more)

A narrative is an account of connected events. Two writers describing the same set of events might craft very different narratives, depending on how they use different narrative elements, such as tone or point of view. For... (read full narrative explanation with examples) A narrative is an account of connected events. Two writers describing the same set of events might craft very different narratives,... (read more)

Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing they refer to or describe. The “boom” of a firework exploding, the “tick tock” of a clock, and the... (read full onomatopoeia explanation with examples) Onomatopoeia is a figure of speech in which words evoke the actual sound of the thing they refer to or... (read more)

An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms or ideas are intentionally paired in order to make a point—particularly to reveal a deeper or hidden truth. The most recognizable oxymorons are... (read full oxymoron explanation with examples) An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which two contradictory terms or ideas are intentionally paired in order to... (read more)

A paradox is a figure of speech that seems to contradict itself, but which, upon further examination, contains some kernel of truth or reason. Oscar Wilde's famous declaration that "Life is much too important to be... (read full paradox explanation with examples) A paradox is a figure of speech that seems to contradict itself, but which, upon further examination, contains some kernel... (read more)

Parallelism is a figure of speech in which two or more elements of a sentence (or series of sentences) have the same grammatical structure. These "parallel" elements can be used to intensify the rhythm of... (read full parallelism explanation with examples) Parallelism is a figure of speech in which two or more elements of a sentence (or series of sentences) have... (read more)

Parataxis is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are set next to each other so that each element is equally important. Parataxis usually involves simple sentences or phrases whose relationships... (read full parataxis explanation with examples) Parataxis is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, clauses, or sentences are set next to each other so... (read more)

A parody is a work that mimics the style of another work, artist, or genre in an exaggerated way, usually for comic effect. Parodies can take many forms, including fiction, poetry, film, visual art, and... (read full parody explanation with examples) A parody is a work that mimics the style of another work, artist, or genre in an exaggerated way, usually... (read more)

Pathetic fallacy occurs when a writer attributes human emotions to things that aren't human, such as objects, weather, or animals. It is often used to make the environment reflect the inner experience of a narrator... (read full pathetic fallacy explanation with examples) Pathetic fallacy occurs when a writer attributes human emotions to things that aren't human, such as objects, weather, or animals.... (read more)

Pathos, along with logos and ethos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective speaking or writing). Pathos is an argument that appeals to an audience's emotions. When a... (read full pathos explanation with examples) Pathos, along with logos and ethos, is one of the three "modes of persuasion" in rhetoric (the art of effective... (read more)

Personification is a type of figurative language in which non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the sentence, "The rain poured down on the wedding guests, indifferent to their plans." Describing the... (read full personification explanation with examples) Personification is a type of figurative language in which non-human things are described as having human attributes, as in the... (read more)

Plot is the sequence of interconnected events within the story of a play, novel, film, epic, or other narrative literary work. More than simply an account of what happened, plot reveals the cause-and-effect relationships between... (read full plot explanation with examples) Plot is the sequence of interconnected events within the story of a play, novel, film, epic, or other narrative literary... (read more)

Point of view refers to the perspective that the narrator holds in relation to the events of the story. The three primary points of view are first person, in which the narrator tells a story from... (read full point of view explanation with examples) Point of view refers to the perspective that the narrator holds in relation to the events of the story. The... (read more)

Polyptoton is a figure of speech that involves the repetition of words derived from the same root (such as "blood" and "bleed"). For instance, the question, "Who shall watch the watchmen?" is an example of... (read full polyptoton explanation with examples) Polyptoton is a figure of speech that involves the repetition of words derived from the same root (such as "blood"... (read more)

Polysyndeton is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and," "or," and "but" that join other words or clauses in a sentence into relationships of equal importance—are used several times in close... (read full polysyndeton explanation with examples) Polysyndeton is a figure of speech in which coordinating conjunctions—words such as "and," "or," and "but" that join other words... (read more)

The protagonist of a story is its main character, who has the sympathy and support of the audience. This character tends to be involved in or affected by most of the choices or conflicts that... (read full protagonist explanation with examples) The protagonist of a story is its main character, who has the sympathy and support of the audience. This character... (read more)

A pun is a figure of speech that plays with words that have multiple meanings, or that plays with words that sound similar but mean different things. The comic novelist Douglas Adams uses both types... (read full pun explanation with examples) A pun is a figure of speech that plays with words that have multiple meanings, or that plays with words... (read more)

A quatrain is a four-line stanza of poetry. It can be a single four-line stanza, meaning that it is a stand-alone poem of four lines, or it can be a four-line stanza that makes up... (read full quatrain explanation with examples) A quatrain is a four-line stanza of poetry. It can be a single four-line stanza, meaning that it is a... (read more)

A red herring is a piece of information in a story that distracts readers from an important truth, or leads them to mistakenly expect a particular outcome. Most often, the term red herring is used to refer... (read full red herring explanation with examples) A red herring is a piece of information in a story that distracts readers from an important truth, or leads them... (read more)

In a poem or song, a refrain is a line or group of lines that regularly repeat, usually at the end of a stanza in a poem or at the end of a verse in... (read full refrain explanation with examples) In a poem or song, a refrain is a line or group of lines that regularly repeat, usually at the... (read more)

Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more times. Repetition occurs in so many different forms that it is usually not thought of as a single figure... (read full repetition explanation with examples) Repetition is a literary device in which a word or phrase is repeated two or more times. Repetition occurs in... (read more)

A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in which a question is asked for a reason other than to get an answer—most commonly, it's asked to make a persuasive point. For example, if a... (read full rhetorical question explanation with examples) A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in which a question is asked for a reason other than to... (read more)

A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. Rhyming is particularly common in many types of poetry, especially at the ends of lines, and is a requirement in formal verse.... (read full rhyme explanation with examples) A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounds in two or more words. Rhyming is particularly common in many types... (read more)

A rhyme scheme is the pattern according to which end rhymes (rhymes located at the end of lines) are repeated in works poetry. Rhyme schemes are described using letters of the alphabet, such that all... (read full rhyme scheme explanation with examples) A rhyme scheme is the pattern according to which end rhymes (rhymes located at the end of lines) are repeated... (read more)

The rising action of a story is the section of the plot leading up to the climax, in which the tension stemming from the story's central conflict grows through successive plot developments. For example, in the story of "Little... (read full rising action explanation with examples) The rising action of a story is the section of the plot leading up to the climax, in which the tension stemming... (read more)

A character is said to be "round" if they are lifelike or complex. Round characters typically have fully fleshed-out and multi-faceted personalities, backgrounds, desires, and motivations. Jay Gatsby in F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby... (read full round character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "round" if they are lifelike or complex. Round characters typically have fully fleshed-out and... (read more)

Satire is the use of humor, irony, sarcasm, or ridicule to criticize something or someone. Public figures, such as politicians, are often the subject of satire, but satirists can take aim at other targets as... (read full satire explanation with examples) Satire is the use of humor, irony, sarcasm, or ridicule to criticize something or someone. Public figures, such as politicians,... (read more)

A sestet is a six-line stanza of poetry. It can be any six-line stanza—one that is, itself, a whole poem, or one that makes up a part of a longer poem. Most commonly, the term... (read full sestet explanation with examples) A sestet is a six-line stanza of poetry. It can be any six-line stanza—one that is, itself, a whole poem,... (read more)

Setting is where and when a story or scene takes place. The where can be a real place like the city of New York, or it can be an imagined location, like Middle Earth in... (read full setting explanation with examples) Setting is where and when a story or scene takes place. The where can be a real place like the... (read more)

Sibilance is a figure of speech in which a hissing sound is created within a group of words through the repetition of "s" sounds. An example of sibilance is: "Sadly, Sam sold seven venomous serpents to Sally and... (read full sibilance explanation with examples) Sibilance is a figure of speech in which a hissing sound is created within a group of words through the repetition... (read more)

A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things. To make the comparison, similes most often use the connecting words "like" or "as," but can also use other words that indicate... (read full simile explanation with examples) A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things. To make the comparison, similes most often... (read more)

Traditionally, slant rhyme referred to a type of rhyme in which two words located at the end of a line of poetry themselves end in similar—but not identical—consonant sounds. For instance, the words "pact" and... (read full slant rhyme explanation with examples) Traditionally, slant rhyme referred to a type of rhyme in which two words located at the end of a line... (read more)

A soliloquy is a literary device, most often found in dramas, in which a character speaks to him or herself, relating his or her innermost thoughts and feelings as if thinking aloud. In some cases,... (read full soliloquy explanation with examples) A soliloquy is a literary device, most often found in dramas, in which a character speaks to him or herself,... (read more)

A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. Traditionally, the fourteen lines of a sonnet consist of an octave (or two quatrains making up a stanza of 8 lines) and a sestet (a stanza of... (read full sonnet explanation with examples) A sonnet is a type of fourteen-line poem. Traditionally, the fourteen lines of a sonnet consist of an octave (or... (read more)

A spondee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which both syllables are stressed. The word "downtown" is a spondee, with the stressed syllable of "down" followed by another stressed syllable, “town”: Down-town. (read full spondee explanation with examples) A spondee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which both syllables are stressed. The word "downtown" is a... (read more)

A stanza is a group of lines form a smaller unit within a poem. A single stanza is usually set apart from other lines or stanza within a poem by a double line break or... (read full stanza explanation with examples) A stanza is a group of lines form a smaller unit within a poem. A single stanza is usually set... (read more)

A character is said to be "static" if they do not undergo any substantial internal changes as a result of the story's major plot developments. Antagonists are often static characters, but any character in a... (read full static character explanation with examples) A character is said to be "static" if they do not undergo any substantial internal changes as a result of... (read more)

Stream of consciousness is a style or technique of writing that tries to capture the natural flow of a character's extended thought process, often by incorporating sensory impressions, incomplete ideas, unusual syntax, and rough grammar. (read full stream of consciousness explanation with examples) Stream of consciousness is a style or technique of writing that tries to capture the natural flow of a character's... (read more)

A syllogism is a three-part logical argument, based on deductive reasoning, in which two premises are combined to arrive at a conclusion. So long as the premises of the syllogism are true and the syllogism... (read full syllogism explanation with examples) A syllogism is a three-part logical argument, based on deductive reasoning, in which two premises are combined to arrive at... (read more)

Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing—usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more abstract. A strong symbol usually shares a set of key characteristics with whatever it is... (read full symbolism explanation with examples) Symbolism is a literary device in which a writer uses one thing—usually a physical object or phenomenon—to represent something more... (read more)

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its whole. For example, "The captain commands one hundred sails" is a synecdoche that uses "sails"... (read full synecdoche explanation with examples) Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which, most often, a part of something is used to refer to its... (read more)

A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of literature. One key characteristic of literary themes is their universality, which is to say that themes are ideas that not only... (read full theme explanation with examples) A theme is a universal idea, lesson, or message explored throughout a work of literature. One key characteristic of literary... (read more)

The tone of a piece of writing is its general character or attitude, which might be cheerful or depressive, sarcastic or sincere, comical or mournful, praising or critical, and so on. For instance, an editorial in a newspaper... (read full tone explanation with examples) The tone of a piece of writing is its general character or attitude, which might be cheerful or depressive, sarcastic or sincere, comical... (read more)

A tragic hero is a type of character in a tragedy, and is usually the protagonist. Tragic heroes typically have heroic traits that earn them the sympathy of the audience, but also have flaws or... (read full tragic hero explanation with examples) A tragic hero is a type of character in a tragedy, and is usually the protagonist. Tragic heroes typically have... (read more)

A trochee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. The word "poet" is a trochee, with the stressed syllable of "po" followed by the... (read full trochee explanation with examples) A trochee is a two-syllable metrical pattern in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable.... (read more)

Understatement is a figure of speech in which something is expressed less strongly than would be expected, or in which something is presented as being smaller, worse, or lesser than it really is. Typically, understatement is... (read full understatement explanation with examples) Understatement is a figure of speech in which something is expressed less strongly than would be expected, or in which something... (read more)

Verbal irony occurs when the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean. When there's a hurricane raging outside and someone remarks "what lovely weather we're having," this... (read full verbal irony explanation with examples) Verbal irony occurs when the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean.... (read more)

A villanelle is a poem of nineteen lines, and which follows a strict form that consists of five tercets (three-line stanzas) followed by one quatrain (four-line stanza). Villanelles use a specific rhyme scheme of ABA... (read full villanelle explanation with examples) A villanelle is a poem of nineteen lines, and which follows a strict form that consists of five tercets (three-line... (read more)

A zeugma is a figure of speech in which one "governing" word or phrase modifies two distinct parts of a sentence. Often, the governing word will mean something different when applied to each part, as... (read full zeugma explanation with examples) A zeugma is a figure of speech in which one "governing" word or phrase modifies two distinct parts of a... (read more)

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Framing the fourth sector – dystopia or future contours?

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Open access
Published: 27 May 2024

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Marisa R. Ferreira ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4194-9127 1 ,
Vítor Braga ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3644-3992 1 ,
María Isabel Sánchez-Hernández ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6806-1606 2 &
Joana Gomes 3

Nowadays, society faces complex social, economic, and environmental problems which the traditional sectors of activity (public, private and third sector) are not able to solve alone. To respond to these challenges, their missions and strategies have been converging, leading to a phenomenon known as the blurring of boundaries between sectors. Together, they give rise to a new and promising sector in society: the fourth sector. The literature on this new sector is still scarce, even though its impact is already being felt all over the world. The concept of the fourth sector is in itself broad and clearly lacking defined borders. In addition, there are three currents in the literature that use this term with different meanings.

This paper aims to contribute to the theoretical knowledge on the fourth sector by clarifying its definition and framing its activity. A qualitative methodology was carried out by using the papers featuring the topic “fourth sector”, indexed to the Web of Science, to generate a textual corpus that led to a similarity analysis. Subsequently, written interviews were conducted with seven academic specialists on the fourth sector topic, selected through the snowball sampling method, to complete the data obtained through the literature review. These data were added to the initial textual corpus, and a new similarity analysis was generated. It is concluded that the fourth sector as a spectrum of hybrid organizations is currently the most accepted approach, and the existence of an activity that combines a business framework with a social purpose seems to be its main characteristic. So, the main implication is related with significant opportunities that have yet to be fully explored, considering the extensive rise of the fourth sector.

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1 Introduction

Traditionally, organizations are categorized into the public, private, and third sectors (Avidar, 2017 ; Carswell et al., 2012 ; Hyde, 2023 ), and have long shaped our collective landscape by reflecting the cultural patterns, values and norms of the society in which they emerged. Nevertheless, globalization, the shifts of technological advancement, and the growing complexities of contemporary societies have reshaped the narrative of organizational existence (Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ; Pires, 2017 ; Rask et al., 2020 ).

Nowadays, society faces complex problems, dispersed on a global scale (Carswell et al., 2012 ; Stötzer et al., 2020 ) of economic, social and environmental nature, such as corruption, global warming and even a pandemic crisis (Martins et al., 2021 ), not to mention a large disparity between rich and poor, and traditional sectors (public, private sector, and the third sector) by themselves are not able to respond to these challenges, forcing them to work together (Guerrero & Hansen, 2018 ; Howlett & Lejano, 2013 ). Increased awareness of social and environmental issues, and the desire of individuals and organizations to address these issues in a meaningful way have led to a shift in values, as more and more people prioritize the impact of their actions on others and the planet. Given their complexity, these deep and progressive changes in society imply new ways of thinking and acting, triggering the emergence of activities that do not fit into traditional sectors and constitute new organizational configurations (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2021a , b ). At the same time, we now face a growing trend of migration to urban areas, which has led to increased demand for services and support, thus creating opportunities for organizations to address pressing social and environmental issues in urban settings. Several authors call this phenomenon the blurring of boundaries between traditional sectors (Avidar, 2017 ; Carswell et al., 2012 ; Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ; Sabeti, 2011 ).

In the public sector there has been a slimming down of the state, for sometimes we face the inability of governments to fully address social issues on their own, and other times we have smaller governments and the delegation of some responsibilities characteristic of the welfare state to third-sector entities (Laurett & Ferreira, 2018 ), with a concomitant reduction in funds, privatization and decentralization of services (Carswell et al., 2012 ). States intervene on a national scale, but social problems go beyond borders, are globalized and multicultural (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ). In the profitable sector, companies have adopted more socially responsible and sustainable stances to respond to the demands of their stakeholders who are attentive to their practices (Carswell et al., 2012 ). Third-sector organizations find themselves in an increasingly competitive environment, and have to respond to growing social problems with less state funding (Faulkner et al., 2023 ; Pärl et al., 2022 ). Thus, they are forced to turn their practices to the market to obtain alternative forms of financing (Song, 2022 ; Zhu & Sun, 2020 ). They increasingly use the strategy of creating networks of partners that allow them to obtain added value (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ). It is in the context of this convergence of missions from the various sectors that a new entity emerges, the so-called fourth sector (Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ; Sabeti, 2011 ). The fourth sector is a new and promising sector of society, marked by a dual purpose: to generate profit and social impact by using different strategies, such as intersectoral collaboration and hybrid organizations (HO) (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ). As it is a relatively recent phenomenon, the fourth sector remains shrouded in ambiguity, with definitions dispersed amidst a sparse landscape of literature. Therefore, it is clear that we need a more holistic and collaborative approach, and in this study, we start from the following research proposition: The fourth sector arises from the intersection of the three traditional sectors, and it is defined by pursuing social objectives but with profit-making purposes (Fig. 1 ). This work aims to clarify the definition and frame the scope of its activity, generating a theoretical contribution to the existing knowledge on the fourth sector and main related concepts.

The fourth sector as the intersection of traditional sectors. Source: Author’s creation, adapted from Sánchez-Hernández et al. ( 2021a )

2 Literature review

In broad terms, the fourth sector refers to a new type of organization/model that exists alongside the traditional three sectors of the economy — the public sector, the private sector, and the nonprofit sector —, and is characterized by its focus on social and environmental impact, rather than solely on profit (Rask et al., 2020 ). There are currently three main approaches (see Table 1 ) that use the designation fourth sector, despite having very different characteristics.

The first approach (Williams, 2002 , 2005 ) associates the fourth sector with informal volunteering (IV), also called one-on-one, which is distinct from that associated with third-sector organizations (Heley et al., 2022 ). It is characterized by a spontaneous movement of people towards their community.

The second approach, Hybrid Organizations (HO), is in line with our research proposition. It is the most devoted to organizations that do not purely belong to any traditional sector. It arises from the premise that today’s most significant social problems cannot be addressed without the participation of the three traditional sectors (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ; Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2021a , b ). It is in this proximity of missions from the various sectors that a new entity emerges, the so-called fourth sector. In this approach, it is defined as “a new protagonist in the socioeconomic sphere that results from the convergence of various sectors in organizations and business models that seek to respond to social and environmental problems through social innovation” (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 , p33). In this approach, the fourth sector revitalizes the concept of the social economy (Ávila & Campos, 2018 ) by encompassing the traditional sectors (Rubio-Mozos et al., 2019 ). Under the hybrid business string (Zurbano et al., 2012 ), the identification of the fourth sector generally applies to one of the following alternatives:

i) Social organizations with economic results: Organizations that generate economic and social value in the market, such as social enterprises (Borzaga et al., 2020 ), but also traditional companies with aspirations that identify themselves as companies that go beyond classic CSR.

ii) New ways of doing business (from the point of view of positive social and environmental impact), and those entities in the public sphere that try to be more oriented to the specific needs of people, but also those that intend to innovate regarding the participation and involvement citizens in the co-creation of public services by using market methods (Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2021b ).

The third approach, called self-organized civic activism (SOCA), refers to civic movements spontaneously generated in the community that use new technologies and social networks (Raisio et al., 2019 ). According to Rask et al. ( 2018 ), its main characteristics are spontaneity, great dynamism, the absence of bureaucracies, a horizontal structure without hierarchies, and dissociation from formal organizations. The same author states that these movements are criticized for their potential risk, since these are initiatives based on goodwill, but lack knowledge and coordination.

According to Rask et al. ( 2018 ), these various approaches can be summarized to try to find an integrative perspective, by considering them as a growth regarding the level of organization and stability over time. The integrative definition is the following: “the fourth sector is an emerging field, composed of actors or actor’s groups whose foundational logic is not the representation of established interest, but rather, the idea of social cooperation through hybrid networking” (Rask et al., 2018 p.46).

To sum up, the fourth sector works in a spectrum of HO. At one end of the spectrum there are third-sector organizations with profitable activities, social enterprises at the center and, at the opposite end, companies whose activity has significant social impact. These organizations bear characteristics such as greater or lesser presence in the market, and different degrees of focus on social concerns (Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ). These HO have a dual purpose: on the one hand, they are economically viable and, on the other hand, their purpose goes beyond profit and seeks ethical and sustainable goals, as well as creating benefits through their activities for society as a whole and the planet (Rubio-Mozos et al., 2019 ). Sabeti ( 2011 ) summarizes some of these characteristics: having a social purpose, a business method, transparency, social and environmental responsibility and giving fair compensation to employees. These main arguments consider that can generate returns for investors and shareholders if they do not jeopardize their ability to act in favor of their mission. These hybrid entities combine the best that each of the traditional sectors has to offer, in order to respond to shared social objectives in a sustainable and lasting way, through social innovation (Avidar, 2017 ; Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ; Sánchez-Hernández et al., 2021b ). Sabeti ( 2011 ) considers that these HO feature a new model of entrepreneurship, developed by entrepreneurs motivated by social causes, which are not exclusively profitable or non-profitable, and can be called “for benefit”, since they generate income, but prioritize the social mission, acting in a variety of areas, such as poverty, social exclusion, health, decent work, among others. In the fourth sector, initiatives can exist without a formal organizational structure, constituting themselves merely as “entities” that fill the empty spaces left by traditional sectors and also as forms of cooperative and networked functioning (Escobar & Gutiérrez, 2011 ).

The fourth sector can be considered a transition towards sustainable businesses by introducing social purpose into the strategic management line of organizations (Rubio-Mozos et al., 2019 ). To sum up, and according to the Ibero-American Secretariat General of the IE University, the fourth sector “is a complement, not a substitute, to the other sectors” (IASG, 2019 , p. 21) that works to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. Consequently, sustainability is the heart of the emerging fourth sector. At this point, it is important to mention that it can be challenging to measure the performance and the impact of the fourth sector (Núñez-Barriopedro & Llombart Tárrega, 2021 ), as it may involve intangible outcomes, such as increased social cohesion or improved quality of life. As such, it is important for organizations in the fourth sector to be transparent about their impact measurement processes and to continuously strive to improve the quality and reliability of their data.

In general, the distinction between the third and fourth sectors lies in their fundamental purposes, organizational structures, and orientations towards profit and social impact. The third sector, often referred to as the nonprofit sector, comprises organizations that operate primarily to address social, environmental, or cultural needs, rather than to generate profit. These organizations, including charities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and community groups, typically rely on donations, grants, and volunteer efforts to sustain their operations (Stühlinger & Hersberger-Langloh, 2021 ). The third sector plays a crucial role in filling gaps left by government and business in addressing societal challenges and advocating for social change.

The fourth sector represents a novel paradigm that bridges the gap between traditional for-profit and nonprofit sectors by integrating social and environmental objectives into business models (Piedrahita et al., 2021 ). Fourth-sector organizations, which might be dubbed as social enterprises or impact-driven businesses, aim to generate revenue while simultaneously addressing social or environmental issues (Martins et al., 2021 ; Rask et al., 2020 ). They operate under a hybrid model that emphasizes both financial sustainability and positive social impact. The fourth sector encompasses a wide range of entities, including B Corporations (B Corps), social purpose corporations, and cooperatives, all of which prioritize the triple bottom line — people, planet, and profit.

While the third sector focuses primarily on addressing social needs through philanthropy and community service, the fourth sector represents a more integrated approach to social change by leveraging market mechanisms and entrepreneurial strategies. Both play vital roles in advancing social progress and addressing complex challenges, but they differ in their approaches to resource mobilization, governance structures, and models of social impact (Sanzo-Pérez et al., 2022 ; Zhu & Sun, 2020 ). As the boundaries between sectors continue to blur, understanding the distinctions and synergies between the third and fourth sectors is essential for developing effective strategies to address pressing global issues and promote sustainable development.

3 Methodology

We used an innovative approach by combining a very specific literature review with the opinion of experts on the topic via a similarity analysis. Our research is based on a qualitative methodology, using content analysis performed through the IRaMuTeQ software. Content analysis is a research method used in qualitative studies and encompasses different techniques to generate knowledge in a systematic and rigorous way, based on textual information generated during the investigation (White & Marsh, 2006 ). In the context of the IRaMuTeQ software, similarity analysis refers to the examination of similarities or patterns within textual data, particularly in qualitative analysis, such as text mining and content analysis (Camargo & Justo, 2013 ). The software employs various techniques for lexical analysis, including frequency counts, co-occurrence analysis, and concordance analysis; subsequently, similarity is measured and the software offers visualization tools to represent it graphically. The similarity analysis involves a method called Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA), which we will use in our analysis, and the software arranges the data into a hierarchy of clusters based on their similarities. At each step of the process, the algorithm merges the two most similar clusters, until all data points are grouped into a single cluster.

A qualitative methodology combining content analysis and expert interviews can be well-suited to achieve the objective of contributing to the theoretical knowledge (Döringer, 2021 ) on the fourth sector by clarifying its definition and framing its activity, because (i) this allows exploring deeply into the content of papers and interviews, potentially uncovering nuances, patterns, and themes within the data that may not be apparent through quantitative methods; (ii) as a relatively new and evolving concept, the fourth sector requires an exploratory approach; (iii) by analyzing the content of relevant papers and conducting interviews with experts, we gain a deeper understanding of how the fourth sector is conceptualized, operationalized, and practiced in different contexts and settings, and this contextual understanding is crucial for framing the activity of the fourth sector within its socio-economic, political, and cultural contexts.

The selection of articles included in the sample is presented in Fig. 2 . At first, the Web of Science (WoS) database was used to search for the term “Fourth Sector”, resulting in a total of 31 results over the period from 1996 to 2023. Only scientific papers were included in the sample. After a brief reading, all those papers that did not correspond to the concept under study were excluded. This selection resulted in 13 papers, dated from 2011 to 2020, associated to the database through the areas of study of management, economics, sustainability, and public policies (Appendix 1 ). Finally, the abstracts of these papers were formatted in a document that constitutes the textual corpus, imported to the IRaMuTeQ program and subsequently analyzed. To understand which concepts stand out in the summaries of the literature analyzed and the relationship between them, a similarity analysis was carried out, the result of which can be seen in Appendix 2 .

Selection of articles included in the sample

Subsequently, written interviews were conducted, consisting of two open-answer questions to seven academic specialists regarding the definition of the fourth sector, its main characteristics, and what distinguishes it from more traditional sectors of activity, as well as a practical example of what that could be considered a fourth sector entity. These specialists were selected through the snowball sampling method to complete the data obtained through the literature review. Firstly, we identified two specialists and sent them emails because of their research proximity to this topic under study. We requested them to respond to our questions and to recommend a colleague who works closely on the topic. We ceased the identification of new specialists upon reaching saturation, meaning that we began to hear the same themes, patterns, or information repeatedly across the interviews. This indicated that the data collection process had sufficiently captured the range and depth of experiences or perspectives related to the research topic. We had 4 Portuguese and 3 Spanish experts, from the areas of economics (3), geography (2), social economy (1) and marketing (1), as we can see in Table 2 . These data were added to the initial textual corpus, and a new similarity analysis was generated (see Appendix 3 ); the insertion of the data regarding the experts’ interviews has caused some changes in the similarity analysis.

The data collected originated two similarity analysis. Similarity analysis A (Appendix 2 ) refers to the content of the abstracts of the papers included in the sample, and similarity analysis B (Appendix 3 ) cumulatively encompasses the textual data of the papers and the answers to the interviews carried out with experts on the field of the fourth sector. The interviews were completely transcribed and added to the software.

4.1 Similarity analysis A

The abstracts of the articles included in the analysis originated 3 clusters with 11 distinct related sections. The sections are potential thematic or conceptual grouping of textual data that identify patterns and /or relationships. Two of the clusters were equivalent to the previously identified theoretical frameworks (HO and IV), and the third one was devoted to the third sector (TS cluster). The number of occurrences for the same word ranged from 18 to 3.

1st) HO cluster, including most of the sections:

Section 1 – The central concept is the research term “fourth sector”, either because it is the most frequent (18 times), or because it has the most sections that are directly associated with overlapping (5 times in total). Associated with the concept “fourth sector”, there is the word “emergence” (4 times). Also directly associated with this are words that refer to the various traditional sectors of activity, namely “government”, “third sector” and “company”. The word “company” occurs a total of 16 times, and it is the central concept of Sect. 2, responsible for bridging the gap between Sect. 1 and several other Sects. (3, 8, 9, 10, 11). Less expressiveness is found for the concepts “government” and “third sector”, with 3 and 4 occurrences, respectively, thus occupying a secondary position within this section. Also noteworthy is the word “purpose” associated with the “fourth sector” concept.

Section 2 – The word “company” is very central, and we have the word “contribute” (7 occurrences) linked with “planet” (4); “person” (4) and “community” (3). Concepts related with sustainability concerns are “sustainability” (6) “sustainable development goals” (8) “corporate social responsibility” (4), and “sustainable strategic management model” (3) feature prominently in this section, and are shared with the adjacent Sects. 3 and 4.

Section 3 – Highlights the intersectoral relationship characteristic of one of the trends in the fourth sector. The most prominent concept is “business”, centrally positioned between the concepts “for-profit” (7) and “nonprofit” (5). The term “nonprofit” branches out into concepts such as “for-benefit” (4), “benefit corporation” (6), “structure” (8), “legal” (3) and “entrepreneur” (5). From the concept “for-profit”, words such as “environmental” (4), “social” (8) and “economy” (4) are linked through the word “combine”. This section highlights the dual purpose of the fourth sector to generate profit and social impact.

Sections 4 ,5 ,6 ,7 – These represent examples of fourth-sector initiatives, such as the protection of coral reefs (Cruz-Trinidad et al., 2011 ) and collaboration between universities, industry and technology in Saudi Arabia (Shin et al., 2012 ). As they are specific cases in the literature, the concepts that represent them have little prominence in the general panorama, and are notable for their small frequency and ramification.

2nd) TS cluster, including the following 3 sections:

Section 8 – Emerges as a transition section between the sections of empirical approach to the fourth sector (1, 2, 3) and Sects. 9 and 10, which feature theoretical content. As concepts of connection to the first group, words such as “sustainable development goals” (8) and “management” (5) can be highlighted, which branch out into theoretical concepts, such as “model” (12) and “academic” (5).

Sections 9 and 10 – These are theoretical sections, featuring “notion” (14) and “concept” (16) as central concepts.

3rd) IV cluster for one isolated section:

Section 11 – This is one of the most distant sections from Sect. 1. It does not share concepts or overlap with any other section. It is linked to Sect. 3 through the word “public” (10), which will branch out to the concept “policy” (14). At the far end appear concepts related to the definition of the fourth sector presented by Williams ( 2002 ), which refer to informal volunteering, namely “micro-volunteering” (6) and “volunteering” (4).

The HO cluster is the most important one. It should be noted that of the 3 traditional sectors of activity, the most referred to is the private sector, with a high frequency of words: “company” (16), “business” (10), “for-profit” (7), “corporate” (4), “corporate social responsibility” (4), and “private” (4), with a total of 45 references. Even so, the reference to the involvement of the three traditional sectors are clear, which, given the new dynamics of action, gives rise to the fourth sector. On the side of the public sector, we can find occurrences of several terms such as “policy” (13) “public” (8) and “government” (1), with a total of 22 references. Non-profit organizations are represented by terms such as “social economy” (9), “social” (10), “nonprofit” (5), “third sector” (4), in a total of 28 references.

4.2 Similarity analysis B

The insertion of data related to the interviews with experts in the previous textual corpus presents some remarkable modifications:

In similarity analysis A, there were 11 sections, while B is composed of 12. The term fourth sector lost some of its centrality, and now there are two distinct groups. Thus, the HO cluster involving the term “fourth sector” (Sect. 1) is spatially separated from a new cluster (HO business) involving the concept of “business” (3-a).

Section 3, whose most prominent terms is “business”, undergoes changes compared to the previous similarity analysis, and concepts that lacked great prominence in this section, gain greater preponderance in this new analysis, giving rise to 3 distinct and overlapping Sect. (3-a, 3-b, and 3-c). Section 3-c has as its central term the word “social”, and Sect. 3-b the word “for-profit”, which denotes that there is a subdivision of types of business, some pursuing a social purpose and others an exclusively economic purpose.

Section 4 in the first analysis ceases to exist as an autonomous section and the words that constitute it are integrated into Sect. 3, thus losing relevance. This was expected, as experts were informing about the topic but avoiding examples or specific practical evidence. These words were mostly related to a particular case study, having little impact on the overall picture.

Section 11 subdivides into Sect. 1-a and Sect. 1-b (a new cluster for the relationship between the public and the private sector, the PL-PR cluster). In addition, Sect. 1-a continues to encompass the definition of the fourth sector as informal volunteering. Section 11-b, which is the new PL-PR cluster, becomes the transition section between Sect. 1 “fourth sector” and Sect. 3-a “business”. The central words are “sector”, “public” and “private”, and the supporting word “integrate” also appears, coming from the concept “third sector” that appears at the far end of Sect. 1 “fourth sector”. This list of words once again suggests the intersectoral collaboration of the fourth sector.

The connection of Sect. 1 “fourth sector” to transition Sect. 1-b (“private” and “public”), and subsequently to section business, is the word “third sector”, suggesting that it is particularly this sector that makes the connection between everyone and enhances their collaboration in market initiatives.

5 Discussion

Analyzing the two similarity analyzes, it is possible to verify the prominence of terms such as “emergence”, defined as the emergence or becoming prominent, directly associated with the term “fourth sector” denotes the novelty that it constitutes.

One of the objectives of this research was to clarify the definition of the fourth sector, and the results obtained point to the majority trend in the scientific literature to use the term as a spectrum of hybrid organizations (HO). In the similarity analyses, concepts that could be associated with the fourth sector, such as self-organized civic activism (Rask et al., 2020 ), were not evident. Therefore, in the context of the fourth sector, civic activism underscores the idea of citizen-led efforts to drive social innovation and impact, thus blurring the lines between traditional sectors and fostering collaborative, community-driven solutions to complex problems, although this bottom-up approach was not clearly present in the similarity analyses.

The definition of the fourth sector as informal volunteering was mentioned in a single paper, and therefore is of little significance for the results, with only two associated terms — “micro-volunteering” (6) and “volunteering” (4). In these cases, the term fourth sector is used as a synonym for informal volunteering (Williams, 2002 , 2005 ), and, more recently, it has been used in the context of organizations that promote social good through business initiatives (Cuthill & Warburton, 2005 ). In this context, informal volunteering (individual-based help) is as prevalent as formal volunteering (group-based help), and is predominant among deprived populations, although the third-sector approach should be complemented by a fourth-sector approach that focuses on one-to-one aid, because while affluent populations engage more in voluntary groups for social reasons, lower-income groups rely heavily on one-to-one aid to improve their material circumstances (Williams, 2002 ). Nevertheless, the scarcity of more recent papers that support the definition of informal volunteering is quite evident. Therefore, the data obtained in this research corroborate the idea that the definition of the fourth sector as informal volunteering is in disuse.

The presence of terms related to the three traditional sectors of activity, which appear in various sections, related to each other and associated with the concept of fourth sector, are a contribution to the premise that the growing dimension and complexity of emerging socioeconomic problems greatly exceeds the capacity of organizations, and the public, private and social sectors alone are not able to generate adequate responses (Austin & Seitanidi, 2012 ). Thus, organizations from various sectors (public, private and social) are pressured to collaborate in multi-sector partnerships (MacDonald et al., 2019 ). However, the presence of terms such as “business” and “company” is obvious, which could suggest a special focus on the private sector. These terms are associated with words such as “for-benefit”, denoting the central role of HO in the fourth sector. Despite having a strong focus on the market, these are a new model of entrepreneurship, developed by entrepreneurs motivated by social causes — which are not exclusively profitable or non-profitable — and are called for-benefit, as they generate income and prioritize the social mission, acting in a variety of areas such as fighting against poverty, health, environment, among others (Sabeti, 2011 ). Therefore, the data are suggestive and present a fourth sector that does not fully overlap with the concept of multi-sector partnerships. In addition to the convergence of missions and planned joint action, the existence of profitable activity and focus on social problems seems to be essential for it to be considered an entity in the fourth sector. This same perspective is mentioned in the literature (Wilburn & Wilburn, 2014 ) when referring to the fourth sector as a new business model that enables a structure that helps (1) the expansion of third-sector organizations, (2) a profitable sector whose activity is intrinsically linked to social responsibility, and (3) entrepreneurs who intend to invest in businesses committed to transforming society. Despite this evidence, another explanation for the prominence of terms related to the profit sector is the fact that market-oriented organizations, such as the Benefit Corporation (Koehn & Hannigan, 2016 ), are more legally supported than others (e.g., networks and multisectoral partnerships), thus being easier to identify and study, and therefore resulting in a greater number of scientific papers.

The results found seem to suggest that the main role of the public sector in the fourth sector is the creation of policies and laws that regulate this sector. This focus on the “policy” concept may be due to the existence of three papers by the same author (Rubio-Mozos et al., 2019 , 2020a , b ) in a small sample. The authors advocate the need for a systemic approach, including governments, the academic community, the entities of the fourth sector and civil society. The proposed approach is called “4s SME’s engagement ecosystem”, which involves small and medium-sized companies in the fourth sector. The aim is to contribute to its development and the measurability of this “sustainable welfare economy”. Other authors corroborate this emphasis on the inexistence of basic policies for this sector. This trend has emerged organically, without a base structure to support it (Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ), and there is no environment prepared with adequate legislation, market regulation, accountability systems, among others, that are specific to this new sector of activity (Sabeti, 2011 ). The inexistence of these specificities will force entrepreneurs to fit into existing structures for other sectors, thus blurring their mission and objectives, increasing the bureaucracy and complexity of structures, and unnecessary expenditure of resources, resulting in a competitive disadvantage (Fourth Sector Network, 2009 ).

Economic, social and environmental sustainability were highlighted in the results obtained, and have been mentioned before (Ávila & Campos, 2018 ; Rubio-Mozos et al., 2019 ; Ventura, 2020 ). The fourth sector can catalyze society’s role in the pursuit of sustainability (Carswell et al., 2012 ), which is defined as “the development that seeks to respond to the needs of the present without compromising the capacity of future generations to respond to their own needs” (United Nations, 1987 ). Carswell et al. ( 2012 ) state that sustainability is triple bottom-line, requiring a balance between people, the planet and profit, and these same words were found in our similarity analyses. Although the two similarity analyses are relatively overlapping, there is something significant that differentiates them. There is a more marked separation between the “fourth sector” section and the “business” section, with the bridge being mediated by the term “third sector”, which will produce an island cluster, which includes the terms “public” and “private”. To note that the first similarity analysis was performed using international data, with papers from Europe, Asia, and America, while the second one includes data provided exclusively by Spanish and Portuguese specialists. As mentioned above, there is specific legislation at the international level that directly relates the fourth sector to the market, such as benefit corporations. However, this type of legislation does not exist in both countries, where the tradition of social causes is closely related to the third sector. Thus, it seems that, in Spain and Portugal, this fourth sector appears to be mediated by the third sector, which forms the bridge between the third and the public and private sectors. Thus, it seems that the second similarity analysis reflects the culture and legislation of both countries, in the sense that it gives greater prominence to the third sector as the main player in the emergence of the fourth sector. Two of the articles included in the sample (Cruz-Trinidad et al., 2011 ; Shin et al., 2012 ) refer to case studies that have little impact on the presented sections, even lacking associated concepts in similarity analysis B.

6 Conclusions and limitations

This study suggests that both the literature review and the opinions of experts converge to affirm that the definition of the fourth sector as a spectrum of hybrid nature organizations is the most accepted approach on the topic. The definition of the fourth sector as voluntary actions seems to be currently out of favor. Finally, there is no clear evidence of the association of the fourth sector with any kind of civic activism.

The results obtained corroborate the fourth sector as an emerging sector made up of actors from the three traditional sectors (public, private and third sector) that collaborate closely with each other. The focus on the business, especially from the experts’ side, is evident, and this practice seems to be the main factor that defines belonging to this sector. However, profit is not an objective in itself, as there must be a social purpose arising from the activity. The data obtained suggest that the main contribution of the public sector to the fourth sector is the creation of policies that legally frame its activity.

The widespread emergence of the fourth sector offers great potential that still remains largely untapped. Contrary to the American model, social enterprise in Europe and neighboring nations arises primarily from ingrained organizational structures and values intrinsic to European societies (Borzaga et al., 2020 ; LaVoi & Haley, 2021 ). These values encompass solidarity, self-help, participation, and the pursuit of inclusive, sustainable growth. Consequently, social enterprise thrives as a collective endeavor, embodying a communal entrepreneurial spirit. Many EU Member States exhibit imbalanced ecosystems, often neglecting critical components, such as capacity-building, networking, and cooperation. Therefore, a holistic ecosystem must prioritize improving public procurement processes (Borzaga et al., 2020 ).

The concept of sustainability closely intersects with the fourth sector, which represents a hybrid sector that blend elements of the public, private, and non-profit sectors. The SDGs established by the United Nations provide a framework for addressing global challenges, such as poverty, inequality, and climate change. Achieving the SDGs requires the active participation of various sectors, including government, civil society, and the private sector, namely the emerging fourth sector. Therefore, in this context, the fourth sector plays a crucial role in advancing sustainable development by integrating social, environmental, and economic considerations into its practices. Organizations operating within the fourth sector strive to create positive impact across multiple dimensions while ensuring long-term viability and resilience (IASG, 2019 ).

This study was delimited by specific keywords to guide the research, and therefore this targeted approach may not capture the totality of the scholarly discourse within this field. The main difficulties of our research were the limited number of papers available in the WoS database at the time of survey, which weakens the robustness of the results obtained, and consequently of the conclusions presented. We can also mention limitations related to the interviews, like the existence of preconceptions that might have influenced the answers, as well as the social desirability bias, where interviewees may have given answers that they believe are socially acceptable rather than reflecting their true thoughts or experiences.

However, the scarcity of research papers dedicated to the fourth sector justifies the analysis and makes this article a valuable contribution to shed light on this emerging field. We understand that having done the research only in the WoS database, despite its extensive citation analysis tools, has some limitations that might affect the comprehensiveness of the literature available on a given topic. Therefore, future research might include other databases and other classification criteria to ensure a more comprehensive and wide coverage.

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Published: 13 May 2024

Long-term weight loss effects of semaglutide in obesity without diabetes in the SELECT trial

Donna H. Ryan 1 ,
Ildiko Lingvay ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7006-7401 2 ,
John Deanfield 3 ,
Steven E. Kahn 4 ,
Eric Barros ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6613-4181 5 ,
Bartolome Burguera 6 ,
Helen M. Colhoun ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8345-3288 7 ,
Cintia Cercato ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6181-4951 8 ,
Dror Dicker 9 ,
Deborah B. Horn 10 ,
G. Kees Hovingh 5 ,
Ole Kleist Jeppesen 5 ,
Alexander Kokkinos 11 ,
A. Michael Lincoff ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8175-2121 12 ,
Sebastian M. Meyhöfer 13 ,
Tugce Kalayci Oral 5 ,
Jorge Plutzky ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7194-9876 14 ,
André P. van Beek ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0335-8177 15 ,
John P. H. Wilding ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2839-8404 16 &
Robert F. Kushner 17

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In the SELECT cardiovascular outcomes trial, semaglutide showed a 20% reduction in major adverse cardiovascular events in 17,604 adults with preexisting cardiovascular disease, overweight or obesity, without diabetes. Here in this prespecified analysis, we examined effects of semaglutide on weight and anthropometric outcomes, safety and tolerability by baseline body mass index (BMI). In patients treated with semaglutide, weight loss continued over 65 weeks and was sustained for up to 4 years. At 208 weeks, semaglutide was associated with mean reduction in weight (−10.2%), waist circumference (−7.7 cm) and waist-to-height ratio (−6.9%) versus placebo (−1.5%, −1.3 cm and −1.0%, respectively; P < 0.0001 for all comparisons versus placebo). Clinically meaningful weight loss occurred in both sexes and all races, body sizes and regions. Semaglutide was associated with fewer serious adverse events. For each BMI category (<30, 30 to <35, 35 to <40 and ≥40 kg m − 2 ) there were lower rates (events per 100 years of observation) of serious adverse events with semaglutide (43.23, 43.54, 51.07 and 47.06 for semaglutide and 50.48, 49.66, 52.73 and 60.85 for placebo). Semaglutide was associated with increased rates of trial product discontinuation. Discontinuations increased as BMI class decreased. In SELECT, at 208 weeks, semaglutide produced clinically significant weight loss and improvements in anthropometric measurements versus placebo. Weight loss was sustained over 4 years. ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03574597 .

Two-year effects of semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity: the STEP 5 trial

What is the pipeline for future medications for obesity?

Fasting-mimicking diet causes hepatic and blood markers changes indicating reduced biological age and disease risk

The worldwide obesity prevalence, defined by body mass index (BMI) ≥30 kg m − 2 , has nearly tripled since 1975 (ref. 1 ). BMI is a good surveillance measure for population changes over time, given its strong correlation with body fat amount on a population level, but it may not accurately indicate the amount or location of body fat at the individual level 2 . In fact, the World Health Organization defines clinical obesity as ‘abnormal or excessive fat accumulation that may impair health’ 1 . Excess abnormal body fat, especially visceral adiposity and ectopic fat, is a driver of cardiovascular (CV) disease (CVD) 3 , 4 , 5 , and contributes to the global chronic disease burden of diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and other chronic conditions 6 , 7 .

Remediating the adverse health effects of excess abnormal body fat through weight loss is a priority in addressing the global chronic disease burden. Improvements in CV risk factors, glycemia and quality-of-life measures including personal well-being and physical functioning generally begin with modest weight loss of 5%, whereas greater weight loss is associated with more improvement in these measures 8 , 9 , 10 . Producing and sustaining durable and clinically significant weight loss with lifestyle intervention alone has been challenging 11 . However, weight-management medications that modify appetite can make attaining and sustaining clinically meaningful weight loss of ≥10% more likely 12 . Recently, weight-management medications, particularly those comprising glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, that help people achieve greater and more sustainable weight loss have been developed 13 . Once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, is approved for chronic weight management 14 , 15 , 16 and at doses of up to 2.0 mg is approved for type 2 diabetes treatment 17 , 18 , 19 . In patients with type 2 diabetes and high CV risk, semaglutide at doses of 0.5 mg and 1.0 mg has been shown to significantly lower the risk of CV events 20 . The SELECT trial (Semaglutide Effects on Heart Disease and Stroke in Patients with Overweight or Obesity) studied patients with established CVD and overweight or obesity but without diabetes. In SELECT, semaglutide was associated with a 20% reduction in major adverse CV events (hazard ratio 0.80, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.72 to 0.90; P < 0.001) 21 . Data derived from the SELECT trial offer the opportunity to evaluate the weight loss efficacy, in a geographically and racially diverse population, of semaglutide compared with placebo over 208 weeks when both are given in addition to standard-of-care recommendations for secondary CVD prevention (but without a focus on targeting weight loss). Furthermore, the data allow examination of changes in anthropometric measures such as BMI, waist circumference (WC) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) as surrogates for body fat amount and location 22 , 23 . The diverse population can also be evaluated for changes in sex- and race-specific ‘cutoff points’ for BMI and WC, which have been identified as anthropometric measures that predict cardiometabolic risk 8 , 22 , 23 .

This prespecified analysis of the SELECT trial investigated weight loss and changes in anthropometric indices in patients with established CVD and overweight or obesity without diabetes, who met inclusion and exclusion criteria, within a range of baseline categories for glycemia, renal function and body anthropometric measures.

Study population

The SELECT study enrolled 17,604 patients (72.3% male) from 41 countries between October 2018 and March 2021, with a mean (s.d.) age of 61.6 (8.9) years and BMI of 33.3 (5.0) kg m − 2 (ref. 21 ). The baseline characteristics of the population have been reported 24 . Supplementary Table 1 outlines SELECT patients according to baseline BMI categories. Of note, in the lower BMI categories (<30 kg m − 2 (overweight) and 30 to <35 kg m − 2 (class I obesity)), the proportion of Asian individuals was higher (14.5% and 7.4%, respectively) compared with the proportion of Asian individuals in the higher BMI categories (BMI 35 to <40 kg m − 2 (class II obesity; 3.8%) and ≥40 kg m − 2 (class III obesity; 2.2%), respectively). As the BMI categories increased, the proportion of women was higher: in the class III BMI category, 45.5% were female, compared with 20.8%, 25.7% and 33.0% in the overweight, class I and class II categories, respectively. Lower BMI categories were associated with a higher proportion of patients with normoglycemia and glycated hemoglobin <5.7%. Although the proportions of patients with high cholesterol and history of smoking were similar across BMI categories, the proportion of patients with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein ≥2.0 mg dl −1 increased as the BMI category increased. A high-sensitivity C-reactive protein >2.0 mg dl −1 was present in 36.4% of patients in the overweight BMI category, with a progressive increase to 43.3%, 57.3% and 72.0% for patients in the class I, II and III obesity categories, respectively.

Weight and anthropometric outcomes

Percentage weight loss.

The average percentage weight-loss trajectories with semaglutide and placebo over 4 years of observation are shown in Fig. 1a (ref. 21 ). For those in the semaglutide group, the weight-loss trajectory continued to week 65 and then was sustained for the study period through week 208 (−10.2% for the semaglutide group, −1.5% for the placebo group; treatment difference −8.7%; 95% CI −9.42 to −7.88; P < 0.0001). To estimate the treatment effect while on medication, we performed a first on-treatment analysis (observation period until the first time being off treatment for >35 days). At week 208, mean weight loss in the semaglutide group analyzed as first on-treatment was −11.7% compared with −1.5% for the placebo group (Fig. 1b ; treatment difference −10.2%; 95% CI −11.0 to −9.42; P < 0.0001).

a , b , Observed data from the in-trial period ( a ) and first on-treatment ( b ). The symbols are the observed means, and error bars are ±s.e.m. Numbers shown below each panel represent the number of patients contributing to the means. Analysis of covariance with treatment and baseline values was used to estimate the treatment difference. Exact P values are 1.323762 × 10 −94 and 9.80035 × 10 −100 for a and b , respectively. P values are two-sided and are not adjusted for multiplicity. ETD, estimated treatment difference; sema, semaglutide.

Categorical weight loss and individual body weight change

Among in-trial (intention-to-treat principle) patients at week 104, weight loss of ≥5%, ≥10%, ≥15%, ≥20% and ≥25% was achieved by 67.8%, 44.2%, 22.9%, 11.0% and 4.9%, respectively, of those treated with semaglutide compared with 21.3%, 6.9%, 1.7%, 0.6% and 0.1% of those receiving placebo (Fig. 2a ). Individual weight changes at 104 weeks for the in-trial populations for semaglutide and placebo are depicted in Fig. 2b and Fig. 2c , respectively. These waterfall plots show the variation in weight-loss response that occurs with semaglutide and placebo and show that weight loss is more prominent with semaglutide than placebo.

a , Categorical weight loss from baseline at week 104 for semaglutide and placebo. Data from the in-trial period. Bars depict the proportion (%) of patients receiving semaglutide or placebo who achieved ≥5%, ≥10%, ≥15%, ≥20% and ≥25% weight loss. b , c , Percentage change in body weight for individual patients from baseline to week 104 for semaglutide ( b ) and placebo ( c ). Each patient’s percentage change in body weight is plotted as a single bar.

Change in WC

WC change from baseline to 104 weeks has been reported previously in the primary outcome paper 21 . The trajectory of WC change mirrored that of the change in body weight. At week 208, average reduction in WC was −7.7 cm with semaglutide versus −1.3 cm with placebo, with a treatment difference of −6.4 cm (95% CI −7.18 to −5.61; P < 0.0001) 21 .

WC cutoff points

We analyzed achievement of sex- and race-specific cutoff points for WC by BMI <35 kg m − 2 or ≥35 kg m − 2 , because for BMI >35 kg m − 2 , WC is more difficult technically and, thus, less accurate as a risk predictor 4 , 25 , 26 . Within the SELECT population with BMI <35 kg m − 2 at baseline, 15.0% and 14.3% of the semaglutide and placebo groups, respectively, were below the sex- and race-specific WC cutoff points. At week 104, 41.2% fell below the sex- and race-specific cutoff points for the semaglutide group, compared with only 18.0% for the placebo group (Fig. 3 ).

WC cutoff points; Asian women <80 cm, non-Asian women <88 cm, Asian men <88 cm, non-Asian men <102 cm.

Waist-to-height ratio

At baseline, mean WHtR was 0.66 for the study population. The lowest tertile of the SELECT population at baseline had a mean WHtR <0.62, which is higher than the cutoff point of 0.5 used to indicate increased cardiometabolic risk 27 , suggesting that the trial population had high WCs. At week 208, in the group randomized to semaglutide, there was a relative reduction of 6.9% in WHtR compared with 1.0% in placebo (treatment difference −5.87% points; 95% CI −6.56 to −5.17; P < 0.0001).

BMI category change

At week 104, 52.4% of patients treated with semaglutide achieved improvement in BMI category compared with 15.7% of those receiving placebo. Proportions of patients in the BMI categories at baseline and week 104 are shown in Fig. 4 , which depicts in-trial patients receiving semaglutide and placebo. The BMI category change reflects the superior weight loss with semaglutide, which resulted in fewer patients being in the higher BMI categories after 104 weeks. In the semaglutide group, 12.0% of patients achieved a BMI <25 kg m − 2 , which is considered the healthy BMI category, compared with 1.2% for placebo; per study inclusion criteria, no patients were in this category at baseline. The proportion of patients with obesity (BMI ≥30 kg m − 2 ) fell from 71.0% to 43.3% in the semaglutide group versus 71.9% to 67.9% in the placebo group.

In the semaglutide group, 12.0% of patients achieved normal weight status at week 104 (from 0% at baseline), compared with 1.2% (from 0% at baseline) for placebo. BMI classes: healthy (BMI <25 kg m − 2 ), overweight (25 to <30 kg m − 2 ), class I obesity (30 to <35 kg m − 2 ), class II obesity (35 to <40 kg m − 2 ) and class III obesity (BMI ≥40 kg m − 2 ).

Weight and anthropometric outcomes by subgroups

The forest plot illustrated in Fig. 5 displays mean body weight percentage change from baseline to week 104 for semaglutide relative to placebo in prespecified subgroups. Similar relationships are depicted for WC changes in prespecified subgroups shown in Extended Data Fig. 1 . The effect of semaglutide (versus placebo) on mean percentage body weight loss as well as reduction in WC was found to be heterogeneous across several population subgroups. Women had a greater difference in mean weight loss with semaglutide versus placebo (−11.1% (95% CI −11.56 to −10.66) versus −7.5% in men (95% CI −7.78 to −7.23); P < 0.0001). There was a linear relationship between age category and degree of mean weight loss, with younger age being associated with progressively greater mean weight loss, but the actual mean difference by age group is small. Similarly, BMI category had small, although statistically significant, associations. Those with WHtR less than the median experienced slightly lower mean body weight change than those above the median, with estimated treatment differences −8.04% (95% CI −8.37 to −7.70) and −8.99% (95% CI −9.33 to −8.65), respectively ( P < 0.0001). Patients from Asia and of Asian race experienced slightly lower mean weight loss (estimated treatment difference with semaglutide for Asian race −7.27% (95% CI −8.09 to −6.46; P = 0.0147) and for Asia −7.30 (95% CI −7.97 to −6.62; P = 0.0016)). There was no difference in weight loss with semaglutide associated with ethnicity (estimated treatment difference for Hispanic −8.53% (95% CI −9.28 to −7.76) or non-Hispanic −8.52% (95% CI −8.77 to 8.26); P = 0.9769), glycemic status (estimated treatment difference for prediabetes −8.53% (95% CI −8.83 to −8.24) or normoglycemia −8.48% (95% CI −8.88 to −8.07; P = 0.8188) or renal function (estimated treatment difference for estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 or ≥60 ml min −1 1.73 m − 2 being −8.50% (95% CI −9.23 to −7.76) and −8.52% (95% CI −8.77 to −8.26), respectively ( P = 0.9519)).

Data from the in-trial period. N = 17,604. P values represent test of no interaction effect. P values are two-sided and are not adjusted for multiplicity. The dots show estimated treatment differences, and the error bars show 95% CIs. Details of the statistical models are available in Methods . ETD, estimated treatment difference; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; MI, myocardial infarction; PAD, peripheral artery disease; sema, semaglutide.

Safety and tolerability according to baseline BMI category

We reported in the primary outcome of the SELECT trial that adverse events (AEs) leading to permanent discontinuation of the trial product occurred in 1,461 patients (16.6%) in the semaglutide group and 718 patients (8.2%) in the placebo group ( P < 0.001) 21 . For this analysis, we evaluated the cumulative incidence of AEs leading to trial product discontinuation by treatment assignment and by BMI category (Fig. 6 ). For this analysis, with death modeled as a competing risk, we tracked the proportion of in-trial patients for whom drug was withdrawn or interrupted for the first time (Fig. 6 , left) or cumulative discontinuations (Fig. 6 , right). Both panels of Fig. 6 depict a graded increase in the proportion discontinuing semaglutide, but not placebo. For lower BMI classes, discontinuation rates are higher in the semaglutide group but not the placebo group.

Data are in-trial from the full analysis set. sema, semaglutide.

We reported in the primary SELECT analysis that serious adverse events (SAEs) were reported by 2,941 patients (33.4%) in the semaglutide arm and by 3,204 patients (36.4%) in the placebo arm ( P < 0.001) 21 . For this study, we analyzed SAE rates by person-years of treatment exposure for BMI classes (<30 kg m − 2 , 30 to <35 kg m − 2 , 35 to <40 kg m − 2 , and ≥40 kg m − 2 ) and provide these data in Supplementary Table 2 . We also provide an analysis of the most common categories of SAEs. Semaglutide was associated with lower SAEs, primarily driven by CV event and infections. Within each obesity class (<30 kg m − 2 , 30 to <35 kg m − 2 , 35 to <40 kg m − 2 , and ≥40 kg m − 2 ), there were fewer SAEs in the group receiving semaglutide compared with placebo. Rates (events per 100 years of observation) of SAEs were 43.23, 43.54, 51.07 and 47.06 for semaglutide and 50.48, 49.66, 52.73 and 60.85 for placebo, with no evidence of heterogeneity. There was no detectable difference in hepatobiliary or gastrointestinal SAEs comparing semaglutide with placebo in any of the four BMI classes we evaluated.

The analyses of weight effects of the SELECT study presented here reveal that patients assigned to once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg lost significantly more weight than those receiving placebo. The weight-loss trajectory with semaglutide occurred over 65 weeks and was sustained up to 4 years. Likewise, there were similar improvements in the semaglutide group for anthropometrics (WC and WHtR). The weight loss was associated with a greater proportion of patients receiving semaglutide achieving improvement in BMI category, healthy BMI (<25 kg m − 2 ) and falling below the WC cutoff point above which increased cardiometabolic risk for the sex and race is greater 22 , 23 . Furthermore, both sexes, all races, all body sizes and those from all geographic regions were able to achieve clinically meaningful weight loss. There was no evidence of increased SAEs based on BMI categories, although lower BMI category was associated with increased rates of trial product discontinuation, probably reflecting exposure to a higher level of drug in lower BMI categories. These data, representing the longest clinical trial of the effects of semaglutide versus placebo on weight, establish the safety and durability of semaglutide effects on weight loss and maintenance in a geographically and racially diverse population of adult men and women with overweight and obesity but not diabetes. The implications of weight loss of this degree in such a diverse population suggests that it may be possible to impact the public health burden of the multiple morbidities associated with obesity. Although our trial focused on CV events, many chronic diseases would benefit from effective weight management 28 .

There were variations in the weight-loss response. Individual changes in body weight with semaglutide and placebo were striking; still, 67.8% achieved 5% or more weight loss and 44.2% achieved 10% weight loss with semaglutide at 2 years, compared with 21.3% and 6.9%, respectively, for those receiving placebo. Our first on-treatment analysis demonstrated that those on-drug lost more weight than those in-trial, confirming the effect of drug exposure. With semaglutide, lower BMI was associated with less percentage weight loss, and women lost more weight on average than men (−11.1% versus −7.5% treatment difference from placebo); however, in all cases, clinically meaningful mean weight loss was achieved. Although Asian patients lost less weight on average than patients of other races (−7.3% more than placebo), Asian patients were more likely to be in the lowest BMI category (<30 kg m − 2 ), which is known to be associated with less weight loss, as discussed below. Clinically meaningful weight loss was evident in the semaglutide group within a broad range of baseline categories for glycemia and body anthropometrics. Interestingly, at 2 years, a significant proportion of the semaglutide-treated group fell below the sex- and race-specific WC cutoff points, especially in those with BMI <35 kg m − 2 , and a notable proportion (12.0%) fell below the BMI cutoff point of 25 kg m − 2 , which is deemed a healthy BMI in those without unintentional weight loss. As more robust weight loss is possible with newer medications, achieving and maintaining these cutoff point targets may become important benchmarks for tracking responses.

The overall safety profile did not reveal any new signals from prior studies, and there were no BMI category-related associations with AE reporting. The analysis did reveal that tolerability may differ among specific BMI classes, since more discontinuations occurred with semaglutide among lower BMI classes. Potential contributors may include a possibility of higher drug exposure in lower BMI classes, although other explanations, including differences in motivation and cultural mores regarding body size, cannot be excluded.

Is the weight loss in SELECT less than expected based on prior studies with the drug? In STEP 1, a large phase 3 study of once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg in individuals without diabetes but with BMI >30 kg m − 2 or 27 kg m − 2 with at least one obesity-related comorbidity, the mean weight loss was −14.9% at week 68, compared with −2.4% with placebo 14 . Several reasons may explain the observation that the mean treatment difference was −12.5% in STEP 1 and −8.7% in SELECT. First, SELECT was designed as a CV outcomes trial and not a weight-loss trial, and weight loss was only a supportive secondary endpoint in the trial design. Patients in STEP 1 were desirous of weight loss as a reason for study participation and received structured lifestyle intervention (which included a −500 kcal per day diet with 150 min per week of physical activity). In the SELECT trial, patients did not enroll for the specific purpose of weight loss and received standard of care covering management of CV risk factors, including medical treatment and healthy lifestyle counseling, but without a specific focus on weight loss. Second, the respective study populations were quite different, with STEP 1 including a younger, healthier population with more women (73.1% of the semaglutide arm in STEP 1 versus 27.7% in SELECT) and higher mean BMI (37.8 kg m − 2 versus 33.3 kg m − 2 , respectively) 14 , 21 . Third, major differences existed between the respective trial protocols. Patients in the semaglutide treatment arm of STEP 1 were more likely to be exposed to the medication at the full dose of 2.4 mg than those in SELECT. In SELECT, investigators were allowed to slow, decrease or pause treatment. By 104 weeks, approximately 77% of SELECT patients on dose were receiving the target semaglutide 2.4 mg weekly dose, which is lower than the corresponding proportion of patients in STEP 1 (89.6% were receiving the target dose at week 68) 14 , 21 . Indeed, in our first on-treatment analysis at week 208, weight loss was greater (−11.7% for semaglutide) compared with the in-trial analysis (−10.2% for semaglutide). Taken together, all these issues make less weight loss an expected finding in SELECT, compared with STEP 1.

The SELECT study has some limitations. First, SELECT was not a primary prevention trial, and the data should not be extrapolated to all individuals with overweight and obesity to prevent major adverse CV events. Although the data set is rich in numbers and diversity, it does not have the numbers of individuals in racial subgroups that may have revealed potential differential effects. SELECT also did not include individuals who have excess abnormal body fat but a BMI <27 kg m − 2 . Not all individuals with increased CV risk have BMI ≥27 kg m − 2 . Thus, the study did not include Asian patients who qualify for treatment with obesity medications at lower BMI and WC cutoff points according to guidelines in their countries 29 . We observed that Asian patients were less likely to be in the higher BMI categories of SELECT and that the population of those with BMI <30 kg m − 2 had a higher percentage of Asian race. Asian individuals would probably benefit from weight loss and medication approaches undertaken at lower BMI levels in the secondary prevention of CVD. Future studies should evaluate CV risk reduction in Asian individuals with high CV risk and BMI <27 kg m − 2 . Another limitation is the lack of information on body composition, beyond the anthropometric measures we used. It would be meaningful to have quantitation of fat mass, lean mass and muscle mass, especially given the wide range of body size in the SELECT population.

An interesting observation from this SELECT weight loss data is that when BMI is ≤30 kg m − 2 , weight loss on a percentage basis is less than that observed across higher classes of BMI severity. Furthermore, as BMI exceeds 30 kg m − 2 , weight loss amounts are more similar for class I, II and III obesity. This was also observed in Look AHEAD, a lifestyle intervention study for weight loss 30 . The proportion (percentage) of weight loss seems to be less, on average, in the BMI <30 kg m − 2 category relative to higher BMI categories, despite their receiving of the same treatment and even potentially higher exposure to the drug for weight loss 30 . Weight loss cannot continue indefinitely. There is a plateau of weight that occurs after weight loss with all treatments for weight management. This plateau has been termed the ‘set point’ or ‘settling point’, a body weight that is in harmony with the genetic and environmental determinants of body weight and adiposity 31 . Perhaps persons with BMI <30 kg m − 2 are closer to their settling point and have less weight to lose to reach it. Furthermore, the cardiometabolic benefits of weight loss are driven by reduction in the abnormal ectopic and visceral depots of fat, not by reduction of subcutaneous fat stores in the hips and thighs. The phenotype of cardiometabolic disease but lower BMI (<30 kg m − 2 ) may be one where reduction of excess abnormal and dysfunctional body fat does not require as much body mass reduction to achieve health improvement. We suspect this may be the case and suggest further studies to explore this aspect of weight-loss physiology.

In conclusion, this analysis of the SELECT study supports the broad use of once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg as an aid to CV event reduction in individuals with overweight or obesity without diabetes but with preexisting CVD. Semaglutide 2.4 mg safely and effectively produced clinically significant weight loss in all subgroups based on age, sex, race, glycemia, renal function and anthropometric categories. Furthermore, the weight loss was sustained over 4 years during the trial.

Trial design and participants

The current work complies with all relevant ethical regulations and reports a prespecified analysis of the randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled SELECT trial ( NCT03574597 ), details of which have been reported in papers describing study design and rationale 32 , baseline characteristics 24 and the primary outcome 21 . SELECT evaluated once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg versus placebo to reduce the risk of major adverse cardiac events (a composite endpoint comprising CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction or nonfatal stroke) in individuals with established CVD and overweight or obesity, without diabetes. The protocol for SELECT was approved by national and institutional regulatory and ethical authorities in each participating country. All patients provided written informed consent before beginning any trial-specific activity. Eligible patients were aged ≥45 years, with a BMI of ≥27 kg m − 2 and established CVD defined as at least one of the following: prior myocardial infarction, prior ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke, or symptomatic peripheral artery disease. Additional inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found elsewhere 32 .

Human participants research

The trial protocol was designed by the trial sponsor, Novo Nordisk, and the academic Steering Committee. A global expert panel of physician leaders in participating countries advised on regional operational issues. National and institutional regulatory and ethical authorities approved the protocol, and all patients provided written informed consent.

Study intervention and patient management

Patients were randomly assigned in a double-blind manner and 1:1 ratio to receive once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg or placebo. The starting dose was 0.24 mg once weekly, with dose increases every 4 weeks (to doses of 0.5, 1.0, 1.7 and 2.4 mg per week) until the target dose of 2.4 mg was reached after 16 weeks. Patients who were unable to tolerate dose escalation due to AEs could be managed by extension of dose-escalation intervals, treatment pauses or maintenance at doses below the 2.4 mg per week target dose. Investigators were allowed to reduce the dose of study product if tolerability issues arose. Investigators were provided with guidelines for, and encouraged to follow, evidence-based recommendations for medical treatment and lifestyle counseling to optimize management of underlying CVD as part of the standard of care. The lifestyle counseling was not targeted at weight loss. Additional intervention descriptions are available 32 .

Sex, race, body weight, height and WC measurements

Sex and race were self-reported. Body weight was measured without shoes and only wearing light clothing; it was measured on a digital scale and recorded in kilograms or pounds (one decimal with a precision of 0.1 kg or lb), with preference for using the same scale throughout the trial. The scale was calibrated yearly as a minimum unless the manufacturer certified that calibration of the weight scales was valid for the lifetime of the scale. Height was measured without shoes in centimeters or inches (one decimal with a precision of 0.1 cm or inches). At screening, BMI was calculated by the electronic case report form. WC was defined as the abdominal circumference located midway between the lower rib margin and the iliac crest. Measures were obtained in a standing position with a nonstretchable measuring tape and to the nearest centimeter or inch. The patient was asked to breathe normally. The tape touched the skin but did not compress soft tissue, and twists in the tape were avoided.

The following endpoints relevant to this paper were assessed at randomization (week 0) to years 2, 3 and 4: change in body weight (%); proportion achieving weight loss ≥5%, ≥10%, ≥15% and ≥20%; change in WC (cm); and percentage change in WHtR (cm cm −1 ). Improvement in BMI category (defined as being in a lower BMI class) was assessed at week 104 compared with baseline according to BMI classes: healthy (BMI <25 kg m − 2 ), overweight (25 to <30 kg m − 2 ), class I obesity (30 to <35 kg m − 2 ), class II obesity (35 to <40 kg m − 2 ) and class III obesity (≥40 kg m − 2 ). The proportions of individuals with BMI <35 or ≥35 kg m − 2 who achieved sex- and race-specific cutoff points for WC (indicating increased metabolic risk) were evaluated at week 104. The WC cutoff points were as follows: Asian women <80 cm, non-Asian women <88 cm, Asian men <88 cm and non-Asian men <102 cm.

Overall, 97.1% of the semaglutide group and 96.8% of the placebo group completed the trial. During the study, 30.6% of those assigned to semaglutide did not complete drug treatment, compared with 27.0% for placebo.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analyses for the in-trial period were based on the intention-to-treat principle and included all randomized patients irrespective of adherence to semaglutide or placebo or changes to background medications. Continuous endpoints were analyzed using an analysis of covariance model with treatment as a fixed factor and baseline value of the endpoint as a covariate. Missing data at the landmark visit, for example, week 104, were imputed using a multiple imputation model and done separately for each treatment arm and included baseline value as a covariate and fit to patients having an observed data point (irrespective of adherence to randomized treatment) at week 104. The fit model is used to impute values for all patients with missing data at week 104 to create 500 complete data sets. Rubin’s rules were used to combine the results. Estimated means are provided with s.e.m., and estimated treatment differences are provided with 95% CI. Binary endpoints were analyzed using logistic regression with treatment and baseline value as a covariate, where missing data were imputed by first using multiple imputation as described above and then categorizing the imputed data according to the endpoint, for example, body weight percentage change at week 104 of <0%. Subgroup analyses for continuous and binary endpoints also included the subgroup and interaction between treatment and subgroup as fixed factors. Because some patients in both arms continued to be followed but were off treatment, we also analyzed weight loss by first on-treatment group (observation period until first time being off treatment for >35 days) to assess a more realistic picture of weight loss in those adhering to treatment. CIs were not adjusted for multiplicity and should therefore not be used to infer definitive treatment effects. All statistical analyses were performed with SAS software, version 9.4 TS1M5 (SAS Institute).

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

Data will be shared with bona fide researchers who submit a research proposal approved by the independent review board. Individual patient data will be shared in data sets in a deidentified and anonymized format. Information about data access request proposals can be found at https://www.novonordisk-trials.com/ .

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Acknowledgements

Editorial support was provided by Richard Ogilvy-Stewart of Apollo, OPEN Health Communications, and funded by Novo Nordisk A/S, in accordance with Good Publication Practice guidelines ( www.ismpp.org/gpp-2022 ).

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Department of Internal Medicine/Endocrinology and Peter O’ Donnell Jr. School of Public Health, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA

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Contributions

D.H.R., I.L. and S.E.K. contributed to the study design. D.B.H., I.L., D.D., A.K., S.M.M., A.P.v.B., C.C. and J.P.H.W. were study investigators. D.B.H., I.L., D.D., A.K., S.M.M., A.P.v.B., C.C. and J.P.H.W. enrolled patients. D.H.R. was responsible for data analysis and manuscript preparation. All authors contributed to data interpretation, review, revisions and final approval of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Donna H. Ryan .

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Competing interests.

D.H.R. declares having received consulting honoraria from Altimmune, Amgen, Biohaven, Boehringer Ingelheim, Calibrate, Carmot Therapeutics, CinRx, Eli Lilly, Epitomee, Gila Therapeutics, IFA Celtics, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Rhythm, Scientific Intake, Wondr Health and Zealand Pharma; she declares she received stock options from Calibrate, Epitomee, Scientific Intake and Xeno Bioscience. I.L. declares having received research funding (paid to institution) from Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Mylan and Boehringer Ingelheim. I.L. received advisory/consulting fees and/or other support from Altimmune, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Biomea, Boehringer Ingelheim, Carmot Therapeutics, Cytoki Pharma, Eli Lilly, Intercept, Janssen/Johnson & Johnson, Mannkind, Mediflix, Merck, Metsera, Novo Nordisk, Pharmaventures, Pfizer, Regeneron, Sanofi, Shionogi, Structure Therapeutics, Target RWE, Terns Pharmaceuticals, The Comm Group, Valeritas, WebMD and Zealand Pharma. J.D. declares having received consulting honoraria from Amgen, Boehringer Ingelheim, Merck, Pfizer, Aegerion, Novartis, Sanofi, Takeda, Novo Nordisk and Bayer, and research grants from British Heart Foundation, MRC (UK), NIHR, PHE, MSD, Pfizer, Aegerion, Colgate and Roche. S.E.K. declares having received consulting honoraria from ANI Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly, Merck, Novo Nordisk and Oramed, and stock options from AltPep. B.B. declares having received honoraria related to participation on this trial and has no financial conflicts related to this publication. H.M.C. declares being a stockholder and serving on an advisory panel for Bayer; receiving research grants from Chief Scientist Office, Diabetes UK, European Commission, IQVIA, Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation and Medical Research Council; serving on an advisory board and speaker’s bureau for Novo Nordisk; and holding stock in Roche Pharmaceuticals. C.C. declares having received consulting honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Merck, Brace Pharma and Eurofarma. D.D. declares having received consulting honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim and AstraZeneca, and received research grants through his affiliation from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim and Rhythm. D.B.H. declares having received research grants through her academic affiliation from Novo Nordisk and Eli Lilly, and advisory/consulting honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly and Gelesis. A.K. declares having received research grants through his affiliation from Novo Nordisk and Pharmaserve Lilly, and consulting honoraria from Pharmaserve Lilly, Sanofi-Aventis, Novo Nordisk, MSD, AstraZeneca, ELPEN Pharma, Boehringer Ingelheim, Galenica Pharma, Epsilon Health and WinMedica. A.M.L. declares having received honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Akebia Therapeutics, Ardelyx, Becton Dickinson, Endologix, FibroGen, GSK, Medtronic, Neovasc, Provention Bio, ReCor, BrainStorm Cell Therapeutics, Alnylam and Intarcia for consulting activities, and research funding to his institution from AbbVie, Esperion, AstraZeneca, CSL Behring, Novartis and Eli Lilly. S.M.M. declares having received consulting honoraria from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Daichii-Sankyo, esanum, Gilead, Ipsen, Eli Lilly, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Sandoz and Sanofi; he declares he received research grants from AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly and Novo Nordisk. J.P. declares having received consulting honoraria from Altimmune, Amgen, Esperion, Merck, MJH Life Sciences, Novartis and Novo Nordisk; he has received a grant, paid to his institution, from Boehringer Ingelheim and holds the position of Director, Preventive Cardiology, at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. A.P.v.B. is contracted via the University of Groningen (no personal payment) to undertake consultancy for Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly and Boehringer Ingelheim. J.P.H.W. is contracted via the University of Liverpool (no personal payment) to undertake consultancy for Altimmune, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Cytoki, Eli Lilly, Napp, Novo Nordisk, Menarini, Pfizer, Rhythm Pharmaceuticals, Sanofi, Saniona, Tern Pharmaceuticals, Shionogi and Ysopia. J.P.H.W. also declares personal honoraria/lecture fees from AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Medscape, Napp, Menarini, Novo Nordisk and Rhythm. R.F.K. declares having received consulting honoraria from Novo Nordisk, Weight Watchers, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, Structure and Altimmune. E.B., G.K.H., O.K.J. and T.K.O. are employees of Novo Nordisk A/S.

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Extended data

Extended data fig. 1 effect of semaglutide treatment or placebo on waist circumference from baseline to week 104 by subgroups..

Data from the in-trial period. N = 17,604. P values represent test of no interaction effect. P values are two-sided and not adjusted for multiplicity. The dots show estimated treatment differences and the error bars show 95% confidence intervals. Details of the statistical models are available in Methods . BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; CV, cardiovascular; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; ETD, estimated treatment difference; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; MI, myocardial infarction; PAD, peripheral artery disease; sema, semaglutide.

Supplementary information

Reporting summary, supplementary tables 1 and 2.

Supplementary Table 1. Baseline characteristics by BMI class. Data are represented as number and percentage of patients. Renal function categories were based on the eGFR as per Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration. Albuminuria categories were based on UACR. Smoking was defined as smoking at least one cigarette or equivalent daily. The category ‘Other’ for CV inclusion criteria includes patients where it is unknown if the patient fulfilled only one or several criteria and patients who were randomized in error and did not fulfill any criteria. Supplementary Table 2. SAEs according to baseline BMI category. P value: two-sided P value from Fisher’s exact test for test of no difference.

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Ryan, D.H., Lingvay, I., Deanfield, J. et al. Long-term weight loss effects of semaglutide in obesity without diabetes in the SELECT trial. Nat Med (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-02996-7

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beginner's guide to literary analysis

What Is Literary Analysis?

Literary Analysis and Other Works

Why Does Literary Analysis Matter?

Literary Terms to Know for Literary Analysis

How to Perform Literary Analysis

Step 2: Take Notes as You Read

Step 3: Notice Patterns

Step 4: Consider the Work as a Whole, and Ask Questions

Step 5: Return to Your Notes and the Text for Evidence

Step 6: Connect These Ideas Across the Narrative

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay

Step 1: Read the Text. Maybe Read It Again.

Step 2: Brainstorm Potential Topics

Step 3: Gather Evidence

Step 4: Consider Secondary Sources

Step 5: Write a Working Thesis Statement

Step 6: Write an Outline

Step 7: Write Your Introduction

Step 8: Write Your Body Paragraphs

Step 9: Write Your Conclusion

Step 10: Revise, Revise, Revise

Other Resources for Literary Analysis

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay: An Insightful Guide

What Is Literary Analysis Essay

Is This Your First Time Writing a Literary Analysis Essay?

What Is the Purpose of a Literary Analysis Essay

Literary Analysis Outline

Literary Analysis Essay Topics

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay Step by Step

Step 1: Choose Your Text and Topic

Step 2: Create a Strong Thesis Statement

Step 3: Conduct Textual Analysis

Step 4: Set the Stage with Context

Step 5: Construct Analytical Body Paragraphs

Step 6: Craft a Thoughtful Conclusion

Literary Analysis Essay Do’s and Don’ts

Literary Analysis Essay Writing Tips

Literary Analysis Essay Example

Final Thought

Haven’t Read the Literary Original Yet?

What Is the Purpose of a Literary Analysis Essay?

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Literary Analysis Essay - Ultimate Guide By Professionals

What is a Literary Analysis Essay?

How To Write A Literary Analysis Essay

Introduction

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Examples of Literary Analysis Essay

Literary Analysis Essay Topics

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What are the 4 components of literary analysis?

How do you start a literary analysis essay?

How do you do a literary analysis?

Why is literary analysis important?

What is the fundamental characteristic of a literary analysis essay?

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How to write a literary analysis essay

Step 1: Read the literary text closely

Narrative voice

Poem structure

Play structure

Introduction

Qualities of a good thesis statement

Literary analysis thesis statement example

Step 3: Write an introduction

Literary analysis essay introduction example

Things to avoid in your introduction

Introduction tip

Literary analysis essay body example

Topic sentences

Making use of transition

Transition words example

Textual evidence in a paragraph

Textual evidence in a paragraph (on chapter)