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113 Endangered Species Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Endangered species are a critical issue facing our planet today. With habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, and illegal hunting threatening the survival of countless species, it is more important than ever to raise awareness and take action to protect these vulnerable creatures.

If you are looking for essay topic ideas on endangered species, look no further. Here are 113 examples to inspire your writing:

• The impact of climate change on polar bears
• The illegal trade of rhino horns
• The conservation efforts to save the black rhinoceros
• The decline of the African elephant population
• The role of zoos in endangered species conservation
• The threats facing the Sumatran tiger
• The conservation status of the Amur leopard
• The effects of deforestation on orangutan populations
• The decline of the vaquita porpoise
• The conservation efforts to save the Javan rhinoceros
• The impact of plastic pollution on marine turtles
• The decline of the North Atlantic right whale population
• The conservation status of the saola
• The role of ecotourism in endangered species conservation
• The decline of the pangolin population
• The conservation efforts to save the African wild dog
• The impact of habitat destruction on the red panda
• The decline of the Western lowland gorilla population
• The conservation status of the Philippine eagle
• The effects of overfishing on the bluefin tuna population
• The decline of the mountain gorilla population
• The conservation efforts to save the snow leopard
• The impact of pollution on the beluga whale
• The decline of the black-footed ferret population
• The conservation status of the golden lion tamarin
• The role of captive breeding in endangered species conservation
• The decline of the giant panda population
• The conservation efforts to save the tigers in India
• The impact of climate change on the Adélie penguin
• The decline of the African penguin population
• The conservation status of the sea otter
• The effects of habitat destruction on the California condor
• The decline of the hawksbill sea turtle population
• The conservation efforts to save the cheetah
• The impact of pollution on the vaquita porpoise
• The decline of the orangutan population
• The conservation status of the black rhinoceros
• The role of wildlife corridors in endangered species conservation
• The decline of the Amur leopard population
• The conservation efforts to save the Sumatran tiger
• The impact of climate change on the African elephant
• The decline of the Javan rhinoceros population
• The conservation status of the black-footed ferret
• The effects of overfishing on the North Atlantic right whale population
• The decline of the saola population
• The conservation efforts to save the pangolin
• The impact of habitat destruction on the Philippine eagle
• The decline of the bluefin tuna population
• The conservation status of the red panda
• The role of genetic diversity in endangered species conservation
• The decline of the African wild dog population
• The conservation efforts to save the vaquita porpoise
• The impact of pollution on the Amur leopard
• The decline of the snow leopard population
• The conservation status of the beluga whale
• The effects of habitat destruction on the golden lion tamarin
• The conservation efforts to save the North Atlantic right whale
• The impact of climate change on the pangolin
• The decline of the black rhinoceros population
• The conservation status of the Sumatran tiger
• The role of community-based conservation in endangered species conservation
• The conservation efforts to save the sea otter
• The impact of pollution on the California condor
• The conservation status of the cheetah
• The effects of habitat destruction on the vaquita porpoise
• The conservation efforts to save the golden lion tamarin
• The impact of climate change on the black-footed ferret
• The decline of the Adélie penguin population
• The conservation status of the African elephant
• The role of habitat restoration in endangered species conservation
• The conservation efforts to save the saola 77

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96 Extinction Essay Topics & Examples

Looking for extinction essay topics? One of the most severe ecological problems is worth exploring.

🏆 A+ Extinction Essay Examples

📌 best extinction essay topics, 🔝 top ideas for an essay about extinction, 👍 endangered species essay topics & title ideas, ❓ research questions about extinction.

Extinction is the termination of a certain living form, usually a species, or a language. The death of the last individual of the species (or the last speaker) is considered to be the moment of extinction. This phenomenon of animal extinction s considered to be the world’s largest threat to wildlife. In the last 50 years, the wildlife population sizes have dropped by 60%. That’s why animal extinction is one of the major ecological issues.

Whether you need to write a research paper or an argumentative essay on extinction, this article will be helpful. It contains top endangered species essay topics, titles, extinction essay examples, etc. Write an A+ essay about extinction with us!

• Preventing Animal Extinction in the UAE In essence, the UAE has been at the forefront of protecting endangered species from extinction and promoting an increment in their population, by putting up breeding programmes which help in multiplication of such animals.
• Dodo Bird and Why It Went Extinct One of the extinct species of bird is the dodo bird. Its extinction has made it hard for scholars to classify the bird when it comes to taxonomy of birds.
• Their Benefits Aside, Human Diets Are Polluting the Environment and Sending Animals to Extinction The fact that the environment and the entire ecosystem have been left unstable in the recent times is in no doubt.
• Wildlife Management and Extinction Prevention in Australia This paper investigates the threats to wildlife in Australia and strategies for managing and preventing their extinction. In summary, this paper examines the threats to wildlife in Australia and outlines strategies for managing and preventing […]
• Human Evolution and Animal Extinction The recent scholarly findings prove that invasions of Homo sapiens to the Austronesian and American continents were the major factors that conditioned the extinction of numerous animal species.
• Premature Extinction of Species For thousands of years of geological time, the extinction of some species has been balanced by the emergence of the new ones.
• Animal Extinction and What Is Being Done To Help The affected species, the causes of the change, as well as the possible criterion of arresting the situation, forms the subject of their discussion.
• “Extinction Rebellion” News Article by Eells The Extinction Rebellion movement was created in 2018, and, according to the organizers, now it has spread to dozens of countries where there are groups ready to participate in protests.
• Diversity and Extinction of Cyclura Lewisi One of the biggest risks to the population of this species is wild animals. The Grand Cayman blue iguana population is gradually expanding and is predicted to continue to rise as a result of continuing […]
• Extinction of Dinosaurs in North America and Texas It is necessary to identify the reason for the extinction of dinosaurs on the territory of the continent, namely, the state of Texas.
• Seabird Extinction from Invasive Rodent Species This paper will review seabirds’ role in ecosystems, the invasive rodent species and their impact on seabirds, and methods of protecting seabirds from non-native rodents.
• Animal Extinction: Causes and Effects Due to the increased rates of globalization and the rapid development of industries, the effect that the humankind has been producing on the environment has been amplified.
• Mathematical Biology: Explaining Population Extinction Species in settings with soft carrying capacities such as those with non-negative value K create a restricted expectation of a variation, given a full past history, is non-positive when the species surpasses the carrying volume.
• The Importance of Saving a Species From Extinction It leads to a lack of surviving members of some species to reproduce in order create a new generation of the extinct species.
• Language Extinction in East Africa Most of the languages in the world fall under the endangered languages category with UNESCO approximating the percentage of endangered languages to be around 60%-80%.
• Extinction of Music Education Plato quoted: “The decisive importance of education in poetry and music: rhythm and harmony sink deep into the recesses of the soul and take the strongest hold there.
• The Cause of Human Extinction: Nature’s Ferocity or People’s Irresponsibility? The following sections will provide statistical data and projections as well as non-scientific scenarios for the end of the world and the extinction of the human race.
• Is Cannibalism the Reason for Neanderthal’s Extinction? They also found that cuts and fractures on the deer bones that were very similar to the ones that were found in the Neanderthal body.
• Chinese Dialects and Extinction Threats The problem of the reduction and extinction of the local dialects is one of the most sensitive and unresolved issues in China.
• Mass Extinction Theories It can thus be speculated that the species that could not withstand the effects of global warming had to become extinct due to the adverse changes in climate.
• Saving Sharks from the Extinction Thus, it is significant for the marshals to guard and secure the naval areas to uncover the abuse and intervene to discontinue the vicious killing of sharks.
• Comparison of Two Archaeological Papers on the Extinction of Animals Due to the Activities of Human Societies. In this study, the varying trends on the abundance of certain species were used to describe changes observed in the hunting practices and the animal species that were hunted.
• Human Activities and their Impact on Species Extinction in Arctic Unfortunately, what should be taken into consideration is the fact that as human interference continues to escalate within the region such as overfishing, oil drilling, population expansion and the effects of global warming this has […]
• Hazard from Space: Mass Extinction Theory The massive impact of extraterrestrial objects did not cause mass extinction of dinosaurs. Dinosaur basis of mass extinction theory do not give plausible explanation for extraterrestrial bodies since they occurred only once during the period […]
• Extinction of minority languages On the other hand, the extinction of minor languages leads to the extinction of certain cultural groups and their individualities, turning the world into a global grey crowd.
• Population Explosion and the Possible Extinction of Humans
• The Continuous Pollution on Earth Post Human Extinction in The World Without Us, a Book by Alan Weisman
• The Endangerment And Mass Extinction of The Tiger: Can We Stop It
• The Wildlife Biodiversity and its Continuous Extinction
• The Permo-Triassic Mass Extinction And The Earth’s Triassic Period
• Mass Extinction of Biodiversity From The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
• Profit Maximization and the Extinction of Animal Species
• What Are the Consequences of the Removal/Extinction of an Organism from the Food Web
• The Biological Description of the Dodo and Its Extinction
• The Circumstances that Led to the Extinction of Dinosaurs
• We Must Save The Great White Shark From Extinction
• Problem of the Extinction of Many Rare Species
• The Destruction of Natural Habitats and the Extinction of Plants and Animals
• Why Extinction Does Happen It Is Not Indefinite
• Cascades of Failure and Extinction in Evolving Complex Systems
• The Permian Triassic Extinction Event And It’s Effects On Life On Earth
• Upper Estimates of the Mean Extinction Time of a Population with a Constant Carrying Capacity
• What Could Have Caused The Extinction of Dinosaurs
• The Role of Fungus in the Extinction of Dinosaurs
• Saving the Whales: Lessons from the Extinction of the Eastern Arctic Bowhead
• The Extinction, Endangerment, And Captivity of Endangered
• The Effects of Language Extinction on Cultural Identity in Third World Countries
• Sex, Drugs, Disasters, and the Extinction of Dinosaurs by Stephen Jay Gould
• The Ghost of Extinction: Preservation Values and Minimum Viable Population in Wildlife Models
• Recovery After Mass Extinction: Evolutionary Assembly in Large-Scale Biosphere Dynamics
• The Devonian Extinction and the Long Process of Evolution in the Past 300 Million Years
• The Process of De-Extinction And Its Ecological And Moral Consequences
• The Need to Save the Animals from Extinction Using Genetic Engineering
• The Brink Of The Extinction Of America’s Civility And Inclusion
• The Current Extinction Rate Throughout The World: We Must Act Now
• Conservation Biology: Extinction, Habitat Loss, Invasive Species, Overexploitation
• Why Evolution And Extinction Is Essential To Humanity
• The Guam Rail Should Be Saved from Possible Extinction Essay
• The Extinction Event and Life in the Post-Apocalyptic Greenhouse
• Causes of Animal and Plant Extinction, and Its Effects on Humans
• Ultimate Extinction of the Promiscuous Bisexual Galton-Watson Metapopulation
• Saving the Cheetahs of the Serengeti from Extinction
• The Influx of New Languages and Its Dangers to the Extinction of the English Language
• The First Great Whale Extinction: The End of the Bowhead Whale in the Eastern Arctic
• Causes of Canine Extinction and Disappearing Species
• The Themes of Isolation, Extinction and Man’s Limitations in the Poetry of Robert Frost
• The Viability of the Catastrophism Theory in Dinosaur Extinction
• Why The Asian Small-Clawed Otter Is At The Brink Of Extinction
• Species Extinction To Environmental Deterioration
• The Extinction Of Neanderthals And Early Modern Humans
• Did Humans Cause the Mass Extinction of Megafauna During the Late Pleistocene?
• What Are the Consequences of the Extinction of an Organism for the Food Web?
• What Do We Mean by Extinction?
• What Was the Worst Extinction in History?
• What Are the Five Major Extinctions in Earth’s History?
• Are We Overdue for a Mass Extinction?
• What Are the Potential Benefits and Consequences of De-extinction?
• What Could Have Caused the Extinction of Dinosaurs?
• What Events Apparently Triggered the Mass Extinction?
• Why Evolution and Extinction Are Essential to Humanity?
• Why the Asian Small-Clawed Otter Is at the Brink of Extinction?
• Will Global Warming Lead to the Mass Extinction of the Worlds Species?
• What Causes Extinction of Animals?
• What Are the Three Types of Extinction?
• What Is the Cause of Extinction and What Are Its Effects?
• What Causes More Extinction?
• Which Is the Main Cause of the Extinction of Several Species?
• How Are Humans Causing Animal Extinction?
• How Will Extinction Affect Humans?
• What Causes Extinction and What Are Its Impacts?
• Why Is Extinction a Problem?
• How Does Extinction Affect Biodiversity?
• How Does Extinction Affect Evolution?
• What Usually Happens After a Mass Extinction?
• What Is the Advantage of Extinction?
• Cruelty to Animals Titles
• Endangered Species Questions
• Invasive Species Titles
• Animal Rights Research Ideas
• Wildlife Ideas
• Zoo Research Ideas
• Cultural Identity Research Topics
• Animal Ethics Research Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 28). 96 Extinction Essay Topics & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/extinction-essay-topics/

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Human Impact — Endangered Species

Essays on Endangered Species

Endangered species essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: vanishing wonders: the plight of endangered species and conservation efforts.

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the critical issue of endangered species, delving into the causes of endangerment, the ecological significance of these species, and the conservation strategies aimed at preserving them for future generations.

• Introduction
• Understanding Endangered Species: Definitions and Criteria
• Causes of Endangerment: Habitat Loss, Climate Change, Poaching, and Pollution
• Ecological Significance: The Role of Endangered Species in Ecosystems
• Conservation Strategies: Protected Areas, Breeding Programs, and Legal Protections
• Success Stories: Examples of Species Recovery and Reintroduction
• Ongoing Challenges: Balancing Conservation with Human Needs
• Conclusion: The Urgent Need for Global Action in Protecting Endangered Species

Essay Title 2: Beyond the Numbers: The Ethical and Moral Imperatives of Endangered Species Preservation

Thesis Statement: This essay examines the ethical dimensions of endangered species preservation, addressing questions of human responsibility, intrinsic value, and the moral imperative to protect and restore these species.

• The Ethical Dilemma: Balancing Human Needs and Species Preservation
• Intrinsic Value: Recognizing the Inherent Worth of All Species
• Interconnectedness: Understanding the Ripple Effects of Species Loss
• Human Responsibility: The Moral Imperative to Protect Endangered Species
• Conservation Ethics: Ethical Frameworks and Philosophical Perspectives
• Legislation and International Agreements: Legal Approaches to Ethical Conservation
• Conclusion: Embracing Our Role as Stewards of Biodiversity

Essay Title 3: The Economic Value of Biodiversity: Endangered Species and Sustainable Development

Thesis Statement: This essay explores the economic aspects of endangered species conservation, highlighting the potential economic benefits of preserving biodiversity, sustainable ecotourism, and the long-term economic consequences of species loss.

• Economic Importance of Biodiversity: Ecosystem Services and Human Well-being
• Sustainable Ecotourism: How Endangered Species Can Drive Local Economies
• Case Studies: Success Stories of Economic Benefits from Species Conservation
• The Costs of Inaction: Economic Consequences of Species Extinction
• Corporate Responsibility: Businesses and Conservation Partnerships
• Balancing Economic Growth with Conservation: The Path to Sustainable Development
• Conclusion: The Interplay Between Biodiversity, Economics, and a Sustainable Future

Endangered Species Extinction Paper

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Endangered Species: The African Elephant

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Endangered Species in Vietnam: South China Tiger and Asian Elephant

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De-extinction Can Help to Protect Endangered Species

Protection of endangered species can help us to survive, the way zoos helps to protect endangered species, ways of protection endangered species, sharks demand protection just like endangered species, the reasons why the koala species is endangered, the issue of philippine eagle endangerment, the issue of conserving endangered animals in the jungles of southeast asia, primates research project: the bushmeat crisis, the negative impact of the food culture on the environment and jani actman article that fish on your dinner plate may be an endangered species, nesting and population ecology of western chimpanzee in bia conservation area, human impact on red panda populations , the impact of climate change on the antarctic region, the ethics of bengal tigers, poaching and the illegal trade, giant pandas ailuropoda.

Endangered species are living organisms that face a high risk of extinction in the near future. They are characterized by dwindling population numbers and a significant decline in their natural habitats. These species are vulnerable to various factors, including habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, overexploitation, and invasive species, which disrupt their ecological balance and threaten their survival.

The early stages of human civilization witnessed a relatively harmonious coexistence with the natural world. Indigenous cultures across the globe held deep reverence for the interconnectedness of all living beings, fostering a sense of stewardship and respect for the environment. Nevertheless, with the rise of industrialization and modernization, the exploitation of natural resources escalated at an unprecedented pace. The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a turning point, as rapid urbanization, deforestation, pollution, and overhunting posed significant threats to numerous species. The dawn of globalization further accelerated these challenges, as international trade in exotic species intensified and habitats faced relentless encroachment. In response to this growing concern, conservation movements emerged worldwide. Influential figures such as John Muir, Rachel Carson, and Aldo Leopold championed the cause of environmental preservation, raising awareness about the fragility of ecosystems and the need for proactive measures. International conventions and treaties, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), were established to regulate and monitor the trade of endangered species across borders. As our understanding of ecological dynamics deepened, scientific advancements and conservation efforts gained momentum. Endangered species recovery programs, habitat restoration initiatives, and the establishment of protected areas have all played a vital role in safeguarding vulnerable populations. However, the struggle to protect endangered species continues in the face of ongoing challenges. Climate change, habitat destruction, poaching, and illegal wildlife trade persist as formidable threats. Efforts to conserve endangered species require a multi-faceted approach, encompassing scientific research, policy development, sustainable practices, and international collaboration.

Leonardo DiCaprio: An acclaimed actor and environmental activist, DiCaprio has been an outspoken advocate for wildlife conservation. Through the Leonardo DiCaprio Foundation, he has supported various initiatives aimed at protecting endangered species and their habitats. Sigourney Weaver: Besides her notable acting career, Sigourney Weaver has been a passionate environmental activist. She has advocated for the protection of endangered species, particularly in her role as an honorary co-chair of the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. Prince William: The Duke of Cambridge, Prince William, has shown a deep commitment to wildlife conservation. He has actively supported initiatives such as United for Wildlife, which aims to combat the illegal wildlife trade and protect endangered species. Edward Norton: Actor and environmental activist Edward Norton has been actively involved in various conservation efforts. He co-founded the Conservation International's Marine Program and has been vocal about the need to protect endangered species and their habitats.

Amur Leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii) Javan Rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus) Vaquita (Phocoena sinus) Cross River Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) Yangtze River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatrae) African Elephant (Loxodonta africana)

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation 2. Climate Change 3. Pollution 4. Overexploitation and Illegal Wildlife Trade 5. Invasive Species 6. Disease and Pathogens 7. Lack of Conservation Efforts and Awareness 8. Genetic Issues 9. Natural Factors

The majority of the public recognizes the significance of conserving endangered species. Many people believe that it is our moral obligation to protect and preserve the Earth's diverse wildlife. They understand that losing species not only disrupts ecosystems but also deprives future generations of the natural beauty and ecological services they provide. Some individuals view endangered species conservation through an economic lens. They understand that wildlife and ecosystems contribute to tourism, provide ecosystem services like clean water and air, and support local economies. These economic arguments often align with conservation efforts, highlighting the potential benefits of protecting endangered species. Additionally, public opinion on endangered species is often shaped by awareness campaigns, education initiatives, and media coverage. Increased access to information about the threats faced by endangered species and the consequences of their decline has resulted in a greater understanding and concern among the public. Many people support the implementation and enforcement of laws and regulations aimed at protecting endangered species. They believe that legal frameworks are essential for ensuring the survival of vulnerable species and holding individuals and industries accountable for actions that harm wildlife. Moreover, individuals increasingly feel a sense of personal responsibility in addressing the issue of endangered species. This includes making conscious choices about consumption, supporting sustainable practices, and engaging in activities that contribute to conservation efforts, such as volunteering or donating to wildlife organizations. Public opinion can vary when it comes to instances where the protection of endangered species conflicts with human interests, such as land use, agriculture, or development projects. These situations can lead to debates and differing perspectives on how to balance conservation needs with other societal needs.

"Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson: Published in 1962, this influential book is credited with launching the modern environmental movement. Carson's seminal work highlighted the devastating impacts of pesticides, including their effects on wildlife and the environment. It drew attention to the need for conservation and sparked widespread concern for endangered species. "Gorillas in the Mist" by Dian Fossey: Fossey's book, published in 1983, chronicled her experiences studying and protecting mountain gorillas in Rwanda. It shed light on the challenges faced by these endangered primates and brought their conservation needs to the forefront of public consciousness. "March of the Penguins" (2005): This acclaimed documentary film depicted the annual journey of emperor penguins in Antarctica. By showcasing the hardships and perils these penguins face, the film garnered widespread attention and empathy for these remarkable creatures, raising awareness about their vulnerability and the impacts of climate change. "The Cove" (2009): This documentary exposed the brutal practice of dolphin hunting in Taiji, Japan. It not only brought attention to the mistreatment of dolphins but also highlighted the interconnectedness of species and the urgent need for their protection. "Racing Extinction" (2015): This documentary film by the Oceanic Preservation Society addressed the issue of mass species extinction and the human-driven factors contributing to it. It aimed to inspire viewers to take action and make positive changes to protect endangered species and their habitats.

1. It is estimated that around 26,000 species are currently threatened with extinction, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2. The illegal wildlife trade is the fourth largest illegal trade globally, following drugs, counterfeiting, and human trafficking. It is a significant contributor to species endangerment. 3. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) reports that since 1970, global wildlife populations have declined by an average of 68%. 4. Habitat loss is the primary cause of species endangerment, with deforestation alone accounting for the loss of around 18.7 million acres of forest annually. 5. The poaching crisis has pushed some iconic species to the brink of extinction. For example, it is estimated that only about 3,900 tigers remain in the wild. 6. The Hawaiian Islands are considered the endangered species capital of the world, with more than 500 endangered or threatened species due to habitat loss and invasive species. 7. Coral reefs, one of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, are under significant threat. It is estimated that 75% of the world's coral reefs are currently threatened, primarily due to climate change, pollution, and overfishing. 8. The illegal pet trade is a significant threat to many species. It is estimated that for every live animal captured for the pet trade, several die during capture or transport. 9. The IUCN Red List, a comprehensive inventory of the conservation status of species, currently includes more than 38,000 species, with approximately 28% of them classified as threatened with extinction.

The topic of endangered species holds immense importance for writing an essay due to several compelling reasons. Firstly, endangered species represent a vital component of the Earth's biodiversity, playing crucial roles in maintaining ecosystem balance and functioning. Exploring this topic allows us to understand the interconnectedness of species and their habitats, emphasizing the intricate web of life on our planet. Secondly, the issue of endangered species is a direct reflection of human impacts on the environment. It brings attention to the consequences of habitat destruction, climate change, pollution, and unsustainable practices. By studying this topic, we can delve into the root causes of species endangerment and contemplate the ethical and moral dimensions of our responsibility towards other living beings. Moreover, the plight of endangered species evokes strong emotional responses, prompting discussions on the intrinsic value of nature and our duty to conserve it for future generations. Writing about endangered species enables us to raise awareness, foster empathy, and advocate for sustainable practices and conservation initiatives.

1. Dudley, N., & Stolton, S. (Eds.). (2010). Arguments for protected areas: Multiple benefits for conservation and use. Earthscan. 2. Fearn, E., & Butler, C. D. (Eds.). (2019). Routledge handbook of eco-anxiety. Routledge. 3. Groombridge, B., & Jenkins, M. D. (2002). World atlas of biodiversity: Earth's living resources in the 21st century. University of California Press. 4. Hoekstra, J. M., Boucher, T. M., Ricketts, T. H., & Roberts, C. (2005). Confronting a biome crisis: Global disparities of habitat loss and protection. Ecology Letters, 8(1), 23-29. 5. Kiesecker, J. M., & Copeland, H. E. (Eds.). (2018). The biogeography of endangered species: Patterns and applications. Island Press. 6. Laurance, W. F., Sayer, J., & Cassman, K. G. (2014). Agricultural expansion and its impacts on tropical nature. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 29(2), 107-116. 7. Meffe, G. K., & Carroll, C. R. (Eds.). (1997). Principles of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates. 8. Primack, R. B. (2014). Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates. 9. Soulé, M. E., & Terborgh, J. (Eds.). (1999). Continental conservation: Scientific foundations of regional reserve networks. Island Press. 10. Wilson, E. O. (2016). Half-earth: Our planet's fight for life. Liveright Publishing.

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Collection  03 May 2022

Editor's choice: threatened species

Biodiversity is in crisis and according to some estimates tens of thousands of species disappear every year. Many others are on the verge of extinction. We can only halt this decline if we have a fundamental understanding of threatened species and are able to put in place effective conservation plans to guarantee their survival.

Following the IUCN Red List categories, this collection brings together some of the latest research on the biology and conservation efforts of a wide variety of threatened species from around the world.

Critically Endangered

State-space models reveal a continuing elephant poaching problem in most of Africa

• Scott Schlossberg
• Michael J. Chase
• Keith Lindsay

Enhanced, coordinated conservation efforts required to avoid extinction of critically endangered Eastern Pacific leatherback turtles

• The Laúd OPO Network

The conservation value of admixed phenotypes in a critically endangered species complex

• Keren R. Sadanandan
• Gabriel W. Low
• Frank E. Rheindt

Molecular phylogeny of one extinct and two critically endangered Central Asian sturgeon species (genus Pseudoscaphirhynchus ) based on their mitochondrial genomes

• Artem V. Nedoluzhko
• Fedor S. Sharko
• Nikolai S. Mugue

First use of artificial canopy bridge by the world’s most critically endangered primate the Hainan gibbon Nomascus hainanus

• Bosco Pui Lok Chan
• Yik Fui Philip Lo

Wild Bornean orangutans experience muscle catabolism during episodes of fruit scarcity

• Caitlin A. O’Connell
• Andrea L. DiGiorgio
• Erin R. Vogel

Chimpanzees balance resources and risk in an anthropogenic landscape of fear

• Elena Bersacola
• Catherine M. Hill
• Kimberley J. Hockings

Fine-scale genetic structure in the critically endangered red-fronted macaw in the absence of geographic and ecological barriers

• Guillermo Blanco
• Francisco Morinha
• José L. Tella

Mapping silver eel migration routes in the North Sea

• Pieterjan Verhelst
• Jan Reubens
• David Righton

Genome-wide SNPs redefines species boundaries and conservation units in the freshwater mussel genus Cyprogenia of North America

• Kyung Seok Kim
• Kevin J. Roe

Defining priority areas for blue whale conservation and investigating overlap with vessel traffic in Chilean Patagonia, using a fast-fitting movement model

• Luis Bedriñana-Romano
• Rodrigo Hucke-Gaete
• Daniel M. Palacios

High resolution biologging of breaching by the world’s second largest shark species

• Jessica L. Rudd
• Owen M. Exeter
• Lucy A. Hawkes

Deep genetic structure at a small spatial scale in the endangered land snail Xerocrassa montserratensis

• Cristina Català
• Vicenç Bros
• Marta Pascual

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Research Article

Too few, too late: U.S. Endangered Species Act undermined by inaction and inadequate funding

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, Columbia University, New York, New York, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliations Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America, Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America

Affiliations Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America, Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America

• Erich K. Eberhard, 
• David S. Wilcove, 
• Andrew P. Dobson

• Published: October 12, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322
• Reader Comments

This year, the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity will meet to finalize a post 2020-framework for biodiversity conservation, necessitating critical analysis of current barriers to conservation success. Here, we tackle one of the enduring puzzles about the U.S. Endangered Species Act, often considered a model for endangered species protection globally: Why have so few species been successfully recovered? For the period of 1992–2020, we analyzed trends in the population sizes of species of concern, trends in the time between when species are first petitioned for listing and when they actually receive protection, and trends in funding for the listing and recovery of imperiled species. We find that small population sizes at time of listing, coupled with delayed protection and insufficient funding, continue to undermine one of the world’s strongest laws for protecting biodiversity.

Citation: Eberhard EK, Wilcove DS, Dobson AP (2022) Too few, too late: U.S. Endangered Species Act undermined by inaction and inadequate funding. PLoS ONE 17(10): e0275322. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322

Editor: Laurentiu Rozylowicz, University of Bucharest, ROMANIA

Received: June 10, 2022; Accepted: September 14, 2022; Published: October 12, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Eberhard et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data are within the paper and Supporting Information files. The species data and appropriations data underlying the results presented in this study were collected from notices published by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service and annual budget legislation, all of which are publicly available through the Federal Registrar ( www.federalregistrar.gov ). The author's accessed FWS Notices through the Service's Environmental Conservation Online System (ECOS), which organizes documents by species name. This data base is also publicly accessible ( https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/ ).

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Accelerating rates of species extinction are a matter of global concern [ 1 ] as exemplified in the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) report that predicted the loss of over 1 million species in the foreseeable future, which will also have significant impacts on the delivery of ecosystem services [ 2 ]. The prevention of species extinction is a primary goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Sustainable Development Goals. In the United States, the strongest law to prevent species extinctions is the Endangered Species Act (ESA) [ 3 ], which has served as a model for other nations since its passage by the Nixon Administration in 1973. A longstanding concern of both supporters and opponents of the law has been the relatively low number of listed species that have successfully recovered to the point where they no longer need protection. In the 48 years since enactment of the ESA, only 54 US species have been declared fully recovered and delisted [ 4 ].

Multiple explanations have been given for this low rate of recovery including: (a) a pattern of not protecting species until their populations have reached very low levels, which increases both the time to recovery and the likelihood that species will vanish entirely due to environmental, genetic, and demographic stochasticity [ 5 ]; (b) a lack of incentives to landowners to participate actively in efforts to increase populations of endangered species [ 6 ]; and (c) inadequate funding for recovery actions [ 7 ]. Here, we have used data from the Federal Register to examine trends in the population sizes of species at time of listing and the levels of funding available to list and recover them.

Evidence that species are not being protected under the ESA until their populations have reached dangerously low levels was initially provided in a 1993 paper by Wilcove et al. [ 8 ]. The authors found that the median population size at time of listing during the second decade of ‘legal protection’ by the ESA (1985–1991) was just 1075 for vertebrates and 999 individuals for invertebrates. The median population size at listing for plant species was less than 120 individuals. We repeated their methodology to determine whether the US Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS) has become more proactive as we approach the 50 th anniversary of the ESA and roughly 30 years since attention was first drawn to this problem.

We also examined trends in the length of time between when a species is identified as potentially deserving of protection and when it actually receives that protection under the ESA (hereafter, “wait times”). It should be noted that, in recent years, most of the species added to the ESA have been the result of petitions from non-governmental entities to FWS requesting protection of a given species. Frequently, listing follows litigation brought by environmental organizations when petition decisions are overdue or petitions are denied [ 9 ].

Finally, we examined trends in funding for the listing and recovery of imperiled species (we use “imperiled” to include both Endangered and Threatened species protected under the ESA, and, unless indicated otherwise, we use the word “species” to refer to any entity protected under the ESA, including subspecies and vertebrate populations). We give particular attention to trends in funding per species , in order to account for changes in the number of species listed each year.

Materials and methods

The list of plants and animals granted protection under the ESA was collated from annual listing records available through the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Environmental Conservation Online System (ECOS). Population data were obtained from Final and Proposed Listing Notices issued by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Our analysis was restricted to wild populations of plants and animals known to occur in the United States and its territories and did not include captive populations.

When presented with a range of values, or an upper limit, for the total number of individuals or populations at time of listing, we favored interpretations that maximized population size. For example, if a population was said to be “between 500 and 1000” individuals, we recorded the population as being 1000 individuals at time of listing. Similarly, a population said to be “<1000” was recorded as being 999 individuals at time of listing. This was done in order to obtain the largest possible estimate of each plant and animal population at time of listing, making our subsequent analyses an optimistic “best case scenario”. Six species were listed with no known individuals or populations surviving in the wild. In these instances, the total number of individuals or total number of populations was recorded as being zero. Population data for plants and animals listed between 1985–1991 were obtained from Wilcove et al. in order to facilitate comparison with their results. We performed a non-parametric Wilcoxon Rank-sum Test to compare the medians of continuous variable x , the number of individuals at time of listing for species listed between 1985–1992, and continuous variable y , the number of individuals at time of listing for species listed between 1993–2020. The same approach was used to compare the median number of populations at time of listing for each time period. We adopted a significance threshold of p = 0.05.

Data for Resource Management Appropriations (discretionary funding that supports the management and recovery of imperiled species by FWS) and Section 4 Appropriations (funding allocated specifically to ESA listing activities) were obtained from the text of annual federal budget legislation and corrected for inflation to 2019 USD. These documents are publicly accessible through the Federal Registrar . Funding per species was defined as the average funding available for the management of each species in a given year. We calculated this value by dividing annual Resource Management Appropriations by the total number of species protected under the ESA as of the first day of that calendar year.

From 1992–2020, the FWS listed a total of 970 species for protection under the ESA; 68% of these listings were plants, 18% were invertebrates, and 14% were vertebrates. Full species accounted for the majority of listings during this period (80%). Of the species listed, 602 had data on their total population size (total number of individuals) at time of listing, and 843 had data on the number of populations at time of listing. For each taxonomic group analyzed, the total population size at time of listing ( Fig 1A ) did not differ significantly between the 1985–1991 and 1992–2020 time periods (Wilcox Test values of p = 0.08, p = 0.41, and p = 0.66, for plants, vertebrates and invertebrates respectively). For plants and invertebrates, the total number of populations at time of listing ( Fig 1B ) also did not differ significantly between the 1985–1991 and 1992–2020 time periods (p = 0.91 and p = 0.06, respectively). However, the median number of vertebrate populations at time of listing was slightly greater in the 1992–2020 time period, increasing from 2 to 4 populations (p = 0.04).

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(A) Comparison of population size at time of listing for plants and animals. There are no significant differences between the two periods (Wilcox Test values of p = 0.08, p = 0.41, and p = 0.66, for plants, vertebrates and invertebrates respectively). (B) Comparison of number of populations at time of listing. There are no significant differences between the two periods for plants and invertebrates. Values of zero indicate species for which there were either no known individuals or no known populations at time of listing. Median values shown above each plot.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.g001

Our analysis revealed longer wait times for species petitioned for listing during the 2000–2009 period (median = 9.1 years), compared to those petitioned for listing during the 1992–1999 period (median = 5.9 years), followed by shorter wait times for species petitioned for listing during the 2010–2020 period (median 3.0 years). The number of petitions received during each period also varied greatly ( n = 49, 203 and 26 for 1992–1999, 2000–2009 and 2010–2020, respectively). While wait times seem to decrease when fewer species are listed, there are insufficient data to test whether this effect is significant.

Resource Management Appropriations climbed modestly from 1996–2010 before beginning a decade-long decline that was halted only in 2020 ( Fig 2A ). The same trend is observed in Section 4 Appropriations, which peaked in 2010 at $25.9 million USD before dropping to $20.1 million USD by 2020. Concurrently, the number of species listed for protection under the ESA increased by over 300% between 1985–2020. As such, Resource Management Appropriations, when measured on a per species basis, have dropped by nearly 50% since 1985.

(A) Change in cumulative number of ESA listings compared to change in Resource Management Appropriations. The lower timeline illustrates political control of the Presidency and, by a majority, each house of Congress. (B) Number of species delisted for various reasons.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.g002

Our analysis of trends in the protection of imperiled species under the US Endangered Species Act warrants a limited amount of optimism and a larger amount of pessimism: Most species are not receiving protection until they have reached dangerously low population sizes. First reported in 1993, this pattern has persisted throughout the intervening quarter century. We suspect that most of the species listed since 1993 had fallen to low population levels well before the time span of our study, a reflection of past anthropogenic activities. Their protection under the ESA implies a painfully slow process of clearing a backlog of rare but unprotected species as opposed to a failure to respond to recent, rapid population declines in formerly more common species.

The wait-times between when a species is first petitioned for protection under the ESA and when it finally receives that protection have waxed and waned since 1992. The period with the longest median wait time (2000–2009, with a median wait-time of 9.1 years), was also the period when the greatest number of petitions were received by FWS ( n = 203). The period with the shortest median wait time (2010–2020 with a median wait-time of 3.0 years) was the period when the fewest number of petitions were received ( n = 26). This suggests that wait times may be exacerbated when limited resources for listing are strained by a large influx of petitions. Consistently, very few species have received protection in the two-year period that is prescribed in the ESA. For species with very small or rapidly declining populations, a multi-year delay in receiving protection increases the risk of extinction.

Our data suggest that inadequate funding has persisted for decades, with no clear relationship as to which political party is in power ( Fig 2A ). The unfortunate conclusion is that FWS is being asked to do more with less resources. The combination of delays in listing rare species, the typically mall population sizes of species at time of listing, and inadequate funding for recovery actions, are the key factors that can explain the relatively small number of listed species that have fully recovered ( Fig 2B ). Resource allocation frameworks and other decision-support tools can help FWS make the most efficient use of the funds it receives [ 10 ], but increased funding is essential for sustained, substantial progress in protecting imperiled species [ 11 , 12 ]. Studies have shown that government expenditures for imperiled species management do contribute to an improvement in recovery status and averted extinctions [ 13 ].

Although the US is one of only a handful of nations that have failed to ratify the Convention on Biological Diversity, its commitment to preventing the loss of its own “non-voting” species dates back nearly half a century to the passage of the ESA in 1973. In December 2022, when international leaders gather in Montréal, Canada for the 15 th meeting of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the failure of the US to have solved the funding gaps that hamper the ESA will stand as a stark reminder of the difference between a visionary promise and its functional implementation.

Supporting information

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275322.s001

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• 2. Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, (IPBES). Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. IPBES Secretariat. 2019. Available from: https://ipbes.net/global-assessment
• 3. United States. The Endangered Species Act, Public Law 93–205, Section 3. Washington D.C. 1973.

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Extinction and the U.S. Endangered Species Act

Noah greenwald.

1 Center for Biological Diversity, Portland, OR, USA

Kieran F. Suckling

2 Center for Biological Diversity, Tucson, AZ, USA

Brett Hartl

3 Center for Biological Diversity, Washington, DC, USA

Loyal A. Mehrhoff

4 Center for Biological Diversity, Honolulu, HI, USA

Associated Data

The following information was supplied regarding data availability:

The raw data are available in a Supplementary File and include a complete list of the species we identified as extinct or possibly extinct along with all supporting information.

The U.S. Endangered Species Act is one of the strongest laws of any nation for preventing species extinction, but quantifying the Act’s effectiveness has proven difficult. To provide one measure of effectiveness, we identified listed species that have gone extinct and used previously developed methods to update an estimate of the number of species extinctions prevented by the Act. To date, only four species have been confirmed extinct with another 22 possibly extinct following protection. Another 71 listed species are extinct or possibly extinct, but were last seen before protections were enacted, meaning the Act’s protections never had the opportunity to save these species. In contrast, a total of 39 species have been fully recovered, including 23 in the last 10 years. We estimate the Endangered Species Act has prevented the extinction of roughly 291 species since passage in 1973, and has to date saved more than 99% of species under its protection.

Introduction

Passed in 1973, the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) includes strong protections for listed threatened and endangered species and has helped stabilize and recover hundreds of listed species, such as the bald eagle and gray whale ( Taylor, Suckling & Rachlinski, 2005 ; Schwartz, 2008 ; Suckling et al., 2016 ). In part because of its strong protections, the ESA has engendered substantial opposition from industry lobby groups, who perceive the law as threatening their profits and have been effective in generating opposition to species protections among members of the U.S. Congress. One common refrain from opponents of the ESA in Congress and elsewhere is that the law is a failure because only 2% of listed species have been fully recovered and delisted ( Bishop, 2013 ).

The number of delistings, however, is a poor measure of the success of the ESA because most species have not been protected for sufficient time such that they would be expected to have recovered. Suckling et al. (2016) , for example, found that on average listed birds had been protected just 36 years, but their federal recovery plans estimated an average of 63 years for recovery. Short of recovery, a number of studies have found the ESA is effectively stabilizing or improving the status of species, using both biennial status assessments produced by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for Congress and abundance trends ( Male & Bean, 2005 ; Taylor, Suckling & Rachlinski, 2005 ; Gibbs & Currie, 2012 ; Suckling et al., 2016 ).

In addition to recovering species, one of the primary purposes of the ESA is to prevent species extinction. Previous studies indicate the ESA has been successful in this regard ( McMillan & Wilcove, 1994 ; Scott et al., 2006 ). As of 2008, the ESA was estimated to have prevented the extinction of at least 227 species and the number of species delisted due to recovery outnumbered the number of species delisted for extinction by 14–7 ( Scott et al., 2006 ). In this study, we identified all ESA listed species that are extinct or possibly extinct to quantify the number of species for which ESA protections have failed and use these figures to update the estimated number of species extinctions prevented. This is the first study in over 20 years to compile data on extinction of ESA listed species, providing an important measure of one of the world’s strongest conservation laws ( McMillan & Wilcove, 1994 ).

To identify extinct or possibly extinct ESA listed species, we examined the status of all 1,747 (species, subspecies and distinct population segments) U.S. listed or formerly listed species, excluding species delisted based on a change in taxonomy or new information showing the original listing to have been erroneous. We determined species to be extinct or possibly extinct based on not being observed for at least 10 years, the occurrence of adequate surveys of their habitat, and presence of threats, such as destruction of habitat of the last known location or presence of invasive species known to eliminate the species.

To differentiate extinct and possibly extinct species we relied on determinations by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, IUCN, species experts and other sources. In most cases, these determinations were qualitative rather quantitative. Species were considered extinct if surveys since the last observation were considered sufficient to conclude the species is highly likely to no longer exist, and possibly extinct if surveys were conducted after the last observation, but were not considered sufficient to conclude that extinction is highly likely ( Butchart, Stattersfield & Brooks, 2006 ; Scott et al., 2008 ).

Source information included 5-year reviews, listing rules and critical habitat designations by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (for aquatic and terrestrial species) or NOAA Fisheries (for marine species), published and gray literature, personal communication with species experts and classifications and accounts by NatureServe, IUCN and the Hawaiian Plant Extinction Prevention program. For each species, we identified year of listing, year last seen, NatureServe and IUCN ranking, taxonomic group, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service region. For species last seen after listing, we also searched for abundance estimates at time of listing in order to give a sense of likelihood of survival regardless of ESA protection.

Following previously developed methods, we estimated the number of species extinctions prevented by the ESA by assuming that listed threatened and endangered species have a comparable extinction risk to IUCN endangered species, which was estimated as an average of 67% over 100 years ( Mace, 1995 ; Schwartz, 1999 ; Scott et al., 2006 ). We believe this estimate of extinction risk is conservative based on similarity of IUCN criteria to factors considered in ESA listings, observed low numbers for species at time of ESA listing and observed correspondence between ESA listed species and species classified as endangered or critically endangered by the IUCN ( Wilcove, McMillan & Winston, 1993 ; Wilcove & Master, 2005 ; Harris et al., 2012 ). Presumed extinction risk was then multiplied by the number of extant listed species and the proportion of a century in which species were protected by the ESA. Previous studies used the length of time the ESA has been in existence (1973-present) for the proportion of a century species have been protected ( Schwartz, 1999 ; Scott et al., 2006 ), but because many species have not been protected the entire 45 years the law has existed, we instead used the more conservative average length species were protected (25 years). This corresponds to the following formula:

We identified a total of 97 ESA listed species that are extinct (23) or possibly extinct (74). Of these, we found 71 extinct (19) or possibly extinct (52) species were last observed before they were listed under the ESA and thus are not relevant to determining the Act’s success in preventing extinction ( Table S1 ). These species were last seen an average of 24 years before protection was granted with a range of one to more than 80 years prior.

A total of 26 species were last seen after listing, of which four are confirmed extinct and 22 are possibly extinct ( Table S2 ). On average, these species were last seen 13 years after listing with a range of 2–23 years. We were able to find an abundance estimate at the time of listing for 19 of these species, ranging from one individual to more than 2,000 with an average of 272. In several cases, these estimates were based on extrapolations from very few sightings.

The distribution of extinct and possibly extinct species was non-random with 64 of the 97 species from Hawaii and other Pacific Islands, followed by 18 from the southeast ( Fig. 1 ). This was also the case for taxonomy. A total of 40 of the 97 species were mollusks dominated by Hawaiian tree snails and southeast mussels, followed by birds (18) and plants (17) ( Fig. 2 ).

Extinct or possibly extinct listed species by taxonomic group.

Extinct or possibly extinct listed species by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region.

We identified several other species that have been missing for more than 10 years, but for which there has not been any effective surveys and thus classifying them as possibly extinct did not seem appropriate, including two Hawaiian yellow-faced bees ( Hylaeus facilis and Hylaeus hilaris ) (K. Magnacca, 2018, personal communication) and Fosberg’s love grass ( Eragrostis fosbergii ) ( U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011 ). If indeed extinct, all three were lost prior to protection under the ESA.

Including updated figures for number of listed species, time of protection and species extinctions, we estimate the ESA has prevented the extinction of roughly 291 species in its 45 year history. Based on the number of confirmed extinctions following listing, we further estimate that the ESA has to date prevented the extinction of more than 99% of species under its protection. To date, a total of 39 species have been delisted for recovery compared to four species that are extinct and 22 that are potentially extinct.

The few number of listed species that have gone extinct following protection combined with an estimated 291 species for which extinction was prevented demonstrate the ESA has achieved one of its core purposes—halting the loss of species. We will not attempt to catalog them here, but numerous individual examples provide further support for this conclusion. Well known species like the California condor ( Gymnogyps californianus ), black-footed ferret ( Mustela nigripes ) and Hawaiian monk seal ( Neomonachus schauinslandi ), as well as lesser known species like the yellowfin madtom ( Noturus flavipinnis ), are but a few of the species that likely would have been lost were it not for the ESA.

The madtom is a case in point. Wrongly presumed extinct when described in 1969, individual madtom were found in the Powell River in Tennessee and Copper Creek in Virginia and the species was protected under the ESA in 1977 ( U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1977 ). Following protection, federal and state officials worked with a non-governmental organization, Conservation Fisheries Inc., to discover additional populations and repatriate the species to rivers and streams in its historic range and there are now populations of the yellowfin madtom in three different watersheds ( U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012a ). The history of the ESA is replete with similar such stories.

The distribution of extinct or possibly extinct listed species largely tracks those regions with the highest rates of species endangerment, including Hawaii and the Northern Mariana Islands with 64 of the 97 extinctions or possible extinctions, and the Southeast with 18 of the extinctions or possible extinctions, mostly freshwater species. The fragility of Hawaii’s endemic fauna to introduced species and habitat destruction and high degree of species imperilment is well recognized ( Duffy & Kraus, 2006 ). Similarly, the extinction and endangerment of freshwater fauna in the southeast is well documented ( Benz & Collins, 1997 ). To avoid further extinctions, these areas should be priorities for increased funding and effort.

Protection under the ESA came too late for the 71 species last seen prior to listing. It’s possible that some of these species survived undetected following listing, but we find this unlikely for most if not all of the species. It is very difficult to document extinction, but all of the species were the subject of survey both before and after listing, which is described in the listing rules and subsequent status surveys. In addition, the 71 species were last seen an average of 24 years prior to listing, providing a long window for detection prior to listing. If some of these species did survive after listing it was likely at very low numbers, such that recovery would have been difficult at best.

That these 71 species were lost before protections were applied clearly highlights the need to move quickly to protect species. Indeed, Suckling, Slack & Nowicki (2004) identified 42 species that went extinct while under consideration for protection. Since that analysis was completed, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has determined five additional species did not qualify for protection because they were extinct, including the Tacoma pocket gopher ( Thomomys mazama tacomensis ), Tatum Cave beetle ( Pseudanophthalmus parvus ), Stephan’s riffle beetle ( Heterelmis stephani), beaverpond marstonia ( Marstonia castor ) and Ozark pyrg ( Marstonia ozarkensis ), meaning there are now 47 species that have gone extinct waiting for protection ( U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012b , 2016 , 2017 , 2018a ).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service currently faces a backlog of more than 500 species that have been determined to potentially warrant protection, but which await a decision ( U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2018b ). Under the ESA, decisions about protection for species are supposed to take 2 years, but on average it has taken the Fish and Wildlife Service 12 years ( Puckett, Kesler & Greenwald, 2016 ). Such lengthy wait times are certain to result in loss of further species and run counter to the purpose of the statute. This problem can be addressed by streamlining the Service’s process for listing species, which has become increasingly cumbersome, and by increasing funding for the listing program. For every species listed, the Service’s process includes review by upward of 20 people, including numerous individuals who have no specific knowledge of the species and in a number of cases are political appointees. We instead recommend that the Service adopt a process similar to scientific peer review, involving review by two to three qualified individuals.

The loss of 26 species after they were protected is indicative of conservation failure. This failure, however, in most cases cannot be wholly attributed to the ESA because most of these species were reduced to very low numbers by the time they were protected, making recovery difficult to impossible. Of the 19 species we could find an abundance estimate for at the time of listing, 13 had an estimated population fewer than 100 with eight having fewer than 10 individuals. Of the six other species, two Hawaiian birds, Oahu creeper ( Paroreomyza maculate ) and ‘O’u ( Psittirostra psittacea ) had estimated populations in the hundreds, but this was based on sightings of single individuals. Given the lack of further sightings and the presence of disease carrying mosquitoes throughout their habitat, these estimates were likely optimistic. The other four species, the dusky seaside sparrow ( Ammodramus maritimus nigrescens ), Morro Bay kangaroo rat ( Dipodomys heermanni morroensis ), pamakani ( Tetramolopium capillare ) and Curtis’ pearlymussel ( Epioblasma florentina curtisii ), had populations at the time of listing ranging from 100 to 3,000 individuals, but sufficient action was not taken to save them, making them true conservation failures.

At some level, all of the 97 ESA listed species that we identified as possibly extinct or extinct are conservation failures. For 42 of these species, the law itself was too late because they were last seen before the ESA was passed in 1973. But for others, there may have been time and we did not act quickly enough or dedicate sufficient resources to saving them. There are many examples of species both in the U.S. and internationally that have been successfully recovered even after dropping to very small numbers, but this can only occur with fast, effective action, resources and in many cases luck. The Mauritius kestrel ( Falco punctatus) , for example, was brought back from just two pairs ( Cade & Jones, 1993 ) and the Hawaiian plant extinction prevention program, which focuses on saving plants with fewer than 50 individuals, has rediscovered many species believed extinct, brought 177 species into cultivation, constructed fences to protect species from non-native predators and reintroduced many species into the wild ( Wood, 2012 , http://www.pepphi.org/ ).

The failure to provide sufficient resources for conservation of listed species, however, continues to the present. As many as 27 species of Oahu tree snail ( achatinella spp. ) are extinct or possibly extinct, yet expenditures for the species that still survive are inadequate to support minimal survey and captive propagation efforts. Likewise, the Hawaiian plant extinction prevention program, which has been so effective in saving species on the brink of extinction, is facing a budget cut of roughly 70% in 2019 ( http://www.pepphi.org/ ), which very likely could mean the extinction of dozens of plants that otherwise could be saved. Overall, Greenwald et al. (2016) estimate current recovery funding is roughly 3% of estimated recovery costs from federal recovery plans. We can save species from extinction, but it must be more of a priority for federal spending. Nevertheless, despite funding shortfalls and the tragedy of these species having gone extinct, the ESA has succeeded in preventing the extinction of the vast majority of listed species and in this regard is a success.

Management implications

Of the 97 species we identified as extinct or potentially extinct, only 11 have been delisted for extinction. Another 11 have been recommended for delisting due to extinction. The San Marcos gambusia ( Gambusia georgei ) could also be delisted since there is very little hope it survives. For the other 74 possibly extinct species, we recommend retaining protections in the hope that some will be rediscovered and because there is little cost in retaining listing.

Supplemental Information

Supplemental information 1.

Extinct or possibly extinct species broken out by whether last seen before or after protection was enacted, including relevant source data and literature cited.

Funding Statement

The authors received no funding for this work.

Additional Information and Declarations

All authors are employed by the Center for Biological Diversity which works to protect endangered species and their habitats.

Noah Greenwald conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft.

Kieran F. Suckling conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft.

Brett Hartl conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft.

Loyal A. Mehrhoff conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft.

Endangered Species

An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by extinction. Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic variation.

Biology, Ecology, Geography, Conservation

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An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by extinction . Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic variation . Loss of Habitat A loss of habitat can happen naturally. Nonavian dinosaurs , for instance, lost their habitat about 65 million years ago. The hot, dry climate of the Cretaceous period changed very quickly, most likely because of an asteroid striking Earth. The impact of the asteroid forced debris into the atmosphere , reducing the amount of heat and light that reached Earth’s surface. The dinosaurs were unable to adapt to this new, cooler habitat. Nonavian dinosaurs became endangered, then extinct . Human activity can also contribute to a loss of habitat. Development for housing, industry , and agriculture reduces the habitat of native organisms. This can happen in a number of different ways. Development can eliminate habitat and native species directly. In the Amazon rainforest of South America, developers have cleared hundreds of thousands of acres. To “clear” a piece of land is to remove all trees and vegetation from it. The Amazon rainforest is cleared for cattle ranches , logging , and ur ban use. Development can also endanger species indirectly. Some species, such as fig trees of the rainforest, may provide habitat for other species. As trees are destroyed, species that depend on that tree habitat may also become endangered. Tree crowns provide habitat in the canopy , or top layer, of a rainforest . Plants such as vines, fungi such as mushrooms, and insects such as butterflies live in the rainforest canopy. So do hundreds of species of tropical birds and mammals such as monkeys. As trees are cut down, this habitat is lost. Species have less room to live and reproduce . Loss of habitat may happen as development takes place in a species range . Many animals have a range of hundreds of square kilometers. The mountain lion ( Puma concolor ) of North America, for instance, has a range of up to 1,000 square kilometers (386 square miles). To successfully live and reproduce, a single mountain lion patrols this much territory. Urban areas , such as Los Angeles, California, U.S.A., and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, grew rapidly during the 20th century. As these areas expanded into the wilderness, the mountain lion’s habitat became smaller. That means the habitat can support fewer mountain lions. Because enormous parts of the Sierra Nevada, Rocky, and Cascade mountain ranges remain undeveloped, however, mountain lions are not endangered. Loss of habitat can also lead to increased encounters between wild species and people. As development brings people deeper into a species range, they may have more exposure to wild species. Poisonous plants and fungi may grow closer to homes and schools. Wild animals are also spotted more frequently . These animals are simply patrolling their range, but interaction with people can be deadly. Polar bears ( Ursus maritimus ), mountain lions, and alligators are all predators brought into close contact with people as they lose their habitat to homes, farms , and businesses. As people kill these wild animals, through pesticides , accidents such as collisions with cars, or hunting, native species may become endangered.

Loss of Genetic Variation Genetic variation is the diversity found within a species. It’s why human beings may have blond, red, brown, or black hair. Genetic variation allows species to adapt to changes in the environment. Usually, the greater the population of a species, the greater its genetic variation. Inbreeding is reproduction with close family members. Groups of species that have a tendency to inbreed usually have little genetic variation, because no new genetic information is introduced to the group. Disease is much more common, and much more deadly, among inbred groups. Inbred species do not have the genetic variation to develop resistance to the disease. For this reason, fewer offspring of inbred groups survive to maturity. Loss of genetic variation can occur naturally. Cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus ) are a threatened species native to Africa and Asia. These big cats have very little genetic variation. Biologists say that during the last Ice Age , cheetahs went through a long period of inbreeding. As a result, there are very few genetic differences between cheetahs. They cannot adapt to changes in the environment as quickly as other animals, and fewer cheetahs survive to maturity. Cheetahs are also much more difficult to breed in captivity than other big cats, such as lions ( Panthera leo ). Human activity can also lead to a loss of genetic variation. Overhunting and overfishing have reduced the populations of many animals. Reduced population means there are fewer breeding pairs . A breeding pair is made up of two mature members of the species that are not closely related and can produce healthy offspring. With fewer breeding pairs, genetic variation shrinks. Monoculture , the agricultural method of growing a single crop , can also reduce genetic variation. Modern agribusiness relies on monocultures. Almost all potatoes cultivated , sold, and consumed, for instance, are from a single species, the Russet Burbank ( Solanum tuberosum ). Potatoes, native to the Andes Mountains of South America, have dozens of natural varieties. The genetic variation of wild potatoes allows them to adapt to climate change and disease. For Russet Burbanks, however, farmers must use fertilizers and pesticides to ensure healthy crops because the plant has almost no genetic variation. Plant breeders often go back to wild varieties to collect genes that will help cultivated plants resist pests and drought, and adapt to climate change. However, climate change is also threatening wild varieties. That means domesticated plants may lose an important source of traits that help them overcome new threats. The Red List The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) keeps a “Red List of Threatened Species.” The Red List de fines the severity and specific causes of a species’ threat of extinction. The Red List has seven levels of conservation: least concern , near threatened , vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered , extinct in the wild , and extinct. Each category represents a different threat level. Species that are not threatened by extinction are placed within the first two categories—least concern and near-threatened. Those that are most threatened are placed within the next three categories, known as the threatened categories —vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered. Those species that are extinct in some form are placed within the last two categories—extinct in the wild and extinct. Classifying a species as endangered has to do with its range and habitat, as well as its actual population. For this reason, a species can be of least concern in one area and endangered in another. The gray whale ( Eschrichtius robustus ), for instance, has a healthy population in the eastern Pacific Ocean, along the coast of North and South America. The population in the western Pacific, however, is critically endangered.

Least Concern Least concern is the lowest level of conservation . A species of least concern is one that has a widespread and abundant population. Human beings are a species of least concern, along with most domestic animals , such as dogs ( Canis familiaris ) and cats ( Felis catus ). Many wild animals, such as pigeons and houseflies ( Musca domestica ), are also classified as least concern. Near Threatened A near threatened species is one that is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. Many species of violets , native to tropical jungles in South America and Africa, are near threatened, for instance. They have healthy populations, but their rainforest habitat is disappearing at a fast pace. People are cutting down huge areas of rainforest for development and timber . Many violet species are likely to become threatened. Vulnerable Species The definitions of the three threatened categories (vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered) are based on five criteria: population reduction rate , geographic range, population size, population restrictions , and probability of extinction . Threatened categories have different thresholds for these criteria. As the population and range of the species decreases, the species becomes more threatened. 1) Population reduction rate A species is classified as vulnerable if its population has declined between 30 and 50 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A generation is the period of time between the birth of an animal and the time it is able to reproduce. Mice are able to reproduce when they are about one month old. Mouse populations are mostly tracked over 10-year periods. An elephant's generation lasts about 15 years. So, elephant populations are measured over 45-year periods. A species is vulnerable if its population has declined at least 50 percent and the cause of the decline is known. Habitat loss is the leading known cause of population decline. A species is also classified as vulnerable if its population has declined at least 30 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. A new, unknown virus , for example, could kill hundreds or even thousands of individuals before being identified. 2) Geographic range A species is vulnerable if its “ extent of occurrence ” is estimated to be less than 20,000 square kilometers (7,722 square miles). An extent of occurrence is the smallest area that could contain all sites of a species’ population. If all members of a species could survive in a single area, the size of that area is the species’ extent of occurrence. A species is also classified as vulnerable if its “ area of occupancy ” is estimated to be less than 2,000 square kilometers (772 square miles). An area of occupancy is where a specific population of that species resides. This area is often a breeding or nesting site in a species range. 3) Population size Species with fewer than 10,000 mature individuals are vulnerable. The species is also vulnerable if that population declines by at least 10 percent within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer. 4) Population restrictions Population restriction is a combination of population and area of occupancy. A species is vulnerable if it is restricted to less than 1,000 mature individuals or an area of occupancy of less than 20 square kilometers (8 square miles). 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 10 percent within 100 years. Biologists, anthropologists, meteorologists , and other scientists have developed complex ways to determine a species’ probability of extinction. These formulas calculate the chances a species can survive, without human protection, in the wild. Vulnerable Species: Ethiopian Banana Frog The Ethiopian banana frog ( Afrixalus enseticola ) is a small frog native to high- altitude areas of southern Ethiopia. It is a vulnerable species because its area of occupancy is less than 2,000 square kilometers (772 square miles). The extent and quality of its forest habitat are in decline. Threats to this habitat include forest clearance, mostly for housing and agriculture. Vulnerable Species: Snaggletooth Shark The snaggletooth shark ( Hemipristis elongatus ) is found in the tropical, coastal waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Its area of occupancy is enormous, from Southeast Africa to the Philippines, and from China to Australia. However, the snaggletooth shark is a vulnerable species because of a severe population reduction rate. Its population has fallen more than 10 percent over 10 years. The number of these sharks is declining due to fisheries, especially in the Java Sea and Gulf of Thailand. The snaggletooth shark’s flesh, fins, and liver are considered high-quality foods. They are sold in commercial fish markets, as well as restaurants. Vulnerable Species: Galapagos Kelp Galapagos kelp ( Eisenia galapagensis ) is a type of seaweed only found near the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. Galapagos kelp is classified as vulnerable because its population has declined more than 10 percent over 10 years. Climate change is the leading cause of decline among Galapagos kelp. El Niño, the natural weather pattern that brings unusually warm water to the Galapagos, is the leading agent of climate change in this area. Galapagos kelp is a cold-water species and does not adapt quickly to changes in water temperature.

Endangered Species 1) Population reduction rate A species is classified as endangered when its population has declined between 50 and 70 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A species is classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 70 percent and the cause of the decline is known. A species is also classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 50 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. 2) Geographic range An endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 square kilometers (1,930 square miles). An endangered species’ area of occupancy is less than 500 square kilometers (193 square miles). 3) Population size A species is classified as endangered when there are fewer than 2,500 mature individuals. When a species population declines by at least 20 percent within five years or two generations, it is also classified as endangered. 4) Population restrictions A species is classified as endangered when its population is restricted to less than 250 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is not considered. 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 percent within 20 years or five generations, whichever is longer.

Endangered Species: Scimitar -horned Oryx The scimitar-horned oryx ( Oryx dammah ) is a species of antelope with long horns. Its range extends across northern Africa. Previously, the scimitar-horned oryx was listed as extinct in the wild because the last confirmed sighting of one was in 1988. However, the first group of scimitar-horned oryx was released back into the wild in Chad, in August 2016, and the population is growing. Overhunting and habitat loss, including competition with domestic livestock , are the main reasons for the decline of the oryx’s wild population. Captive herds are now kept in protected areas of Tunisia, Senegal, and Morocco. Scimitar-horned oryxes are also found in many zoos . Critically Endangered Species 1) Population reduction rate A critically endangered species’ population has declined between 80 and 90 percent. This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species, whichever is longer. A species is classified as critically endangered when its population has declined at least 90 percent and the cause of the decline is known. A species is also classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 80 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. 2) Geographic range A critically endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). A critically endangered species’ area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 10 square kilometers (4 square miles). 3) Population size A species is classified as critically endangered when there are fewer than 250 mature individuals. A species is also classified as critically endangered when the number of mature individuals declines by at least 25 percent within three years or one generation, whichever is longer. 4) Population restrictions A species is classified as critically endangered when its population is restricted to less than 50 mature individuals. When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is not considered. 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 percent within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer. Critically Endangered Species: Bolivian Chinchilla Rat The Bolivian chinchilla rat ( Abrocoma boliviensis ) is a rodent found in a small section of the Santa Cruz region of Bolivia. It is critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). The major threat to this species is loss of its cloud forest habitat. People are clearing forests to create cattle pastures .

Critically Endangered Species: Transcaucasian Racerunner The Transcaucasian racerunner ( Eremias pleskei ) is a lizard found on the Armenian Plateau , located in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Turkey. The Transcaucasian racerunner is a critically endangered species because of a huge population decline, estimated at more than 80 percent during the past 10 years. Threats to this species include the salination , or increased saltiness, of soil . Fertilizers used for agricultural development seep into the soil, increasing its saltiness. Racerunners live in and among the rocks and soil, and cannot adapt to the increased salt in their food and shelter. The racerunner is also losing habitat as people create trash dumps on their area of occupancy. Critically Endangered Species: White Ferula Mushroom The white ferula mushroom ( Pleurotus nebrodensis ) is a critically endangered species of fungus. The mushroom is critically endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 100 square kilometers (39 square miles). It is only found in the northern part of the Italian island of Sicily, in the Mediterranean Sea. The leading threats to white ferula mushrooms are loss of habitat and overharvesting. White ferula mushrooms are a gourmet food item. Farmers and amateur mushroom hunters harvest the fungus for food and profit. The mushrooms can be sold for up to $100 per kilogram (2.2 pounds). Extinct in the Wild A species is extinct in the wild when it only survives in cultivation (plants), in captivity (animals), or as a population well outside its established range. A species may be listed as extinct in the wild only after years of surveys have failed to record an individual in its native or expected habitat.

Extinct in the Wild: Monut Kaala Cyanea The Mount Kaala cyanea ( Cyanea superba ) is a large, flowering tree native to the island of Oahu, in the U.S. state of Hawai‘i. The Mount Kaala cyanea has large, broad leaves and fleshy fruit. The tree is extinct in the wild largely because of invasive species. Non-native plants crowded the cyanea out of its habitat, and non-native animals such as pigs, rats, and slugs ate its fruit more quickly than it could reproduce. Mount Kaala cyanea trees survive in tropical nurseries and botanical gardens . Many botanists and conservationists look forward to establishing a new population in the wild. Extinct A species is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last remaining individual of that species has died. Extinct: Cuban Macaw The Cuban macaw ( Ara tricolor ) was a tropical parrot native to Cuba and a small Cuban island, Isla de la Juventud. Hunting and collecting the birds for pets led to the bird’s extinction. The last specimen of the Cuban macaw was collected in 1864. Extinct: Ridley’s Stick Insect Ridley’s stick insect ( Pseudobactricia ridleyi ) was native to the tropical jungle of the island of Singapore. This insect, whose long, segmented body resembled a tree limb, is only known through a single specimen, collected more than 100 years ago. During the 20th century, Singapore experienced rapid development. Almost the entire jungle was cleared, depriving the insect of its habitat.

Endangered Species and People When a species is classified as endangered, governments and international organizations can work to protect it. Laws may limit hunting and destruction of the species’ habitat. Individuals and organizations that break these laws may face huge fines. Because of such actions, many species have recovered from their endangered status. The brown pelican ( Pelecanus occidentalis ) was taken off the endangered species list in 2009, for instance. This seabird is native to the coasts of North America and South America, as well as the islands of the Caribbean Sea. It is the state bird of the U.S. state of Louisiana. In 1970, the number of brown pelicans in the wild was estimated at 10,000. The bird was classified as vulnerable. During the 1970s and 1980s, governments and conservation groups worked to help the brown pelican recover. Young chicks were reared in hatching sites, then released into the wild. Human access to nesting sites was severely restricted. The pesticide DDT , which damaged the eggs of the brown pelican, was banned. During the 1980s, the number of brown pelicans soared. In 1988, the IUCN “delisted” the brown pelican. The bird, whose population is now in the hundreds of thousands, is now in the category of least concern.

Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty to sustain and protect the diversity of life on Earth. This includes conservation, sustainability, and sharing the benefits of genetic research and resources. The Convention on Biological Diversity has adopted the IUCN Red List of endangered species in order to monitor and research species' population and habitats. Three nations have not ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity: Andorra, the Holy See (Vatican), and the United States.

Lonesome George Lonesome George was the only living member of the Pinta Island tortoise ( Chelonoidis abingdoni ) known to exist. The Pinta Island tortoise was only found on Pinta, one of the Galapagos Islands. The Charles Darwin Research Station, a scientific facility in the Galapagos, offered a $10,000 reward to any zoo or individual for locating a single Pinta Island tortoise female. On June 25, 2012, Lonesome George died, leaving one more extinct species in the world.

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Research Topics About Endangered Species

• Environmental Attitudes, Motivations, and the Conditional Evaluation of Nonuse Values: Endangered Species
• Permanent Land Use and the Survival of Endangered Species
• Service Providing Units, Existence Values, and the Assessment of Endangered Species
• Closing the Stable Door: Construction Restrictions for Endangered Species
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• How Trophy Hunting Benefits Numerous Endangered Species
• Water Security for Agriculture and Instream Flows for Endangered Species
• Conservation of Endangered Species: Cultural, Economic, and Political Constraints
• Integrating Land Cover Modelling and Adaptive Management to Conserve Endangered Species and Reduce Fire Hazard
• Funding and Assistance for Those Charged with Protecting Endangered Species
• Strategies for Improving the Cost-Effectiveness of the Management of Endangered Species
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and Elephant Ivory
• General Information Regarding the Endangered Species Act in the United States
• Threatened Species and the Natural World: Human Moral Obligations
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• Optimal Compensation for Endangered Species Protection in the Presence of Asymmetric Information

Endangered Species Essay Titles

• Economic Development and Endangered and Threatened Species
• The Bald Eagle and Biodiversity and Endangered Species
• Takings, Compensation, and Protection of Endangered Species on Private Lands
• Financial Concerns and Endangered Species Conservation
• Strategies for Interspecies Management and Land Use to Protect Endangered Species
• The Effects of Human Overpopulation on Endangered Species
• External Factors Contributing to the Endangerment of Species
• Habitat Destruction Before Endangered Species Act Listing
• Endangered Species: Keystone Legislation or Money Spent
• What Are the Differences between Threatened and Endangered Species?
• Charismatic Megafauna: the Influence of These Species on the Endangered Species Act
• Critically Endangered Black Rhino Species
• Allocating Conservation Resources According to the Endangered Species Act
• Other Forms of Public Policy Involved with the Clean Water Act and Endangered Species Involve Horizontal Implementation, Divided Government, and Others
• Animal Cloning and the Rescue of Endangered Species
• Habitat Conservation Plan: Threatened Species, Biological Diversity, and Environmental Issues
• Regulation of City Growth as a Means of Protecting Endangered Species.
• Evidence from Timber Harvests Near Woodpeckers of Perverse Incentives in the Endangered Species Act and Safe Harbours
• Rights of Animals and Endangered Species
• Political, Economic, and Cultural Restraints on the Application of Ecology to the Conservation of Endangered Species

Essay Topics on Employment Law

Criterion-referenced assessment: everything you need to know.

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Endangered Species Controversial Topics for Students

Today, more and more animal species are on the brink of extinction. Human violence against animals, “teamed up” with the unpredictable changes of the natural environment, continues to endanger animals, including rare animal types. This is what gave rise to the many endangered species controversial topics that students must study and understand! Brace yourself for a refined selection of relevant topics from EssayShark.

Endangered species controversial topics for essays

• The reasons why endangered species need protection.
• The threat that African endangered species are subjected to.
• The global conservation of endangered species.
• How endangered species are supported by governments.
• The critical importance of raising proper awareness of endangered species protection.
• The legal projects aimed at greening African deserts for protecting endangered species.
• How legislation regulated the genetic status of the Killarney shad.
• The anthropogenic effects on mistreated elephants residing in tropical forests.
• The illegal holding of animals in different parts of the world and how it is reduced by the legislation of these countries.
• Why the Indonesian government should exert more control for regulating the export of shark fins.
• The history of animal rights: how people began to change their attitude towards the animal extinction problem.
• The main causes of the problem of endangered species.
• The shortcomings of the regulation of animal violence in the most progressive countries of the world.
• The challenges of protecting endangered species in African countries.
• The preconditions of developing the Endangered Species Act.
• How the Endangered Species Act helps to prevent violence against animals and preserve their safety.
• The modern techniques of safeguarding animal habitats subject to human violence.
• How animals are kept safe in European countries and why Europe implements many dubious acts towards animal protection.
• Why governments should review the legislation behind the penalties for human rights violations.
• How US federal law protects honey bees.

Endangered species topics for research papers

• The evolution of animal rights protection throughout the past half of the century.
• The downsides to the laws limiting the extinction of turtles.
• The biodiversity of endangered species and why it’s under bigger threat than it was a couple of decades ago.
• The prospects of the improvement and modernization of the Endangered Species Act.
• The management plan of enhancing the rights protection of endangered species.
• Environmental policies implemented in North America and why they need a total overhaul.
• Why fishing should be reduced to some extent with the aim of safeguarding endangered aquatic organisms.
• The current challenges of passing the laws required to manage the uncontrollable animal violence.
• The problems of the ecosystems where endangered species live.
• The role of activist organizations in reducing animal extinction.
• The pitfalls that activist organizations face when handling the problem of endangered animals.

Writing a paper on endangered animals is easy!

Animal extinction remains one of the biggest controversies of the modern world. The human factor is one of the main causes of this global problem and draws tons of fierce attention from governments, non-profit charity organizations, and other activist parties that care for endangered animals. This huge controversy sparked the emergence of compelling endangered special controversial topics – surveying this problem through academic writing can largely help in overcoming this severe social and environmental malady! Here are several tips on how to choose a thought-provoking topic:

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Is the Endangered Species Act Endangering Species?

We develop theory and present a suite of theoretically consistent empirical measures to explore the extent to which market intervention inadvertently alters resource allocation in a sequentialmove principal/agent game. We showcase our approach empirically by exploring the extent to which the U.S. Endangered Species Act has altered land development patterns. We report evidence indicating significant acceleration of development directly after each of several events deemed likely to raise fears among owners of habitat land. Our preferred estimate suggests an overall acceleration of land development by roughly one year. We also find from complementary hedonic regression models that habitat parcels declined in value when the habitat map was published, which is consistent with our estimates of the degree of preemption. These results have clear implications for policymakers, who continue to discuss alternative regulatory frameworks for species preservation. More generally, our modeling strategies can be widely applied -- from any particular economic environment that has a sequential-move nature to the narrower case of the political economy of regulation.

Correspondence to: John A. List, Professor, The University of Chicago, Department of Economics 1126 East 59th Street, Chicago, IL 60636; email: [email protected] Draft for discussion purposes only; these results are quite preliminary. Margolis: Escuela de Economia, Universidad de Guanajuato. Osgood: IRICP, The Earth Institute at Columbia University. Thanks are due to Amy Ando, Spencer Banzhaf, Dean Lueck, Robert Innes, Marc Nerlove, Steven Polasky, and David Wilcove for helpful comments, and to Alan Isaak and the American University Gauss archives for code to perform probit and logit estimations. Seminar participants at Harvard University, Princeton University, Resources for the Future, University of Texas-Austin, University of California-Berkeley, the NBER Summer Institute, and the 2005 ASSA meetings also provided useful comments. The views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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The conservation implications of the gut microbiome for protecting the critically endangered gray snub-nosed monkey ( rhinopithecus brelichi ).

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Guo, Y.; Garber, P.A.; Yang, Y.; Wang, S.; Zhou, J. The Conservation Implications of the Gut Microbiome for Protecting the Critically Endangered Gray Snub-Nosed Monkey ( Rhinopithecus brelichi ). Animals 2024 , 14 , 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131917

Guo Y, Garber PA, Yang Y, Wang S, Zhou J. The Conservation Implications of the Gut Microbiome for Protecting the Critically Endangered Gray Snub-Nosed Monkey ( Rhinopithecus brelichi ). Animals . 2024; 14(13):1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131917

Guo, Yanqing, Paul A. Garber, Yijun Yang, Siwei Wang, and Jiang Zhou. 2024. "The Conservation Implications of the Gut Microbiome for Protecting the Critically Endangered Gray Snub-Nosed Monkey ( Rhinopithecus brelichi )" Animals 14, no. 13: 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14131917

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What defines a species? Inside the fierce debate that's rocking biology to its core

The question of what defines a species has vexed scientists across the ages, particularly in conservation, where decisions require a firm understanding of biodiversity.

In 2016, scientists published a paper with a bold claim: that the giraffe, first described as a species by Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758, might actually have been four species all along . Unlike Linneaus, the researchers had access to modern genetic tools, which revealed that giraffes fall into distinct clusters based on differences in their DNA, some of which are "larger than the differences between brown bears and polar bears," the authors said at the time . 

The news sent ripples through the giraffe conservation community, which suddenly needed to protect four species instead of one. But from the start, there was disagreement about this new classification, and even today, the International Union for Conservation of Nature — an organization that oversees the listing of threatened and endangered species — lists the giraffe as a single species , Giraffa camelopardalis , with nine subspecies.

The dustup and others like it highlight the "species problem," a fundamental uncertainty over how we parse organisms, and it continues to rile biologists the world over.

Arguments often hinge on decades-old definitions. In 1942, biologist Ernst Mayr coined what is perhaps the most enduring one : the biological species concept, which labels two organisms as different species if they cannot reproduce and create fertile offspring. Researchers have since established definitions on the basis of shared ancestry (the phylogenetic species concept), physical features (the morphological species concept), or shared ecology (the ecological species concept), wherein species diverge as they take over different niches in their environment. In all, there are at least 16 species definitions , and potentially as many as 32 , circulating among scientists today.

No definition seems to be without exception, however. There are species in which individuals look very different from one another, as well as "cryptic species" that appear identical but are genetically distinct. Hybridization is also common, leading to animals like the liger (a lion-tiger hybrid) and the beefalo (a cross between domestic cattle and the American bison). Evidence even suggests that humans once bred with two other ancient hominins that are usually considered separate species, the Neanderthals and the Denisovans , suggesting they might not have been so different from us after all .

Related: 'More Neanderthal than human': How your health may depend on DNA from our long-lost ancestors

"Some of the rules that we set don't work, and it gets quite messy sometimes," Jordan Casey , a marine molecular ecologist at the University of Texas at Austin Marine Science Institute, told Live Science. "Humans inherently want to put order on things, and even I have to make a lot of decisions about whether I'm just seeing diversity between individuals or trying to bend things needlessly into different species."

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But pinning down the definition of a species isn't just an academic exercise — many of the world's conservation policies are structured around species as the de facto unit of conservation. Ultimately, it poses more existential questions as well. If there are four species of giraffe, after all, does it really matter if one goes extinct? 

To answer these questions, groups are now coming together to establish guidelines for how species should be named and ordered across the tree of life and how to handle disputes when they arise. Indeed, coming up with a working list of agreed-upon rules is crucial, even if it's not perfect, biologists say.

"It gets quite messy"

The concept of a species is an ancient one. In 343 B.C., for instance, Aristotle wrote "History of Animals," in which he described differences between individual animals as well as between groups.

But it wasn't until the mid-1700s that the concept of taxonomy — the formal classification of living things — truly took off and was turned into an official discipline by Linnaeus. Taxonomy blossomed for a time as scientists across the globe began naming new species, but as the field and related ones advanced, conflicts inevitably emerged.

Scientists have officially described around 2 million species, and others are constantly being added or reclassified based on new evidence. Even for large, seemingly well-studied animals, adjustments are fairly common, and iconic animals like the giraffe, African elephant and orca have come under review.

The problem is that scientists can't agree on a universal definition that can classify organisms as diverse and dissimilar as mammals, birds, fish, plants and bacteria. Still others argue whether such an exercise is even useful, noting that scientists have carried on in the absence of consensus for centuries and will still need to do so as the world's creatures are lost at a staggering rate.

"We're losing things before we even have a name on them, and so we absolutely need to keep pushing in order to advance our conservation goals," Terry Gosliner , an evolutionary biologist and taxonomist at the California Academy of Sciences who has discovered thousands of species over his decades-long career, told Live Science. "But in some cases, we also need to set aside the question of what a species is in order to move forward in meaningful ways."

Today's scientists are tackling the species problem in different ways. Some are attempting to reconcile existing definitions with modern methods, such as by rebranding Mayr's biological species concept as the genetic species concept , which still suggests an inability to reproduce but links the mechanism specifically to genetic incompatibility. 

There are many concepts in science that lack a unified meaning, and we still manage just fine in that space of uncertainty. Yuichi Amitani, University of Aizu

Others continue to develop new ideas. Jeannette Whitton , an evolutionary biologist at the University of British Columbia, codeveloped the retrospective reproductive community concept . Rather than adopting a strict definition, this concept encourages scientists to embrace uncertainty and acknowledge that speciation is a continuous process — that organisms we observe today were shaped by past forces. 

Taking this holistic view, which incorporates facets of several existing definitions, means that scientists can still make predictions or explain natural phenomena even in the absence of a clear definition. Whitton told Live Science it took her and a colleague seven years to settle on the final language, in part because of how challenging it was to reconcile their own conflicting ideas. 

Still others have argued for setting the species problem aside, noting that the question itself might be a distraction. Yuichi Amitani , a senior associate professor of biology at the University of Aizu in Japan, noted in 2022 that scientists' fears that a lack of consensus would lead to communication breakdowns and make it impossible to compare research have not come to pass. 

"There are many concepts in science that lack a unified meaning, and we still manage just fine in that space of uncertainty," he told Live Science, adding that there seems to be something about the idea of a species "that excites such a strong emotional reaction."

Confronting "taxonomy anarchy"

In many ways, conservation is where those emotions boil over, with fierce debates playing out in the scientific literature. In 2017, Leslie Christidis , a taxonomist at Southern Cross University in Australia, argued in a paper that biology's ongoing explosion of newly described species — what he dubbed "taxonomy anarchy" — was making it challenging for conservationists to direct resources or rally support.

Christidis told Live Science that this idea was indeed contentious, prompting more than 180 scientists to cosign a public rebuke . But Christidis insists he never meant to suggest that taxonomy has no place in conservation. Instead, he said, he was advocating for a unified framework for naming new species and managing disputes. 

Indeed, as scientists develop more sophisticated tools that combine taxonomy with genomics, tagging studies, modeling and even machine learning, it's clear that the optimal solution likely isn't a one-size-fits-all definition.

It's not even true that probing for new species inevitably leads to more species. When Thomas Near , an evolutionary biologist at Yale University, investigates the evolutionary histories of fish, he often finds that separate species, including several popular sport fish , are in fact the same. 

"We have to let the science lead us where it will, and that's not always necessarily to more species," Near told Live Science.

— AI is rapidly identifying new species. Can we trust the results?

— What is a species?

— 6 species that scientists got wrong

— 20 of the best named animal species on Earth, from Boops boop to Agra vation

Working groups are now attempting to establish new guidelines. The Catalogue of Life , for example, is developing rules for naming within each kingdom of life, while other groups are carving out even smaller pieces of the puzzle. The World Register of Marine Species is tracking marine species, while the Cat Specialist Group is reassessing the taxonomy of the world's felids. 

Christidis is leading an effort to merge three existing lists of bird species and hopes to release a report later this year. After a controversial 2016 paper doubled the number of bird species based on a new definition, the field was clearly due for a reckoning, he said. Fortunately, the group's efforts are revealing that "it is often possible to reach consensus — if not universal agreement — once all of the evidence has been presented," he said. From there, it's easier to make judgments on which species are most in need of protection. 

"As scientists, we all want to protect our biodiversity," Christidis said, "and I think starting from that shared ground has helped tremendously."

Amanda Heidt is a Utah-based freelance journalist and editor with an omnivorous appetite for anything science, from ecology and biotech to health and history. Her work has appeared in Nature, Science and National Geographic, among other publications, and she was previously an associate editor at The Scientist. Amanda currently serves on the board for the National Association of Science Writers and graduated from Moss Landing Marine Laboratories with a master's degree in marine science and from the University of California, Santa Cruz, with a master's degree in science communication.

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What Killed the Last Woolly Mammoths? Scientists Say It Wasn’t Inbreeding

New research suggests some catastrophic event—such as a natural disaster or a virus—killed the world’s last known population of mammoths on Wrangel Island

Daily Correspondent

Roughly 10,000 years ago, a small group of woolly mammoths found themselves stuck on an island off the coast of Siberia. While their mainland peers disappeared, this isolated herd multiplied. They became the only surviving members of their species and thrived for around 6,000 years—until they, too, died out.

But what killed the last known population of woolly mammoths? Some have previously speculated that inbreeding snuffed out the Wrangel Island colony. But new research suggests otherwise.

The Wrangel Island mammoths did have low genetic diversity—and individual creatures suffered from genetic diseases—but that’s not what killed them, according to a new paper published Thursday in the journal Cell .

“We can show that, in all likelihood, inbreeding and genetic diseases did not cause the population to gradually decline towards extinction,” says study co-author Love Dalén , an evolutionary geneticist at the Center for Paleogenetics, a collaboration between Stockholm University and the Swedish Museum of Natural History, to New Scientist ’s James Woodford. “The population was doing OK despite the inbreeding.”

Scientists reached this conclusion by analyzing ancient DNA. The team studied the genomes of 14 individuals that lived on Wrangel Island between 4,333 and 9,219 years ago. Then, they compared those to the genomes of seven mammoths that lived on mainland Siberia until 12,158 years ago. Collectively, the 21 genomes gave them insights into approximately 50,000 years of genetic history.

While they found that the island-dwelling mammoths acquired some minor genetic mutations, any anomalies that would have caused major problems were gradually eliminated from the population. These mutations, as a result, could not have caused the species to go extinct, the researchers say. Most likely, that’s because the affected individuals didn’t—or couldn’t—reproduce.

Even with mutations from inbreeding off the table, researchers can’t pinpoint exactly what killed the Wrangel Island mammoths. Humans likely weren’t responsible, as they didn’t arrive on the island until 400 years later. But the team suggests the creatures died in an unlucky incident—perhaps because of a novel virus or natural disaster, like an Arctic volcano eruption or a tundra fire.

“It was probably just some random event that killed them off, and if that random event hadn’t happened, then we would still have mammoths today,” Dalén says in a statement .

Woolly mammoths once roamed throughout North America, Europe and Asia. But around 15,000 years ago, these behemoth creatures began to vanish—because of human hunting and habitat loss due to natural climate changes—until all that remained were a few small herds living on islands.

One group ended up on Wrangel Island, a landmass about the size of Delaware that got cut off from mainland Siberia by rising sea levels caused by melting glaciers.

Their isolation ended up being a blessing in disguise. Wrangel Island had no predators—including humans—and no other grazing animals, which gave the woolly mammoths carte blanche to munch and reproduce freely. Within just 20 generations, the colony ballooned from eight breeding individuals to between 200 and 300 mammoths.

“Wrangel Island was a golden place to live,” Dalén tells the New York Times ’ Carl Zimmer.

But island life was not all good. Without access to other herds, the isolated woolly mammoths were inbreeding. Their low genetic diversity meant individual mammoths probably suffered from inherited diseases. Since no predators inhabited the island with them, they were able to survive in spite of their poor health—until whatever cataclysmic event took place that eventually killed them.

“Based on our results, the extinction must have happened rapidly,” the study’s co-authors write for the Conversation .

Not everyone is convinced by the findings. Even minor genetic mutations could have made the woolly mammoths less resilient in the face of other threats, like climate change or disease. So, it’s still possible that inbreeding contributed to their demise.

“It is really good evidence against the [genetic] meltdown model, but it doesn’t completely exclude that model,” says Vincent Lynch , an evolutionary biologist at the University at Buffalo who was not involved with the research, to Science News ’ Claire Yuan.

More broadly, however, the findings could be useful for modern-day conservationists as they try to save endangered or vulnerable species facing extinction. When considering how to help populations rebound, they should make genetic diversity a top priority, according to the researchers.

“Mammoths are an excellent system for understanding the ongoing biodiversity crisis and what happens from a genetic point of view when a species goes through a population bottleneck,” says study co-author Marianne Dehasque , also an evolutionary geneticist at the Center for Paleogenetics, in the statement.

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Sarah Kuta is a writer and editor based in Longmont, Colorado. She covers history, science, travel, food and beverage, sustainability, economics and other topics.

SPH Snapshot: Summer Send-off

Income, Urbanicity Influence Perceptions of Factors that Shape Health

A clear path through murky waters: alum finds meaningful career studying water contamination ..

Beth Haley (SPH’24) during an early attempt at foraging for mushrooms in Oregon. During this trip, she learned these mushrooms were not edible, which she happily figured out before tasting them.

A Clear Path through Murky Waters: Alum Finds Meaningful Career Studying Water Contamination

Beth Haley’s PhD dissertation in environmental health linked sewage overflows with illness in Massachusetts and now her current post-doctoral research with the Environmental Protection Agency aims to tackle water quality in Pacific coastal areas.

Megan jones.

Upon finishing her PhD in environmental health at the School of Public Health, Beth Haley (SPH’24) moved to Oregon, drawn, she says, to the vast natural landscapes more commonly found out West. As a post-doctoral researcher with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Haley aims to tackle threats to water quality specific to the Pacific Northwest.

“There are a lot of intact ecosystems here and the connection is, in some ways, even stronger between human communities and natural communities,” says Haley, whose dissertation work at SPH laid the foundation for her growing expertise at the intersection of water and public health. Haley and her advisor Wendy Heiger-Bernays , clinical professor of environmental health, recently published the results of a study Haley led linking overflows of sewage systems that combine wastewater and stormwater drainage with gastrointestinal illness in communities along the Merrimack River in Massachusetts.

Haley grew up on the North Shore of Massachusetts, earned her bachelor’s degree in conservation biology from Boston University, then lived in Colorado and New Mexico for eight years. She held several research positions that enabled her to explore her interest in ecology before she pivoted to working full-time for a TEDx program in Albuquerque, N.M. There, she found herself most inspired by the speakers whose work applied science in service of communities, she says.

“There are a lot of issues in ecology and conservation where there is an ethical gray area, where there are a lot of complicating factors and it can be difficult to discern right and wrong,” says Haley, who, in the years after college, found herself reevaluating her relationship with her field. For example, a traditional Western approach to conservation of endangered species often advocates for reducing the human footprint on an animal’s environment, such as by restricting hunting, she says. However, indigenous people have frequently coexisted with wildlife in these habits for generations, employing their own methods of land stewardship. Determined to serve both natural ecosystems and human communities in her career, Haley found that the sustainable management of water in support of human and non-human communities offered greater clarity.

“Water quality and access to water are issues where I feel there is no gray area,” she says. “It is very ethically black and white, and from an ecological standpoint, clean water used to be much more readily accessible before anthropogenic changes to land use and pollution. When an ecosystem has a lot of integrity, the water in rivers and lakes is generally quite clean.”

Bolstered by her belief that access to clean water is a human right, Haley sought a program of advanced study that would integrate her passions for ecology, human health, water quality, and climate change.  “The Boston University URBAN program stood out,” she says.

In 2018, Haley joined the first cohort of students to embark on their PhD studies through Boston University’s Graduate Program in Urban Biogeoscience and Environmental Health (URBAN) . The interdisciplinary degree program aims to equip professionals with the science, management, policy, communication, and governance skills necessary for collaborating with governments, non-profits, and the private sector to address urban environmental challenges.

Haley discussed her experience participating in the BU URBAN program as an EH student, and how she is applying her education to her post-doctoral research in Oregon.

With Beth Haley (SPH‘24)

Did you go into the BU URBAN program knowing you were going to study combined sewage overflows (CSO)? How did you come up with that project?

I knew that I wanted to work with Dr. Heiger-Bernays because she studies a lot of different water-related issues, but [I] did not have a specific project in mind. I remember in my first year we were talking, and she said, ‘You know, there is something going on in the Merrimack,’ and we started talking about CSOs. [They are] interesting as a public health issue because we have known for a very long time that when people are exposed to sewage, they tend to get sick—that is a pretty straightforward relationship—but combined sewers still exist in our communities, especially because they are such large systems that are so expensive to change, and have not actually been studied that much in terms of their relationship with health. A lot of these [combined] sewers were built when sewer systems were new in this country in the first place, and the design is no longer used for new systems. When some of them were built, germ theory was not even widely accepted. There were bigger perhaps or more visible issues at the time than whether there was pollution in the river. We have so many issues with water infrastructure in this country—it seemed like contributing to that literature could be beneficial to decisionmakers.

Could you provide an example of a place where these systems have been retrofitted?

Boston is a good example. One of the ways to reduce the number of overflow events is to introduce a lot of storage into the system. The pipes just receive a ton of volume of water during heavy rain events, so if you can take a bunch of that water and just store it until it stops raining, then later on you can slowly send that to the wastewater treatment plant to be treated. One of the things Boston has done is put a very large storage facility in South Boston, below ground, that has reduced a lot of the overflow events that used to happen in those South Boston and Dorchester beaches. That has cleaned up the water quite a bit.

Another way people have managed [CSOs] is to introduce more green stormwater infrastructure into cities. Putting in things like rain gardens that collect rainfall and allow it to infiltrate into the soil, mimicking natural processes, can help reduce some of that stormwater runoff volume in the first place.

Before you took your current position with EPA, you worked as an ORISE postdoctoral fellow with the U.S. Forest Service . Could you share what your research there entailed?

During my ORISE postdoc with the Forest Service, I was part of an interdisciplinary project focused on wildfire and water security project. [After wildfires,] there is often a lot of erosion and runoff from burned landscapes that complicates drinking water treatment processes. We are in the early stages of understanding on how wildfires impact water quality and drinking water treatment and how that varies over different landscapes, different burn severities, things like that. When wildfires impact distribution systems or other built infrastructure directly, you can also get a lot of chemicals that hang around in the water system at that point. The team is very interdisciplinary with hydrologist, watershed modelers, biologists, and environmental economists who are thinking about this issue of wildfire and water security from the perspective of communities and ecosystems. I contributed specifically to projects looking at the human dimensions of wildfire and water issues that are especially relevant for communities and drinking water utilities.

This project was motivated by the 2020 fires in Oregon. Around Labor Day in 2020, there were a number of very intense and large fires in western Oregon, which is where most of the population in Oregon lives, that impacted some watersheds that provide drinking water for some of the cities in that area. It drew a lot of attention to this issue, especially in Oregon and in the Pacific Northwest. Much of the research that has been done on drinking water impacts from wildfire had been done in more of the Intermountain West , like Colorado, as well as California, so there was a gap in the Pacific Northwest, and it is looking like those Pacific Northwest watersheds vary in how they behave compared to the Intermountain West systems.

And what is the focus of your new role with EPA?

Every five years or so, the EPA will offer these federal post docs where you are actually a federal employee for your term. They can be a little bit longer than ORISE positions, and you can invest more as an employee. I began on June 2 and will be in this position for three years. I am in the Pacific Coastal Ecology Branch (PCEB) and so my focus is to connect some of the coastal, marine, and estuarine ecology research that has been done here with human with human health and wellbeing outcomes. We are thinking about things like contaminants in water and shellfish, harmful agal blooms—we are talking about a lot of ideas right now. The work we do will fit within the overall priorities of the [EPA] Office of Research and Development and bring in more of that connection between ecosystem health and human health.

I am also going to carry over some of the projects I was working on with the Forest Service and continue contributing to those. My time with the Forest Service was really wonderful. I would not have necessarily made this jump to EPA had this opportunity not been so in line with my research interests. The federal agency postdoc world is a very specific set of opportunities, so it has also been interesting to learn about that and experience the differences between different kinds of positions.

[Wendy Heiger-Bernays and I] are still working on some projects too. We have one dissertation paper that still needs to be published, hopefully. Then, we have two side projects that I did not get to as part of my dissertation, but other BUSPH students have contributed to those efforts and we are working towards finishing those as well. One of them is a modeling project, led by Talia Feldscher (SPH’23), a research data analyst with the Center for Climate and Health, working on developing a model that will predict E. coli concentrations in the Merrimack [River]. The other uses a risk assessment approach to understand the risk of gastrointestinal illness for people who are recreating in the Merrimack, and recent MPH graduate Emily Gant (SPH’24) has been working with us on that project. The nature of a post doc is you have some unfinished projects from previous experiences.

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Megan Jones is the writer and editor focusing on school news at the School of Public Health. Profile

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